Electric Circuit Analysis

EE1206
 Lecture -3

Useful Theorems in Circuit

Analysis
 List of Useful Theorems
• Star-delta transformations
• Linearity Property
• Superposition Theorem
• Source Transformation
• Thevenin’s Theorem
• Norton’s Theorem
• Maximum Power Transfer
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 Introduction
• Advantage of analyzing circuits using Kirchhoff’s laws:
✓ It can be analyzed a circuit without tampering with
its original configuration.

• A major disadvantage of this approach

✓ for a large, complex circuit, tedious (cumbersome)
computation is involved.

• To handle the complexity, engineers over the years

have developed some theorems (methods) to simplify
circuit analysis. 3
Cont’d…

4
Star-Delta Transformations

5
 Cont’d...

• Δ to Y conversion:
̶ Each resistor in the Y network is the product of
the resistors in the two adjacent Δ branches,
divided by the sum of the three Δ resistors.

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 Cont’d…
• Y to Δ conversion:
̶ Each resistor in the Δ network is the sum of all
possible products of Y resistors taken two at a
time, divided by the opposite Y resistor.

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 Cont’d…
• Ex1: Convert the Δ network in Fig. below to an
equivalent Y network.

Ans.

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 Cont’d…
Calculation:

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 Linearity Property
• A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly
related (or directly proportional) to its input.
• Homogeneity (scaling) property

v=iR → kv=kiR
• Additive property
v1 = i1 R and v2 = i2 R

→ v = (i1 + i2) R = v1 + v2 10
 Cont’d…

2
v
p =i2R = : nonlinear
R

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 Cont’d…
• Ex1:

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 Superposition Theorem

• The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or

current through) an element in a linear circuit is the
algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through)
that element due to each independent source acting alone.

• The principle of superposition helps us to analyze a linear

circuit with more than one independent source by
calculating the contribution of each independent source
separately.

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 Cont’d…
• In general:
− Number of network to analyze is equal to number
of independent sources.

− To consider effects of each source independently,

sources must be removed and replaced without
affecting the final result:

− All voltage sources >> short circuited (0 V)

− All current sources >> open circuited (0 A)

− Dependent sources are left intact 14

 Cont’d…
• Steps to Apply Superposition Principle
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source.
Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active
source using nodal or mesh analysis.

2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent

sources.

3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically

all the contributions due to the independent sources.
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 Cont’d…
How to turn off independent sources

• Turn off voltages sources = short voltage sources; make

it equal to zero voltage

• Turn off current sources = open current sources; make it

equal to zero current

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 Cont’d…

Ex1: Use the superposition theorem to find v in the

circuit of figure below

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 Cont’d…
Solution:
Lets assume
v=v1 + v2
• v1: contribution due to 6V sources and v2: contribution
due to 3A current source.
• To find v1, we set the current source to zero. A zero
current source means an open path in the current sources
branch.

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 Cont’d…
• Applying KVL to the loop
-6 + 8i1 + 4i1=0 ==>i1=0.5A
v1= 4i1 = 2V
• To find v2, we set the voltage source to zero. A zero
voltage source means a short circuit across the voltage
sources.

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 Cont’d…
Using current division

8
𝑣2 = 4𝑖3 = 4 ∗ ∗ 3 = 8𝑉
4+8

The combined effect of the source is obtained by

summing the results obtained above. Thus,
𝑣 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 = 2 + 8 = 10𝑉

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 Source Transformation
• Series-parallel combination and wye-delta
transformation help simplify circuits.

• Source transformation is another tool for

simplifying circuits.

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 Cont’d…
Concept of equivalence
• An equivalent circuit is one whose v-i
characteristics are identical with the original
circuit.
• Source Transformation is the process of
replacing a voltage source vS in series with a
resistor R by a current source iS in parallel with
a resistor R, or vice versa.

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Cont’d…

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 Cont’d…
• The arrow of the current source is directed
toward the positive terminal of the voltage
source.
• The source transformation is not possible when
R = 0 for voltage source and R = ∞ for current
source.
• A source transformation does not affect the
remaining part of the circuit
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 Cont’d…
Ex1: Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit of
figure below.

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Cont’d…

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 Cont’d…
• Description:
• First transform the voltage sources to current
source and

• Combine the 4Ω and 2Ω resistors in series and

transforming the 12V source gives us

• We also combine the 2A and 4A current sources

to get a 2A sources
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 Cont’d…
• Use current division in the last simplified circuit
2
𝑖= ∗ 2 = 0.4𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑜 = 8𝑖 = 8 ∗ 0.4 = 3.2𝑉
2+8

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 Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s theorem states that a linear two-
terminal circuit can be replaced by an equivalent
circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series
with a resistor RTh, where VTh is the open-circuit
voltage at the terminals and RTh is the input or
equivalent resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off.

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Cont’d…

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 Cont’d…
• Two circuits are said to be equivalent if they have the
same voltage-current relation at their terminals.
• If the terminals are made open-circuited (by removing
the load), no current flows, so that the open-circuit
voltage across the terminals in figure (a) must be equal
to the voltage source in figure (b), if the two circuits has
to be equivalent. Thus, the open-circuit voltage across
the terminals is 𝑉𝑡ℎ = 𝑉𝑜𝑣

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Cont’d…

32
 Cont’d…

• Again, with the load disconnected and terminals open

circuited, we turn off all independent sources. The input
resistance (or equivalent resistance) of the dead circuit
at the terminals in Fig. (a) must be equal to in Fig. (b) if
the two circuits has to be equivalent.
• Thus, the input resistance at the terminals when the
independent sources are turned off is
𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑅𝑖𝑛

33
Cont’d…

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 Cont’d…

• To apply this idea in finding the Thevenin’s

resistance , we need to consider two cases.

Case 1: If the network has no dependent sources,

we turn off all independent sources. Rth is the
input resistance of the network looking between
terminals a and b, as shown in Fig below:

35
Cont’d…

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 Cont’d…
Case 2: If the network has dependent sources,
turn-off all independent sources.

• As with superposition, dependent sources are

not to be turned off because they are controlled
by circuit variables.

• Then, we apply a voltage source vo at terminals

a and b and determine the resulting current io.
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 Cont’d…
𝑉𝑜
• Then 𝑅𝑡ℎ = , as shown in the first figure below.
𝐼𝑜

• Alternatively, we may insert a current source 𝑖𝑜 at

terminals a-b as shown in the second figure below and
𝑉𝑜
find the terminal voltage 𝑉𝑜 . Again 𝑅𝑡ℎ = .
𝐼𝑜

• In either approach we may assume any value of 𝑉𝑜 and

𝐼𝑜 . For example, we may use 𝑉𝑜 = 1𝑉 or 𝐼𝑜 =1A, or even
use unspecified values of 𝑉𝑜 𝑜𝑟 𝐼𝑜 .
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Cont’d…

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 Cont’d…
• Steps to convert any circuit to into its Thevenin equivalent
1. Remove the load from the ckt
2. Label the resulting two terminals as a and b
3. Set all sources in the circuit to zero. i.e voltage source
replaced by short ckt and current source replaced by open
ckt
4. Determine Thevenin equivalent resistance, 𝑅𝑇ℎ by
calculating the resistance seen between terminals a and b.
5. Replace the sources removed in step 3 and determine the
open ckt voltage between the terminals. If the circuit has
more than one source it may be necessary to use the
superposition theorem.
6. Draw the Thevenin equivalent ckt. 40
 Cont’d…
Ex1: Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the circuit
shown in figure below, to the left of the terminals a-b.
Then find the current through RL= 6, 16 and 36Ω.

41
 Cont’d…
• We find Rth by turning off the 32-V voltage source
(replacing it with a short circuit) and the 2-A current
source (replacing it with an open circuit)

42
Cont’d…

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Cont’d…

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 Norton’s Theorem

• Norton’s theorem states that a linear two-

terminal circuit can be replaced by an
equivalent circuit consisting of a current source
𝐼𝑁 in parallel with a resistor 𝑅𝑁 , where 𝐼𝑁 is the
short-circuit current through the terminals and
𝑅𝑁 is the input or equivalent resistance at the
terminals when the independent sources are
turned off.
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Cont’d…

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 Cont’d…
• We find RN in the same way we find Rth.

• To find the Norton current we determine the short-

circuit current flowing from terminal a to b in both
circuits.

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 Cont’d…
• Dependent and independent sources are treated the
same way as in Thevenin’s theorem.

• Observe the close relationship between Norton’s and

Thevenin’s theorems: RN=Rth.

• This is essentially source transformation. For this

reason, source transformation is often called Thevenin-
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Norton transformation.
 Cont’d…

• Steps to convert any circuit to into its Norton equivalent

1. Remove the load from the ckt
2. Label the resulting two terminals as a and b
3. Set all sources in the circuit to zero. i.e voltage source replaced
by short ckt and current source replaced by open ckt
4. Determine Norton equivalent resistance, 𝑅𝑁 by calculating
the resistance seen between terminals a and b.
5. Replace the sources removed in step 3 and determine the
current which would occur in a short if the short were
connected between terminals a and b. If the circuit has more
than one source it may be necessary to use the superposition
theorem.
6. Draw the Norton equivalent ckt. 49
 Cont’d…
• Ex1: Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the
circuit in Fig. below at terminals a-b.

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• Solution:

51
Cont’d…

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 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
• A load resistance will receive maximum power
from a circuit when the resistance of the load is
exactly the same as the Thevenin (Norton)
resistance

• For maximum power transfer: 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑇ℎ = 𝑅𝑁

53
Cont’d…
The power delivered to the
load is

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 Cont’d…

• For a given circuit, Vth and Rth are fixed. By varying

the load resistance the power delivered to the load

varies as sketched in Fig. below.

• Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load

resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the load
(RL=RTh). 55
 Cont’d…
• Ex1: Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer
in the circuit of Fig. below and Find the maximum
power.

56
 Cont’d…
• We need to find the Thevenin resistance Rth and the
Thevenin voltage Vth across the terminals a-b. To get Rth
and Vth we use the circuit in Fig. (a) and (b).

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Cont’d…

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Cont’d…

End !

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