Instrumentation Systems

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A Notebook on Instrumentation Systems
Book · April 2010
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A Notebook on
Instrumentation System I
Prepared By
Er. Shree Krishna Khadka
teaching.official @gmail.com
Inside
1. Instrumentation Basics – Introduction
2. Measurements
3. Variables and Transducers
4. Signal Conditioning and Processing
5. Signal Transmissions
6. Output Devices
Instrumentation-I HWHIC GSSE
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Chapter 1
Introduction
 Instrumentation is that piece of equipments that may be used to supply the information of some
physical quantity, which is usually referred as a variable. This variable may be fixed or time
varying quantity.
 An Instrumentation System is a physical system, which is a collection of physical objects

connected in such a way to give the desired output response e.g. an electronic amplifier,
communication satellite orbiting the earth etc.
 Instrumentation System may be defined as an assembly of various instruments and other

components interconnected to measure, analyze and control the physical quantities. A physical
system can be modeled in a number of ways depending upon the Specific problem to be dealt
with the required accuracy e.g. and electronic amplifier may be modeled as an inter-connection
of linear lumped elements.
 Instrumentation System can be classified into two main categories. They are:
(i) Analog Instrumentation System

(ii) Digital Instrumentation System
 Analog Instrumentation System deals with measurement of information in analog form. An

analog signal may be defined as a continuous function, such as plot of current/voltage against
time or displacement against force.
 Digital Instrumentation System handles measurement of information in digital form. A digital

quantity consists of a number of discrete and discontinuous pulses whose time relationship
contains information regarding magnitude or the nature of quantity.
Prepared By: SriKisna Khadka 1

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General Instrumentation System
All Instrumentation System can be generally described by a simple Block-Diagram as shown in

figure bellows
SENSOR DISPLAY
OR PROCESSOR OR
TRANSDUCER RECORD
Fig: Block Diagram of General Instrumentation System
Legend:
1. Physical Variable – I/P to the Sensor/Transducer (Primary Sensing Element).

2. Electronic Signal – O/P from the Sensor/Transducer – I/P to the Processor.
3. Processed Data/Information – O/P from Processor – I/P to the Display/Record (End Devices).
4. Visual or Recorded O/P as a Result – To Observer.
Here the General Instrumentation System consists of three major parts.
(i) Sensor/Transducer
(ii) Processor and
(iii) Display or Record/Storages
Sensor
Sensor is a very low energy device that performs an energy conversion for the purpose of making
a measurement. The Sensor converts energy from one to another. The second being related to the
original in some predefined way. It is desirable that an Electromotive Fore obtained from the
sensor/transducer is proportional to the quantity being measured and is use as I/P to the
Instrumentation System.
So, Sensor/Transducer is defined as a device, which when actuated by one form of energy is
capable of converting it into another form of energy. In any Instrumentation System the main
function of transducer is to convert physical quantity into equivalent electronic signal, which may be
acceptable for the whole system.

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General Requirements of Sensor/Transducer in Instrumentation System
1. Accuracy:
It is obvious that an instrumentation transducer must be accurate. It is essential to know how the
output signal from transducer is related to the input physical quantities.
2. Stability:
A Sensor must be stable to provide reproducible data for time and time again for any changes of
its properties like temperature, humidity, gravity, time etc; which means that it cannot be used as
primary I/P device for the Instrumentation System.
3. Reliability:
The presence of sensor must not disturb the system being measured in any way, if it is to provide
accurate data. In any measurement it cannot be achieved, so sensor is made to provide a minimum
disturbance to the system being measured.
Processor
The electronic signal produced by most of the transducers is generally very small and must be
modified to become useful for instrumentation system. This modification of electrical signal is
carried out by second block of the Instrumentation System called processor. The processor operates
on the output signal of the sensor to modify it to a form that can be used to suitably present or store
the data. Different functions that can be performed by the processor are:
1. Amplification:
The process of increasing the amplitude or the strength of the sensor output signal without
varying it in any other way is known as the amplification function of the processor.
2. Modulation and Demodulation:
The process of imposing or removing a signal upon another signal is modulation and is called
carrier i.e. it is used to convey the original information. Modulation puts the information/data on
these carriers while demodulation recovers the original information/data from the carrier.
3. Frequency Selection (Filtering):
The process, where a signal containing a group of different frequencies are filtered allowing only
certain desired frequency to pass, while blocking all other frequencies.
4. Transmission:
The process of taking a signal from one point in the space and conveying it undistorted to
another point.
5. Isolation:
It is the process of maintaining a signal such that it cannot be modified by any interference
signals or random noises.
6. Logic:
The process where the contained signal interacts with another according to present rule that
allows elementary decision to be made.
7. Conversion:
It is the process of transferring a signal from analog to digital format or vice-versa.

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General Requirements of Processor in Instrumentation System
Similar to the sensor, the processor has several requirements that must be met if it is used to be in
the instrumentation system.
1. Accuracy
2. Stability
3. Reliability
4. The processor shouldn’t load the sensor

Since the processor is connected to the output of the sensor, this process of connection must not
distort the signal produced by the sensor in any way. When distortion occurs from the
connection, it is due to the loading and it results in additional inaccuracy being introduced into
the measurement. So the processor in an Instrumentation System must provide a minimum
loading error to the sensor.
5. The processor should provide sufficient signal to output

The processor must be capable of providing the signal required by the next block of the
Instrumentation System. If the output signal of the sensor is known and the required signal to
drive the storage or display is known, the processor must be design so that it can affect the
modification of output signal from the sensor to provide the input signal to display or record
device.
Display or Storage
The final block of General Instrumentation System is the ‘Display & Storage’. The function of
this block is to present and in some case store the data for further use. The display device presents
instantaneous data, so that it can be read out from the instrument by human. But it doesn’t remember
any part of the data. There are several types of display device, they are:
- Analog Scale: e.g. Common Electric Meter
- Digital Readout: e.g. Digital Multimeter
- Audio Output: e.g. Loud Speaker
- Screened Display: e.g. CRT, LCD, Flat Panel Solid State Display System
- Indicating Display: e.g. Indicating Lamp
Storage device differs from the display device in which a permanent record of the data is kept.
This record may appear as a chart, a printed page or invisible electrical/optical/magnetic signal. The
examples of such storage device are:
- Chart Recorder
- Photographic Recording
- Printer/Plotter
- Electronic Memory e.g. SIM, ATM Card
- Magnetic Recording e.g. Tape, Floppy Disk
- Optical Recording e.g. CD, DVD

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General Requirements of Display & Storage in Instrumentation System
The display and storage block of Instrumentation System has similar requirements to
those of other block. They are as follows:
1. Accuracy
2. Reliability
3. Stability
4. Readability
Information/Data which when outputted in recorded form like from printer as hard copy or in
visual form like from display monitor as soft copy must be easily readable and can be understood
by the observer/human. In order to prove the sufficient accuracy of any Instrumentation System,
it is the fact that the output from the system must be equivalent to the primary input as given to
the primary sensing element.
Example:
Microprocessor Controlled Temperature System (MCTS):
Based on the concepts we discussed in the general instrumentation system, we can examine a
typical microprocessor controlled temperature system. This system is expected to read the
temperature in a room, display the temperature ate a liquid crystal display (LCD) panel, turn on fan
if the temperature is above a set point, and turn on a heater if the temperature is below a set point.
Temperature
Sensor
A/D
Fan Heater
Converter
Input Output Output

Port I Port II Port II
Micro
Processor
ROM/ R/W Output

EPROM Memory Port III
LCD
Fig: Microprocessor Controlled Temperature System

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1. Microprocessor:
The above figure shows a processor with a system bus. The processor will read the binary
instructions from memory and execute those instructions continuously. It will read the
temperature, display it at the LCD display panel, and turn on/off the fan and the heater based on
the temperature.
2. Memory:
The system includes two types of memory. ROM will be used to store the program, called the
monitor program that is responsible for providing the necessary instructions to the processor to
monitor the system. This will be a permanent program stored in ROM and will not be altered.
The R/W memory is needed for temporary storage of data.
3. Input:
In this system, we need a device that can translate temperature into an equivalent electrical
signal; a device that translates one form of energy into another form is called a transducer. On
these days temperature sensors are available as integrated circuits. A temperature sensor is a
three-terminal semiconductor electronic device that generates a voltage signal that is
proportional to the temperature However, this is an analog signal and since the processor is
capable of handling only binary bits. Therefore, this signal must be converted into digital bits.
The analog-to-digital converter performs that function. It is an electronic semiconductor chip that
converts an input analog signal into the equivalent eight binary output signals. In
microprocessor-based systems, devices that provide binary inputs are connected to the processor
using devices such as buffers called input ports. In our system A/D converter is an input port,
and it will be assigned a binary number called an address. The microprocessor reads this digital
signal from the input port.
4. Output:
The above figure shows three output devices: fan, heater and liquid crystal display (LCD). These
devices are connected to the processor using latches called output ports.
Fan: This is an output device, identified as Port 1 that is turned on by the processor when the
temperature reaches a set higher limit.
Heater: This is also an output device, identified as Port 2 that is turned on by the processor
when the temperature reaches a set lower limit.
Liquid Crystal Display(LCD): This display is made of crystal material placed between two
plates in the form of a dot matrix or segments. It can display letters, decimal digits, or graphic
characters. The LCD in above figure will be used to display temperatures.
5. System Software (Programs):
The program that runs the system is called monitor program or system software. Generally, the
entire program is divided into subtasks and written as independent modules, and it is stored in
ROM or EPROM. When the system is reset, the microprocessor reads the binary command
from the first memory location of ROM and continues in sequence to execute the program.

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Signal
The variation of the dependent parameter with respect to the independent parameter is
considered as a signal.
In the alongside figure a kind of signal is varying its magnitude f(t)

along Y - direction as a function of (t) which is along X-direction.
Here the parameter (t) is considered as independent whereas the f(t) is
depends upon the parameter (t).
The variation of Current/Voltage against time or Displacement
against force etc can be considered for example of such type of signal
variation.
General Types of Signal
On the basis of the Analog & Digital Instrumentation System and the concept regarding the
process of conversion of an analog signal into digital one and vice versa the signal can be
categorized into following types:
1. Continuous Time Signal (Analog Signal)

2. Continuous Time Quantized Signal
3. Sampled Data Signal
4. Digital Signal
1. Continuous Time Signal (Analog Signal)
It is defined over a continuous range of time i.e. it is a continuous

function. In this type of signal the amplitude may be assumed to
have a continuous value with time.
2. Continuous Time Quantized Signal
The continuous time signal being represented by a distinct set of

value i.e. quantized value is referred as continuous time quantized
signal. In this type of signal the amplitude is quantized with
discrete value but the time is not being quantized. The range of
magnitude is divided into a finite number of intervals which are
not necessarily to be equal.

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3. Sampled Data Signal
The signal defined at discrete interval of time is known as discrete

time signal. If the amplitude can take a continuous range of value
then the signal is called sampled data signal. It can be generated by
sampling an analog signal at discrete interval of time. Here also
only the time is quantized but the magnitude is not.
4. Digital Signal
It is the discrete time signal with quantized magnitude. It is the

signal quantized in both magnitude and time. The digital signal
consists of number of discrete and discontinuous pulses whose
time relationship contains information regarding magnitude or the
nature of the quantity.

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General Types of Instrumentation System
(a) Analog Instrumentation System

(b) Digital Instrumentation System
The components of both Analog & Digital Instrumentation System can be viewed as shown.
(A) Components of Analog Instrumentation System
Sensor Signal
Or Conditioning Multiplexer
Transducer Equipments
Display
Or Amplifier
Storage
Legend:
1. Physical Variable – I/P to the Sensor/Transducer (Measurand).
2. Electronic Signal – O/P from the Sensor/Transducer – I/P to the Signal Conditioning Equipments
3. Conditioned Data/Information – O/P from SCE – I/P to the Multiplexer
4. Multiplexed Data/Information - O/P from MUX – I/P to the Amplifier
5. Amplified Data/Information - O/P form AMP – I/P to the Display/Storage (End Devices)
(B) Components of Digital Instrumentation System
Sensor Signal
Or Conditioning Multiplexer
Transducer Equipments
Display Analog to Sampling &

Or Digital Holding
Storage Converter Circuit
Legend:
1. Physical Variable – I/P to the Sensor/Transducer (Measurand).
2. Electronic Signal – O/P from the Sensor/Transducer – I/P to the Signal Conditioning Equipments
3. Conditioned Data/Information – O/P from SCE – I/P to the Multiplexer
4. Multiplexed Data/Information - O/P from MUX – I/P to the Sampling & Holding Circuit
5. Sampled Data/Information - O/P form SHC – I/P to the Analog to Digital Converter
6. Digital Data/Information – O/P from ADC – I/P to the Display/Storage (End Devices)

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Analog Instrumentation System
(i) Sensor/Transducer: It is low energy device, which when actuated by one form of energy
is capable of converting it into another form of energy.
(ii) Signal Conditioning Equipment: - It includes any equipment that assists in
transforming the output of transducer to the desired magnitude or form required by next
stage of instrumentation system.
(iii) Multiplexer: Multiplexing is the process of sharing a signal channel with more than one
output. Thus a multiplexer accepts multiple analog inputs and connects them sequentially
to one measuring input.
(iv) Amplifier: It amplifies or increases the amplitude or the strength of the input signal
without varying it in any other way.
(v) Visual Display/Analog Recorder: It results out the output either in visual form or
recorded form and puts data/information on them in analog format, e.g. CRT, Tape, Chart
Recorder etc.
Digital Instrumentation System
(i) Sensor/Transducer: It is low energy device, which when actuated by one form of energy
is capable of converting it into another form of energy.
(ii) Signal Conditioning Equipment: - It includes any equipment that assists in
transforming the output of transducer to the desired magnitude or form required by next
stage of instrumentation system.
(iii) Multiplexer: Multiplexing is the process of sharing a signal channel with more than one
output. Thus a multiplexer accepts multiple analog inputs and connects them sequentially
to one measuring input.
(iv) Sampling & Holding Circuit: It translates the analog signal to a form acceptable by the
analog to digital (A/D) converter.
(v) A/D converter: It converts the analog signal to its equivalent digital form.
(vi) Digital Recorder/Display: It records/displays information in digital form as in floppy,
CD, DVD, Punched Cards etc or to the combination of these systems.

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Chapter 2
Measurements
The measurement of given quantity is essentially the result of comparison between the quantity
whose magnitude is known and a predefined standard. Since two quantities are compared the result
is expressed in numerical value.
Measurement is the process by which one can convert physical parameters into meaningful
number. In measuring process the property of an object or system under measurement is compared to
an accepted standard unit defined for that particular property.
Units and Standards of Measurement

To specify and perform calculation with physical quantity, the physical quantity must be defined
both in kind and magnitude.
The standard measure of each kind of physical quantity is the unit. Without any unit the number of
measure has no physical meaning.
A standard of measurement is physical representation of a unit of measurement.
 International Standard: e.g. SI, CGS, FPS etc.
 Primary Standard: e.g. National Standard
 Secondary Standard: e.g. Industrial Measurement Lab
 Working Standard: e.g. Quality Control Department
Method of Measurement
1. Direct Method In this method the unknown quantity is directly compared against the
standard. The result is expressed as a numerical value. This type of measurement is common
for the measurement of physical quantities like length, mass and time.
Measurements by direct method are not always possible, feasible and practical. This method
in most of cases is inaccurate because they involved human factor. They are also less
sensitive and rarely used in instrumentation system.
2. Indirect Method In this method unknown quantity is measured using measuring instrument.
A measuring instrument provides information about the physical quantity of same variable
being measured.
Function of Measuring Instrument

1. Indicating e.g. Multimeter
2. Recording e.g. Graph Plotter
3. Integrating e.g. Meter Reader
4. Controlling e.g. Relay
Characteristics of Measuring Instrument

1. Static Characteristics
2. Dynamic Characteristics
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1. Static Characteristics of Measuring instruments
Measuring Instruments are those, which must be considered when the system or instrument is
used to measure the quality and not varying with time. There are various elements contributing
the static characteristics of measuring instrument.
(a) Accuracy & Precision
Accuracy is the degree of closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true
value of the quantity being measured. Accuracy of the measurement means conformity to the
truth. True value of the quantity to be measured may be defined as the average of the infinite
number of readings while the average deviations due to various contributing factors tend to
be zero.
Precision is the major of degree of agreement within a group of measurement. It consists of
two characteristics, they are:
(i) Conformity
(ii) Significant Figure
For example a resistor having true value of 1.485432 ohm is measured by an ohm-meter,
which is repeatedly indicating 1.5 ohm. Although there is no deviation from the observed
value, the error created by the limitation of the scale reading is precision. So conformity is
necessary but not a sufficient condition for precision because of lack of significant figure
obtained.
Significant figure convey the actual information regarding the magnitude and the
measurement precision of the quantity. The more significant figure means the greater
precision of the measurement. Similarly, precision is necessary but not sufficient condition
for the accuracy.
(b) Sensitivity
It is the ratio of the magnitude of the output signal to input

of the quantity being measured. The sensitivity of the
instrument can be defined as the slope of calibration curve.
The sensitivity of the instrument should be high and
therefore instrument should not have arranged greatly
exceeding the value to be measured.
Therefore, Sensitivity (θ) = Qo/Qi
(c) Reproducibility
It is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly measured. It may be
specified in terms of unit for given period of time.
(d) Drift
There are three types of drift.
i. Zero Drift
ii. Span Drift
iii. Zonal Drift

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(i) Zero Drift: The whole calibration gradually shift due to slipping or permanent set. This
can be prevented by zero setting.
(ii) Span Drift: If there is proportional change in indication all along the upward scale, the
drift is called expand drift or resistive drift.
(iii) Zonal Drift: It occurs only over a portion of span of the instrument.
(e) Linearity
A straight line is drawn by using the techniques of least

square method from given calibration data, which is known
as idealized straight line. The linearity is simply a measure
of mean deviation of any of the calibration point from
idealized straight line.
In figure: dm – Maximum Deviation
(f) Resolution
If the input is slowly increased for some value which is not really equal to zero, it is found
that output does not change at all until the certain increment is exceeded. The smallest
increment in input quantity being measured, which can be detected with conformity by an
instrument is known as its resolution.
(g) Dead Zone

It is defined as the largest change in input for which there is no increment in output.
(h) Static Error

It is the deviation from true value.

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2. Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Instruments
Some measurements are made under such condition that sufficient time is available for the
measurement system to settle its final steady state condition. Under such condition study of
behavior of system under transient state is not much important. Only the steady state condition of
the measurement is considered.
In some measurement it becomes necessary to study the response of the system under both
transient and steady state condition.
Dynamic Characteristics of Measuring Instruments are as follows:

(i) Speed of response
(ii) Measuring Lag
(iii) Fidelity
(iv) Dynamic Error
Total Response f(t) = ft(t) + ftt(t)
(a) Speed of response

It is defined as the rapidity with which the measurement system and instrument response to
the change in measured quantity.
(b) Measuring Lag

It is the delay in response of measurement system to change in the measured quantity. There
are two types of measuring lags.
(i) Retardation type measuring lag and
(ii) Time delay type measuring lag
(c) Fidelity
It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates the change in measured
quantity without any dynamic error.
(d) Dynamic Error

It is the difference between the value of the quantity under measurement changing with time
and the value indicated by the measurement system. If no static error is assumed, it is called
measurement error.

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Wheat Stonebridge
Measurement of Resistance with Wheat Stonebridge
It is one of the accurate arrangements for measuring the resistance

of a conductor. As shown in alongside figure, four resistances R1,
R2, R3 & R4 are connected to form a quadrilateral. A galvanometer
is connected between B & D while a battery is connected between
points A & C. Usually, R1 & R2 called ratio arms are known
resistances, R3 is a variable resistance (Resistance Box) and R4 is
the unknown resistance. The value of resistance R3 is so adjusted
that galvanometer does not give deflection i.e. points B & D are ate
the same potential. In such a case, the bridge is said to be balanced
and then, (R1/R2) = (R3/R4)
Proof: Let VA, VB, VC and VD be potentials of point A, B, C and D respectively. Let I be the current
in the main circuit. If the main current branches into I1, I2, I3, I4 respectively to the four arms of the
bridge, then
I1R1 = I2R2 …….. (i)
On second case, when the bridge is in the balanced condition, current flowing through the
galvanometer is zero, then
I1 = I3 = V/(R1+R3) …….. (ii)

I2 = I4 = V/(R2+R4) …….. (iii)
From equations (ii) and (iii), putting the values of I1 and I2 in equation (i) then we get,
R1/(R1+R3) = R2/(R2+R4) ………(iv)
Or, (R1+R3)/R1 = (R2+R4)/R2
Or, 1 + R3/R1 = 1 + R4/R2
Or, R3/R1 = R4/R2
Or, R1/R2 = R3/R4
i.e.; R4 = R3 (R2/R1)
Hence, using Wheat Stonebridge the value of an unknown resistor can be easily evaluated with the
help of other known quantity. Here, the measurement of the unknown resistor R4 is independent of
the characteristic or the calibration of the null detecting galvanometer, provided the null detector has
sufficient sensitivity to indicate the balance position of the bridge with the required degree of
precision.

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Sensitivity of the Wheat Stonebridge
If the resistance R4 is incremented by small resistance ‘r’, so the bridge becomes unbalanced.
Then from Thevenin’s Theorem, we have
VO = [{R1/(R1+R3)} – {R2/(R2+R4+r)}]V
From equation (iv), we have
R1/(R1+R3) = R2/(R2+R4)
i.e. VO = [{R2/(R2+R4)} – {R2/(R2+R4+r)}]V

= [(R22 + R2.R4 + R2.r - R22 – R2.R4)/{(R2+R4)(R2+R4+r)}]V
= r.[R2/{(R2+R4)(R2+R4+r)}]V
i.e. VO ~ r.[R2/{(R2+R4)2}]V ( r << R2+R4)
Now, the sensitivity of the bridge is given by,
SB = Output/Input = Deflection/Change in resistance

i.e. SB = θ/(r/R4) ……….. (v)
Let, the voltage sensitivity of galvanometer is SV.

Then the deflection of the galvanometer is given as
θ = VO.SV
r[R2/{(R2+R4)2}] V SV
Hence, equation (v) becomes
SB = [SV/{(R2+R4)2/( R2.R4)}]V
= [SV/(R2/R4 + R4/R2 + 2)]V
Special Case:
If R1=R2=R3=R4, then the sensitivity will be maximum
i.e. (SB)max = SV(V/4)

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Galvanometer Current
The galvanometer current is given by: Ig = VO/(Ro+Rg)

Where; Rg = Galvanometer internal resistance
Ro = Total output resistance
= R1//R3 + R2//(R4+r)
= R1R3/(R1+ R3) + R2(R4+r)/(R2+R4+r)
VO = Output Voltage
= r.[R2/{(R2+R4)2}]V
Hence, the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit will be as given below.
As we have,
Deflection (θ) = r[R2/{(R2+R4)2}] V SV ……….. ***
Since, Si = θ/Ig
= θ/{VO/( Ro+Rg) = (Ro+Rg)β/ VO
Therefore, SV = θ/ VO = Si/(Ro+Rg)
Where, Si = Current Sensitivity
SV = Voltage Sensitivity
Now, equation *** becomes,

Deflection (θ) = r[R2/{( Ro+Rg )(R2+R4)2}] V Si
And, finally the bridge sensitivity is SB = θR4/r
= [R2R4/{( Ro+Rg )(R2+R4)2}] V Si
Measurement Error with Wheat Stonebridge:
Wheat Stonebridge is widely used for precision measurement of resistance ranging from 1Ω to
few M Ω.
1. The main source of measurement error is found in limiting error of the three known resistors.
2. Error may arise in sufficient sensitivity of the null detector.
3. Change in resistance of the bridge arm due to the heating effect.
4. Due to the thermo electric emf.
EXAMPLE 1:
Supply voltage of Wheat Stonebridge is 5V and its internal resistance is negligible. The
galvanometer has the current sensitivity of 100 mm/µA and internal resistance of 100 ohm.
Calculate the deflection of the galvanometer caused by 5 ohm resistance imbalanced in fourth arm.
Given that R1 = 100 ohm, R2 = 1000 ohm, R3 = 200 ohm, R4 = 2000 ohm.
We have,
VO = Output Voltage
= r[R2/{(R2+R4)2}]V
Where,
V = 5v
r = 5 ohm
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Therefore,
VO = (5 ×1000 × 5)/(1000 + 2000)2
= 2.78 × 10-3V
= 2.78 mV
Since, the above circuit can be written as given below for the calculation of equivalent resistance.
Now,
Ro = Total output resistance
= R1//R3 + R2//R4
= 100//200 + 1000//2000
= 66.67 + 666.67
i.e. Ro = 733.35 ohms
Now, the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit can be drawn as below.
Hence, from the alongside figure we have

Ig = VO/(Ro + Rg)
= (2.78 × 10-3)/(733.35+100)
= 3.34 × 10-6A
= 3.34 µA
We have also given that,
Current Sensitivity (Si) = 10 mm/µA
= 10 × 10-3 m/10-6A
= 10000 m/A
So, Deflection is given by:
θ = Ig × Si
= 3.34 × 10-6 × 1000
= 0.0334 m
= 33.4 mm Ans.

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AC Bridge
In AC Bridge the galvanometer is replaced by vibration type

null detector.
For balanced condition there should be no current flowing
Z2
Z1
through the detector, then
Vs Z1.Z4 = Z2.Z3 …………… (i)
Z 4 Where;
Z3
Z1 = R1+jX1, Z2 = R2+jX2
Z3 = R3+jX3, Z4 = R4+jX4
Now, in polar form equation (i) becomes

(Z1 θ1) (Z4 θ4) = (Z2 θ2) (Z3 θ3)
Or. Z1 Z4{( θ1+θ4)} = Z2 Z3{( θ2+θ3)} ……. (ii)
This equation shows that two conditions must be simultaneously satisfied when balancing an ac
bridge. They are:
 The product of magnitude of the opposite arms must be equal, i.e. |Z1||Z4| = |Z2||Z3|
 The sum of phase angles of the opposite arms must be equal, i.e. ( θ1+ θ4)} = ( θ2+ θ3)
Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge
Maxwell’s inductance bridge measures the unknown

inductance in terms of a known inductance.
R1 R2 Here, the bridge consists of resistors R1 and R2 as ratio
arms, whereas variables resistor R3 and inductor L3 are
connected in series. The remaining arm contains the
unknown resistor R4 and unknown inductor L4 in series, the
R3
value of which have to be evaluated using other known
L4
parameters.
L3 For balanced condition:
R4
Z1.Z4 = Z2.Z3 …………… (i)
Where, Z1 = R1, Z2 = R2, Z3 = R3+jωL3 and Z4 = R4+jωL4

Therefore the equation …. (i) becomes: R4+jωL4 = R2/R1(R3+jωL3)
R4+jωL4 = (R2/R1)R3 + jω(R2/R1)L3
Equating the real and imaginary parts on both sides we get the following results.
i.e. R4 = (R2/R1)R3 and L4 = (R2/R1)L3

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Maxwell’s Capacitance Bridge
This type of bridge is used to measure an unknown

C1 inductance in terms of a known capacitance.
R2
R1 Here, the bridge contains resistor and capacitor in

parallel in one of its arm. The unknown parameters R4 and
L4 have to be evaluated using other known parameters. The
R3
resistor R1 is variable in this case of which the value can be
L4
adjusted within the limit.
So, at balanced condition:
R4
Z1.Z4 = Z2.Z3
i.e. Z4 = Z2.Z3.(1/ Z1) = Z2.Z3.Y1 ……….. (i)
Where, Y1 = (1/R1) + jωC1 = (1+ jωC1 R1)/R1,

Z2 = R2, Z3 = R3, Z4 = R4+jωL4
Now, from equation … (i) we have,
R4+jωL4 = R2R3(1+ jωC1 R1)/R1

= R2R3/ R1 + jωC1 R1 R2R3
Hence, equating the real and imaginary part we get;
R4 = (R2/R3)R! and L4 = C1.R2.R3
Since, we have two variables C1 and R1, which appears in one of the two balanced equation and
hence the two equations are independent.
Advantages:
 The balanced equations are independent, if we choose R1 and C1 as a variable.

 The frequency doesn’t effect the measurement.
 Simple to measure the value of unknown inductance
 Very useful for measurement of wide range of inductance at power/audio frequencies.
Disadvantages:
 It requires variable standard capacitor which may be very expensive.

 The bridge is limited to measure low Q coils as R4 = (R2/R3)R! & L4 = C1.R2.R3
So, 1 < Q < 10
 For large Q coils: Q = ωL4/R4 = ωC1R!R2R3/ R2R3 = ωC1R!; i.e. it requires large
value of R1 because C1 is not very large.
 For low Q coils, it is difficult to balance the bridge.
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Hay Bridge
Hay bridge is differs from the Maxwell’s bridge by having

resistor R1 in series with standard capacitor C1 instead in
C1
R2 parallel.
R1
So, at balanced condition:
Z1.Z4 = Z2.Z3 ………………. (i)
R3
Where, Z1 = R1 – 1/jωC1, Z2 = R2
L
Z3 = R3, Z4 = R4+jωL4
Putting these values in equation (i), we get,
R4
(R1 – 1/jωC1)( R4+jωL4) = R4+jωL4
i.e. R1R4+ jωL4R1-jR4/ωC1 + L4/C1 = R2R3
Now, separating and equating the real and imaginary parts, we get
i.e. R1R4+ L4/C1 = R2R3 ………………… (ii)
i.e. ωL4R1 = R4/ωC1 ……………………..(iii)
Since, both equations contain L4 and R4, so we must solve them simultaneously.
From equation ….. (iii)
L4 = (R4/R1).(1/ω2C1) ………… (iv)
Putting the value from equation …. (iv) to the equation … (ii), we get.
R1R4+ (R4/R1).(1/ω2C12) = R2R3
Therefore, R4 = R1R2R3ω2C12
R12ω2C12+1 ……………. (v)
Similarly, putting the value from equation … (V) into the equation … (iv) we get,
L4 = R1R2R3ω2C12 × 1
R12ω2C12+1 R1ω2C1
Therefore, L4 = R2R3C1
R12ω2C12+1 …………… (vi)
Here, again both the equations (iv) and (v) contains the
angular velocity ω and therefore the frequency of the XL1
voltage must be known in order tot evaluate L4 and R4.
?+ R1
As we know, Q = ωL4/R4 ? - R4
So, for balanced condition, sum of phase angle of opposite

are must be equal. Xc1

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i.e. tan-1(ωL4/R4) = tan-1(1/ωC1R1)

i.e. ωL4/R4 = 1/ωC1R1 = Q
i.e. 1/Q = ωC1R1 ………. (vii)
Now, putting the value from equation …. (vii) to equations (v) and (vii), we get,
L4 = R2R3C1 and R4 = R1R2R3ω2C12

(1/Q)2 +1 (1/Q)2 +1
For larger value of Q, (1/Q)2 becomes negligible, then L4 and R4 becomes;
L4 = R2R3C1 and R4 = R1R2R3ω2C12
Where, L4 = R2R3C1 is the same result as deducted by Maxwell’s capacitance bridge. So this bridge
is used to measure the inductance of the inductor having Q > 10.
For Q value less than 10, (1/Q)2 becomes important factor and cannot be negligible. In this case
Maxwell’s bridge is more suitable.
Schearing Bridge
This bridge is one of the most important ac bridges and it is

C1 widely used for the measurement of unknown capacitance.
R2
R1 For balanced condition
Z1.Z4 = Z2.Z3
Z4 = Z2.Z3.(1/ Z1) = Z2.Z3.Y1 ……….. (i)
C4
C3 Where, Y1 = (1/R1) + jωC1, Z2 = R2
R4 Z3 = 1/jωC3 Z4 = R4+1/jωC4
Putting all these values in equation …. (i), we get
R4+1/jωC4 = (1/R1 + jωC1)R2/jωC3

i.e. R4 – j/ωC4 = C1R2/C3 – jR2/ωC3R1 ……………(ii)
Now, equating the real and imaginary parts of the above equation, we get.
R4 = C1R2/C3 and C4 = R1C3/R2

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Example:
Find the unknown impedance of the circuit given in the figure.
Solution:
We have given that

50 ohm
0.2µF
20 V C1 = 0.2 F
1KHz R2 = 500 
300 ohm C3 = 0.1 F
Z4 R3 = 300 
Vs = 20 V
fi = 1KHz
0.1 µF Z4 = ?
Here, Z1 = 1/jωC1 = 1/j2лfiC1 = 1/(j2л10000.210-6)

i.e. Z1 = -j795.77
= 0 + (-j795.77)
= Pol(0, -795.77)
Z1= -795.77 -90o s
Similarly;
Z2 = 500  0o
But, Y3 = 1/R3 + 1/(1/jωC3)

= 1/300 + j(2л10000.110-6)
= 3.3310-3 + j(6.2810-4)
= Pol(3.3310-3, 6.2810-4)
= 3.3910-3 10.67o
Therefore
Z3 = 1/Y3
= 294.98 -10.67o
Finally,
Z4 = Z1. Z3
Z2
= (-795.77 -90o)(294.98 -10.67o)
500  0o
= 946.65 -100.67o
Hence, |Z4|= 946.65

 = -100.67o

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Types of Error in Measurement

No any measurement can be made with perfect accuracy, but it is important to find out what the
accuracy is and how different errors have exerted into the measurement system. A study of error is
the first step in finding the ways to reduce them. Error may come from different source and are
mainly classified as:
 Gross Error
 Systematic Error
 Random Error
Gross Error
This class of error mainly covers the case of mistaken in reading or in use of instruments made
by human. Also in recording and calculating the measurement results human factors may involved.
As long as human beings are involved, some gross errors will occurs. Although complete elimination
of gross error is impossible, one should try to carry the correct decision. Some gross errors may early
detect, while others may be very hard to detect.
One common type of gross error frequently committed by beginners is in measurement work and
also involves the improper use of instrument. In general, indicating instruments changes conditions
to some extent, when connected into a complete circuit, so that measured quantity is changed by the
method that has being employed, e.g. miss reading, improper selection of instrument, carelessness,
bad handling etc.
Systematic Error
This type of error is usually categorized into two types: they are
 Instrumental Error, and
 Environmental Error
1. Instrumental Error
These types of errors are inherent in the measuring instrument because of their mechanical
structure. It may be due to manufacturing faults, i.e. construction, calibration or operation of
the instrument. There are many kinds of instrumental errors depending upon the kind of
instruments used. This type of error may be reduced by:
 Selecting a suitable instrument for the particular measurement application.
 Applying correction factors determining the amount of instrumental error.
 Calibrating the instrument against the standard.
2. Environmental Error
It is due to the external condition of the measuring device including the surrounding
condition of the instrument, e.g. change in temperature, humidity, pressure, magnetic or
electrostatic fields etc.

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Random Error
These errors are due toe the unknown cause and occurs even if all systematic errors are removed.
Even in the well designed instruments, few random errors usually occur. These errors cannot be
corrected by any methods of calibration or other known method of control.
The only way to minimize these errors is by increasing the number of reading and using statistical
means to obtain the best approximation of the true value of the quantity under measurement.
Mean: X = X1+X2+X3+X4+X5+…….+Xn
n
Deviation (δi) = Xi -X
Mean Deviation (D) = |δ1+δ2+δ3+δ4+δ5+…..+δn|

n
Standard Deviation (σ) = √ {(δ1 +δ2 +δ32+δ42+δ52+…..+δn2)/n}
2 2
I.e. Variance (σ2) = (δ12+δ22+δ32+δ42+δ52+…..+δn2)/n
Example:
Voltmeter No. of
Reading(V) Readings(f) 19
99.7 1
99.8 4
99.9 12
100 19
100.1 10
100.2 3
100.3 1
100
I. Fig: Observation Table II. Fig: Gaussian/Normal Distribution Curve
Normal Laws of Error (Gaussian Law):
1. All the observation includes small distribution effect called random error.
2. It can be positive or negative.
3. There is an equal probability of positive and negative random error.
The possibilities as to the form of error distribution curve can be stated as follows.
1. Small errors are more probable than larger error.
2. Large errors are very improbable.
3. The probability of given error will be symmetrical about the true value.

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Probable Error:
The area under normal distribution curve between limits + ∞ and - ∞ represents the total number of
observation.
Inc. Area
Deviation Included Area 50%
1σ 68.28 %
2σ 95.46%
3σ 99.72%
r 50% -∞ +∞
Where, r = 0.6745× σ -2σ -1σ 0 1σ 2σ
Therefore, probable error is that error of measurement, which covers the 50% of readings among
the total measurements.
Example:
Large numbers of 100Ω resistors are measured.
Mean value = 100 Ω
Standard Deviation (σ) = 0.2 Ω
Which shows 68.2% of resistor lies in between the limits of (100±0.2) Ω

Or, 95.46 % of resistors lies in between the limit of (100±0.4) Ω
Therefore 50% of resistors lie in between the limits of (100±r) Ω
Problem:
A voltmeter, having sensitivity of 1 Ω/V, reads 100V on its 150V scale when connected across an
unknown resistor in series with a mili-ammeter. When the mili-ammeter reads 5mA, calculate:
(a) Apparent resistance of the unknown resistor.
(b) The actual resistance of the unknown resistor.
(c) The error due to the loading effect of voltmeter.
Solution:
(a) The total circuit resistance (RT) = 100V/5mA = 20 K Ω
Neglecting the resistance of the mili-ammeter
The value of unknown resistance (RX) = 20 KΩ.
(b) The voltmeter resistance (RV) = 1000Ω/V × 150 = 150KΩ

Since, the voltmeter is connected in parallel with the unknown resistance,
So, we can write, RT = RX//RV = RX.RV
(RX+RV)
Therefore, RX = RT.RV = 20×150 = 23.08 KΩ.
(RV-RT) 150-20
(c) % - Error = (Actual Reading – Apparent Reading) × 100%
Actual Reading
= (23.05-20) × 100%
23.05
Therefore, % - Error = 13.34 %

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Chapter 3
Variables & Transducers

The physical quantity under measurement, called the measurand, makes its first contact with the
primary sensing element of a measuring system. The measurand is always disturbed by the act of
measurement, but good instruments are designed to minimize this effect. Primary sensing elements
may have a non electrical input and output. In case of the primary sensing element having a non
electrical input and output, then it is converted into an electrical signal by means of transducer. The
transducer is defined as a device, which when actuated by one form of energy is capable of
converting it into another form of energy. They can be classified as:
1. Primary and Secondary Transducers,

2. Active and Passive Transducers,
3. Analog and Digital Transducers,
4. Transducers and Inverse Transducers.
On the basis of the principle of operation, transducers are further classified in following types.
1. Resistive Transducers,
2. Capacitive Transducers,
3. Inductive Transducers,
4. Piezoelectric Transducers,
5. Thermoelectric Transducers,
6. Electromagnetic Transducers,
7. Optical Transducers.
Primary & Secondary Transducers
On the basis of methods of applications, it may be classified into primary and secondary
transducers.
When the input signal is directly sensed by the transducer and physical phenomenon is converted
into the electrical form directly then such a transducer is called primary transducer, e.g. thermistor,
which senses the temperature directly and causes the change in resistance with the change in
temperature.
When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and then its output being of some
form other than input signal is given as input to a transducer for conversion into electrical form, then
such a transducer falls in the category of secondary transducers, e.g. in case of pressure
measurement, bourden tube is a primary sensor which converts pressure first into displacement and
displacement is then converted into and output voltage by an LVDT, in this case LVDT is
secondary transducer.

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Active & Passive Transducers
On the basis of methods of energy conversion, transducers may be classified into active and
passive transducers.
Self generating type transducers i.e. the transducers, which develop their output in the form of
electrical voltage or current without any auxiliary source, are called the active transducers. Such
transducers draw energy from the system under measurement, e.g. Tacho-generator for measurement
of angular velocity, thermocouples for measurement for temperature etc.
Transducers in which electrical parameters i.e. resistance, inductance or capacitance changes with
the change in input signal are called the passive transducers. These transducers required the external
power source of energy conversion. In such transducers electrical parameters i.e. resistance,
capacitance, inductance causes a change in voltage, current or frequency of the external power
source.
Analog & Digital Transducers
Transducers on the basis of nature of output signal may be classified into analog and digital
transducers.
Analog transducers convert input signal into such a output signal, which is a continuous function
of time such as thermistor, strain gauge, LVDT, thermocouple etc.
Digital transducers convert input signal into the output signal of the form of pulse, e.g. it gives
discrete output. The digital signal can be transmitted over a long distance without causing much
distortion due to amplitude variation and phase shift.
Transducers & Inverse Transducers
Since, transducers convert a non-electrical quantity into an electrical quantity, i.e. a transducer
with associated circuit has a non electrical input and an electrical output, e.g. thermocouple, photo
conductive cell, pressure gauge etc.
An inverse transducer is a device that converts and electrical quantity into a non electrical quantity,
e.g. a piezoelectric crystal and translational/angular moving coil elements can be employed as
inverse transducer. An ammeter or voltmeter converts electric current or voltage into mechanical
movement of the needle. A most useful application of inverse transducers is in feedback measuring
systems.

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Resistive Transducers
Resistive transducers are the one, in which the output terminal of a transducer gets varied
according to the measurand. They are preferred over other transducers because dc and ac both are
suitable for resistance measurement.
Resistance of any metal conductor is given by the expression, (R) = ρ(L/A)
Where,
ρ = Resistivity of the metal conductor in ohm-meter (Ω-m)
L = Length of the conductor in meter (m).
A = Cross sectional area of the conductor in meter-square (m2)
Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a resistive transducer, which converts linear or rotational displacement into

voltage as an output. There are two types of potentiometer.
1. Translatory Potentiometer
2. Rotary Potentiometer
In this chapter we only deal with the first type of potentiometer, i.e. Translatory Potentiometer.
Since, Mechanical device acts as a primary transducer. Let us take an

example of simple potentiometer having following parameters.
Xi = Displacement of wiper from its zero position.
Xt = Total length of translation in meter.
Vin Xt Rp Rp = Total resistance of the potentiometer.
And with input supply Vin and producing Vo as output.
Xi Vo
If the distribution of resistances throughout the
potentiometer is linear then the potentiometer is said to be linear of
which the resistance per unit length will be equal to Rp/Xt.
For Ideal Condition:

Vo/Vin
(Rp/Xt).Xi
Vo = × Vin
Rp
= (Xi/Xt).Vin
Vo/Vin = Xi/Xt
Xi/Xt = K say (0≤K≤1)

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Let a voltmeter is connected to output terminal of the

potentiometer whose internal resistance is Rm. Then output
resistance is given by:
Vin Xt Rp
Rout = {(Rp/Xt).Xi}//Rm
Xi Rm Vo = {Rp(Xt/Xi)}//Rm
= (KRP)//Rm
Or, Rout = (KRP .Rm)
(Rm+KRP)
Then, Total input resistance is given by:

Rin = Rout + (1-K)Rp
= {(KRP . Rm)/ (Rm+KRP)} + (1-K)Rp
= KRP.Rm + RP.Rm(1-K) + KRp2(1-K)
(Rm+KRP)
2
= Rm.Rp + KRp (1-K)
(Rm+KRP)
So, Current (i) = Vin/Rin = Vin(Rm+KRP)

Rm.Rp + KRp2(1-K)
And, Output Voltage (VO) = Rout (Vin)
Rin
= KRP.Rm × (Rm+KRP)
(Rm+KRP) Rm.Rp+KRp2(1-K)
= KVin
{1+K(1-K)Rp/Rm}
Let, Rp/Rm = 1/α

Then, Vo = α.KVin
α +K(1-K) ……*
For: Rm → ∞, α → ∞
Then, Vo = KVin
Vo/Vin Now From equation … * we can see that there is a non linear
relationship between input and output Voltage as shown in the graph
alongside.
Loading Error:
Xi/Xt
 Absoluter Loading Error:(εa)
 Relative Loading Error:(εr)
i t
Where,
(εa) = O/P Voltage at No load – O/P Voltage Under load
(εr) = (O/P Voltage at No load – O/P Voltage Under load)/O/P Voltage at No load
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Therefore,
εa = KVin - α.KVin = K2(1-K)Vin, and

α + K(1-K) α + K(1-K)
KVin - α.KVin
εr = α + K(1-K) = 1 - α
KVin α + K(1-K)
i.e. εr = K(1-K)
α + K(1-K)
The maximum error may occurs, for which: dεr must be equal to zero.
dK
i.e. d εr = 0
dK
i.e. d/dK{(K-K2)/( α + K-K2)} = 0
i.e. {(α + K-K2)(1-2K)-(K-K2)(1-2K)}/( α + K-K2) = 0
i.e. (1-2K)( α + K-K2-K+K2) = 0
i.e. (1-2K)α = 0
Since, α ≠ 0, being a constant.

Therefore, 1-2K = 0
i.e. K = ½
εr
εr, max
Hence, the error will be maximum when the wiper is at mid position of
K the total length of the potentiometer. But in actual practice the error is
0 50% maximum at 67% of displacement from initial zero position.

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Method of Reducing the Loading Error:
1. The loading error can be reduced by increasing ‘α’ i.e. internal resistance of output device.
2. By using digital voltmeter instead of analog.
3. By using buffer circuit.
4. Using compensating resistor as shown in figure below.
Vo/Vin
Rcom
3 1
Vin Xt Rp 2 LEGEND
Rcom = Compensating resistor

Xi Rm Vo
1= Linear Characteristics of PM
Xi/Xt 2= PM with internal resistance
0.5 3= PM with Rcom resistor
Advantages of Potentiometer:
 In expensive.
 Easy to handle and operate.
 Useful for measurement of large amplitude of displacement.
 High electrical efficiency.
Disadvantages of Potentiometer:
 Require large force to move their wiper.

 Sliding contact can be contaminated, so can be wear-out and also generate the noise.
 It has limited life time.

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Strain Gauge
A strain gauge is basically a device used for measuring mechanical surface strain. It can detect
and convert force or small mechanical displacement into electrical signal. Many other quantities like
torque, weight, tension etc; which involves effect of force or displacement can also be measured by
strain gauge.
Working Principle:
The working of strain gauge is based on the fact that, when stress is applied on the metal
conductor its resistance changes with respect to the change in length and cross-sectional area of the
conductor. Resistance of conductor under stress is also changed due to the change in Resistivity of
the conductor. This property is called the piezo-resistive effect. That is why; strain gauges are also
called the piezo-resistive strain gauges.
Let us now consider a conductor of length ‘L’ and area of cross-section

Ta A D ‘A’ is subjected to axial tension, the resistance will change because of
change in length, area of cross-section and Resistivity of the material as:
L
R = ρ.(L/A) …….. (i)
Where, R is the resistance of unstrained conductor. Let, under strained condition resistance of the
conductor be changed by ∆R because of change in length by ∆L, cross-sectional area by ∆A.
Now, equation (i) becomes,
R+∆R = ρ.(L+∆L)/(A-∆A)
= ρL (1+∆L/L)
A (1-∆A/A)
= R(1+∆L/L)
= (1- ∆D/D)2
R+∆R = (1+∆L/L)
R {1-2(∆D/D)+(∆D/D)2} Neglecting the higher
= (1+∆L/L) × {1+2(∆D/D)} order terms of ∆D. Since,
{1-2(∆D/D)} {1+2(∆D/D)} it is very small.
{1+∆L/L+2(∆D.∆L/∆L)+2(∆D/D)2}
{1-4(∆D/D)2}
i.e. 1+∆R/R = 1+∆L/L+2. ∆D+2(∆D/D)
i.e. ∆R/R = ∆L/L+2∆D/D ……. (ii)
i.e. (∆R/R) = 1+2(∆D/D)

(∆L/L) = (∆L/L)
i.e. Gf = 1+ 2γ …….(iii)

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Where; Gf is known as Gauge Factor = (∆R/R)/ (∆L/L)

γ is known as Poisson’s Ratio = (∆D/D)/ (∆L/L)
If piezo-resistive effect is also considered then equation … (ii) can be written as:
∆R/R = ∆L/L+2∆D/D+∆ρ/ρ …….. (iv)

Where, ∆ρ/ ρ = Piezo-resistive effect.
Example:
A strain gauge is bounded to a steel beam of 10 cm long and has cross-sectional area of 4 cm2.
Young’s modulus of steel is 207 GN/m2. The strain gauge has an unstrained resistance of 240 Ω
and gauge factor of 2.2. When a load is applied, the resistance of the gauge is increased by
0.013 Ω. Calculate the change in length of steel beam and amount of force applied.
Solution:
Given, L = 100cm = 0.1 m

A = 4 cm2 = 4×10-4 m2
E = 207 GN/m2 = 207×109 N/m2
R = 240 Ω
Gf = 2.2
∆L = ? F = ?
As we know,
Gf = (∆R/R)/ (∆L/L)
i.e; ∆L = (∆R/R)×(L/Gf)
= (0.013×0.1)/(240×2.2)
= 2.46×10-6 m
i.e. ∆L = 2.46 µm
Again,
E = Stress/Strain
= (F/A)/( ∆L/L)
i.e. F = EA×( ∆L/L)
= (207×109×4×10-4×2.46×10-6)/0.1
i.e. F = 2.03 KN

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Types of Strain Gauge:
Mainly there are two types of strain gauge, they are:
1. Unbounded Wire Strain Gauge

2. Bounded Wire Strain Gauge.
UNBOUNDED WIRE STRAIN GAUGE

FORCE
In this type of strain gauge, strain is
directly transferred to the resistance
wire so that smaller force can be
measured. The resistance wires are
1
MOVING FRAME 2 stretched between a stationary frame
4 3 and movable frame. Generally four
wire resistances are connected in four
STATIONARY FRAME arms of Wheat Stonebridge as shown
in above figure. At balanced condition,
Vo = V1 – V2 = 0
Application of external force increases tension in two

V1
wires and decreases in other two wires. Due to this there
R3
R1
is change in resistance of wire causing unbalance in Vout
R4
R2
bridge and gives output voltage proportional to the
V2
external force.
V
BOUNDED WIRE STRAIN GAUGE

C
O
N
This type of strain gauge is used for both stress
Resistance Wire N
E
analyzing as well as transducer. In bound wire strain gauge
C
T a grid of fine resistance wire of diameter 0.025 mm or less
I
N is placed on a base known as carrier made up of thin sheet
G
L
of paper or bakelite etc.
E
A
Carrier Base
D
S The wire is covered on top with thin sheet of material.
The bounded strain gauge is plastid with a special adhesive
to the structure, where the strength is to be measured. The
resistance of strain gauge is measured with Wheat
Stonebridge, connecting it in one of the four arms, while
R3
R1
V
remaining three arms have standard resistance of nearly
Vout equal to the value as that of gauge resistance at unstrained
R2 R4
condition.

2006 Batch
BLEX IV
Resistance temperature Detector (RTD)

RTD operates upon the fact that almost pure metals have the property of varying their resistance
with temperature. Change in resistance is almost directly proportional to the change in temperature.
Electrical resistance with temperature for most metallic materials can be represented by an
expression of the form:
Rt = Ro(1+αt+βt2+γt3+…+ωtn) ….. (i)
Where, Ro is the resistance in ohm at reference temperature (usually at ice point, 0oC), Rt is
resistance in ohm at temperature t, α is the temperature co-efficient of resistance in Ω/oC and β, γ, ω
are co-efficient determined on the basis of two or more calibration points. For narrow range of
operation, higher order co-efficients are negligible. So equation … (i) becomes
Rt = Ro(1+αt) …… (ii)
The requirements for the resistance material of RTDs are as follows

 High temperature co-efficient of resistance.
 High resistivity.
 Linearity between resistance and temperature.
 Stability of electrical characteristics.
 Sufficient mechanical strength.
The most common RTDs are made of platinum, nickel or nickel alloy.
Material α/oC Resistivity (10-8) Temperature Change (oC) Melting Point(oC)

Platinum 0.0039 9.83 -250 to 900 1775.5
Copper 0.0425 1.56 -200 to 150 1083
Nickel 0.0066 6.38 -70 to 150 1455
Tungsten 0.0052 - -200 to 1000 -
Rt/Ro
5
Nickel Copper Platinum
Temperature
0 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Fig: Characteristics Curve for Different RTD’s Materials.

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Mounting Base
In RTD resistance element is mounted on one side of the
Resistance Element thin pipe and the other side of pipe is mounted on a
mounting base. The resistance can be connected in any
one arm of the wheat stone bridge to measure the change
Connecting Wires
in resistance o RTD. Range of RTD is 10 ohm to several
kilo ohms. A typical type of resistance temperature
detector is depicted alongside in the figure with its main
components.
Thermal Resistor (Thermistor)
The name thermistor is derived from thermally sensitive resistors, as the resistance of a
thermistor varies as a function of temperature. Thermistors are generally composed of
semiconductor materials. Most of the thermistor has negative temperature co-efficient of resistance,
i.e. resistance decreases with increase in temperature. Thermistor has high sensitivity to temperature
change as compared to RTD and thermocouple. So they are used for precision measurement of
temperature.
Thermistors are widely used in the applications which involve the measurement of temperature
in the range of -60oC to 15oC. The resistances of thermistor have a very non linear characteristic
between resistance and temperature as given by the expression:
R = αeβ/T ……… (i)

Where, α and β are constants depending upon the material and manufacturing techniques. The
approximate relationship between R and T can be obtained by rewriting the equation (i), i.e.
β(1/T1-1/To)
R = Roe …(ii)
Where, R1 and Ro are resistances in ohm at absolute temperatures T1 and To respectively and β
is the thermistor constant.
Thermistors are composed of metallic oxides such as Fe, Co, Ni, Cu etc. They are available in
variety of shape and size.
Glass Glass
( a ) Bead ( b ) Probe
Coated
Lead Wires
( c ) Rod ( d ) Washer

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BLEX IV
Application of Thermistors
 Measurement of temperature
 Measurement of difference of two temperature
 Control of temperature
 Temperature compensation
 Thermal conductivity measurement
 Measurement of gas composition
 Measurement of flow
Characteristics of Thermistors
There are three important characteristics of thermistor that make them extremely useful in
measurement and control applications. They are:
 Resistance-Temperature Characteristics
 Voltage-Current Characteristics
 Current-Time Characteristics
Resistance-Temperature Characteristics
Thermistors are essentially

102 semiconductor devices that
R
e 10
s
behave as resistors with
I 1
s
high negative temperature
t 10-2
I co-efficient (usually -
Thermistors of
v 10-4 different materials
I 0.04/oC at room
-6
t 10 Platinum
y temperature of about 25oC)
-8
10
-200 -100 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Figure: Resistance-TemperatureTemperature
Characteristics
(oC) of Thermistor
The R-T characteristics of thermistor are determined by following relation.
R = αeβ/T
Approximately,
R = Roeβ(1/T1-1/To)
Where,
α = (dR1/dt)/R1 = -β/T2

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Voltage-Current Characteristics
V
The voltage drop across a thermistor
1000
increases with the increase in current
V 0oC until it attains the peak value beyond
o 100 which the voltage drop fall with the
l 25oC
t increase in current with the very
a 10 60oC small voltage applied to the
g thermistor, the resulting current
e
1
doesn’t produce sufficient heat to
raise the temperature of the
thermistor above ambient and under
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 this condition the thermistor obeys
Current (µA) ohm’s law.
Fig: Voltage-Current Characteristics of Thermistor
Current-Time Characteristics
mA The current-time characteristics of a

thermistor for various applied
40
C 60 V voltages are shown in above figure,
u 30 which indicates that the time delays
r 50 V
r 20 to reach maximum current as a
e 40 V function of the applied voltage.
n 10
t
30 V When the self heating effect occurs
1
20 V
in a thermistor network a certain
t
finite time is required for thermistor
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Time
to heat and the current to build up to
a maximum steady state value.
Figure: Current-Time Characteristics of Thermistor

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BLEX IV
Thermocouples
Thermocouples are essentially consists of two dissimilar metal Metal A

A and B, insulated from each other but welded or brazed together e2 e1
at their ends forming two junctions as shown in figure. When each T1 T2
end of wires A and B is connected to a measuring instrument, it
Metal B
becomes an accurate and sensitive temperature measuring device.
Operating Principle
When two different metals having different work function are placed together a voltage is
generated at the junction, which is directly proportional to the temperature difference. This operation
principle is based on See beck Effect.
The thermal emf developed in the circuit composed of two e

dissimilar metals with junction kept at absolute temperatures T1 e2 e1
and T2 may be written as: T1 T2
e = a (T1-T2)+b(T1-T2)2, (T1>T2);
Where, a and b are constants, whose values depend upon the nature
of metals used. On simplification it can be written as;
e = a (T1-T2) = a∆T;
e1
1. The thermoelectric emf depends on the difference of T1 T2
temperature between two junctions.
2. If third metal is connected between the junction whose junction
temperature is same, then there will be no change in emf
induced originally, e.g. use of voltmeter
3. If third metal is coupled at the junction with same temperature
T1 e2
T2
at its two ends there will be no change in induced emf
T1
originally, e.g. welding, soldering etc.
4. If e be the originally induced emf then e=e1 and e=e2.
Copper Wire
Metal A
Detecting O/P to emf Measuring

Junction Device
Metal B
Temperature Controlled
Junction Box

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BLEX IV
Application of Thermocouples:
 Indication of rapidly changing temperature.

 To measure the resistance at a number of points.
 To localize the position of temperature.
 Measurement of surface temperature.
Merits of Using Thermocouples:
 Cheaper than RTD.

 Can withstand high shock.
 Simple in construction and made in very small sizes.
 Having small time lag.
 Suitable for recording rapid change in temperature.
Demerits of Using Thermocouples:
 Low accuracy than RTD.

 The circuitry is very complex for remote sensing devices.
 Need periodical checking.
 Need compensating lead.
 Reference junction compensation is required.
Example:
Calculate the thermoelectric sensitivity of the device using Bismuth and Tellurium as the
dissimilar metals. Estimate the maximum output voltage for 100oC temperature difference.
The sensitivity of Bismuth is -72μV/oC and that of Tellurium is 500 µV/oC.
Solution:
Thermoelectric sensitivity of thermocouple is (ST) = 500-(-72)

= 572 µV/oC
For 100oC temperature difference, O/P voltage (e) = 572 × 100
= 57.2 mV. Ans

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BLEX IV
Capacitive Transducers
The variable capacitance transducer comprises of a capacitor, the capacitance of which is varied
by the non-electrical quantity being measured. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor, C is
given by an expression,
C = ε.A/d (Farad)
= εo.εr.A/d
Where,
εo = Permittivity of free space = 8.854 × 10-12 F/m
εr= Relative permittivity of the dielectric material.
A = Area of the plate in m2
D = Distance between the two plates in m.
Capacitive transducers are analog passive transducers. In such transducers capacitance of the
capacitor is varied by any of the following three methods.
 By Varying Overlapping Area of Plates, A

 By Varying Distance Between Plates, d
 By Varying Relative Permittivity, εr
The above changes can be caused by physical variable like displacement, force or pressure. The
change in capacitance may also be caused by change in permittivity as in the case of measurement of
levels of liquids or gases.
1. Capacitive Transducers: By Variation of Overlapping Area of Plates.
Such a transducers operates on the fact that

Fixed Plate
capacitance of any capacitor is proportional to the
overlapping area of plates.
Let us consider a capacitive transducer having w

parallel plates of constant width ‘w’ as shown in
alongside figure. In such a transducer capacitance is
proportional to ‘l’, where ‘l’ is the length of the
overlapping portion of plates and it varies according
to the displacement under measurement. So any Movable Plate
change in displacement causes change in Direction of
capacitance. Movement l

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As, C = εo.εr.A/d C
= ε.wl/d (ε = εo.εr)
A
C
a A - Cmax
Sensitivity, S = Output/Input p
B - Dmax
= δC/δl a
c
i.e. S = ε.w/d i
t
ew/d
a
n
Hence, sensitivity is constant and a curve drawn c
between the capacitance of the transducer and e B D
Displacement (m)
displacement is linear except the linear portion.
Another capacitive transducer, operating on the

same principle as mentioned above is cylindrical Fixed Cylinder
capacitor, whose overlapping area is varied by
varying the length of overlapping portion of the
cylinder as shown. D
Movable Cylinder
d
Where,
C = 2π εo.εr (Farads)
ln(D/d)
So, Sensitivity = δC/δl
= 2π ε F/m
O/P
ln(D/d)
Here, sensitivity is also constant.
The principle of variation of capacitance with C

change in area can also be used to measure the
angular displacement. Let us consider a capacitive
transducer having two parallel semi-circular plates; A
one fixed another movable as shown in figure C
a A - Cmax
below.
p B - ßmax
Movable Plate C = εo.εr. r2.β (A= βr2/2) a
c
2d i
r Where, r is the radius of t er2/2d
movable plate in meter, a
n
ß d is the distance
c
Fixed Plate between two circular e pi/2 B ß
parallel plates. Angular Displacement (m) pi
So, Sensitivity = δC/δr

= εo.εr. r2/2d
i.e. (S) = εr2/2d

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BLEX IV
2. Capacitive Transducer: By Variation of distance between the plates.
Such a capacitor operates upon the fact Fixed Plate Movable Plate C
that the capacitance of any capacitor is C

A
inversely proportional to the distance P
A
between the plates. Such a capacitive C
I
transducer used for measurement of linear T
A
displacement as shown in the figure Displacement
N
C
x
alongside. x
E DISPLACEMENT
From figure it can be seen that the curve is non linear so the sensitivity of this transducer is high for
the initial portion of the curve, therefore these transducers are used only for measuring extremely
small displacement.
Now, C = εo.εr A/x

Therefore,
Sensitivity S = δC/δx
= δ/δx(εo.εr A/x)
i.e. S = -ε/x2, it is not a constant, so varies over the transducer range.
3. Capacitive Transducer: By Variation of the Permittivity of the

Dielectric Material Between the Plates.
In such a transducer, capacitance is varied by varying the permittivity of the dielectric material
used between two plates of a capacitor. In this arrangement, a dielectric material of relative
permittivity εr, moves between the two fixed plates parallel to each other according to the
displacement under measurement. The capacitance of the transducer is given by the expression,
C = εo.εr A/d (Where, εo is the permittivity of air or vacuum.)
Let us consider a dielectric material Fixed Plate
having cross-sectional dimension w
(w*d), placed between two parallel x Dielectric Material d
plates of a capacitor separated by a
distance‘d’; Where ‘l’ is the length Displacement
of the plates. Initially, the dielectric l1
material is at l1 position from the
right. The capacitance at this l
condition is now given by:
C = εo.wl1/d + C
= εo.εr w(l-l1)/d
= εo.w/d {(l1 + εr(l-l1)} ……. (i)

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Now,
If dielectric material moves out a distance x, then value of capacitance changes from C to C-∆C
i.e. C-∆C = εo.w/d(l1 + x) + εo.εr w/d{ l-(l1+x)}
= εo.w/d[l1 + x + εr{ l-(l1+x)}]
= εo.w/d{(l1 + x) + εr(l-l1)-εrx)}
= εo.w/d{l1 + εr(l-l1)-x(εr-1)}
= εo.w/d{l1 + εr(l-l1)}-εo.w/d{x(εr-1)}
= C - εo.w/d{x(εr-1)}
i.e. ∆C = εo.w/d{x(εr-1)}
So, change in capacitance is proportional to the displacement. This method can be used to
measure the displacement from 1 µm to 10 mm.
Differential Arrangement
In order to achieve linear characteristics,

differential arrangement is used as shown in above P - Fixed Plate
D
figure, where P and Q are fixed plates whereas M is I
moveable plate to which displacement under S C1, V1
P d
measurement is applied. Thus we have two capacitors
L
with different output. A V
When the movable plate M is midway between C M – Movable Plate
fixed plates P & Q and distance d meters apart from E d
M
them, the capacitance C1 and C2 are equal and each of E
C2, V2
then is equal to εo.εr A/d N
Q - Fixed Plate
T
i.e. C1 = C2 = εo.εr A/d
Now, the movable plate M is moved by distance x meters towards plate P
Then,
C1 = εo.εr A/(d-x) and C2 = εo.εr A/(d+x)
If and alternating voltage V is applied across plates P and Q, then
Voltage across C1 given by
V1 = VC2
C1+C2
= εo.εr A/(d+x) ×V
εo.εr A/(d-x) + εo.εr A/(d+x)
V1 = (d-x)V/2d

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Similarly, voltage across C2 is given by
V2 = VC1
C1+C2
= εo.εr A/(d-x) ×V
εo.εr A/(d-x) + εo.εr A/(d+x)
V2 = (d+x)V/2d
Finally,
The differential output voltage is given by
∆V = V2 -V1
= (d-x)V/2d - (d+x)V/2d
i.e. ∆V = (x/d)V
Therefore, the output voltage varies linearly as the displacement x and sensitivity (∆V/x) ∆V is
inversely proportional to the separation ‘d’ and directly proportional to the applied voltage.
This method can be used for the measurement of linear displacement between 0.01 µm and 10 mm
with an accuracy of ±0.1%.
Merits of Using Capacitive Transducers:
 These transducers have very high impedance so; loading effects are minimized on the
measuring circuits.
 They have excellent frequency response (as high as 40 KHz) and so can be used for
measurement of both static and dynamic phenomena.
 They are not affected by stray magnetic field; i.e. why they are used for applications, where
stray magnetic fields make the inductive transducers useless.
 These transducers are extremely sensitive.
 A resolution of order of 2.5 microns can be achieved with these transducers.
 They can be operated with very small forces so, they are very useful for small system and
they need small power to operate.
Demerits of Using Capacitive Transducers:
 Output impedance of capacitive transducers is very high so its measuring circuit becomes
very complicated.
 Insulation resistance of the system cannot be neglected because of high output impedance of
the transducer so, it reduces its sensitivity. Moreover with change in physical conditions e.g.
humidity, temperature, pressure etc. this resistance changes its value and so introduces error
in measurements.
 Stray capacitance including due to cables etc; in parallel with the output impedance of the
transducer also cause error and introduces non linearity.
 Electrostatic screening should be provided for capacitive transducers in order to avoid any
pick up.
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 The screened cable connector to the transducer can be a source of error because its
capacitance varies with the movement between the cable conductors and cable dielectric.
 Capacitance of capacitive transducer changes with change in temperature or on account of
presence of small external matter e.g. dusts particles and moisture etc. Hence error is
introduced in measurement.
 Since, the displacement in general is small and a large sensitivity is usually needed so
adequate design is required for accurate measurements.
Applications of Capacitive Transducers:
 They can be employed for both linear and angular displacement measurement. The capacitive
transducers are highly sensitive and can be employed for measuring extremely small
displacements, such as 0.01 micro meters. On the other hand they can be employed for
measuring large distances up to about 30 m as in airplanes.
 They can be employed for measuring force and pressure, which are first converted into
displacement and the displacement, make the capacitance to change.
 They can also be employed for measuring the pressure directly in all those cases in which
permittivity of a medium changes with pressure, such as in case of Benzene e-varies by 0.5%
in the pressure range of 1 to 1,000 times the atmospheric pressure.
 They can be employed for measuring humidity. Since, the permittivity of gases varies with
the variation in humidity.
 Capacitive transducers can be employed for the measurement of density, volume, level of
liquid, weight etc; but with mechanical modifiers.
Inductive Transducers
These are analog passive transducers. These transducers operate generally upon one of the
following three principles:
 Variation of self inductance of the coil.

 Variation of mutual inductance of the coil.
 Production of eddy currents.
1. Variation of Self Inductance of the Coil:
The self inductance of a coil is given by the expression. L = N2/( ℓ /μA)

= N2μ(A/ ℓ)
= N2μG
Where, N = Number of turns of the coil.
ℓ = Mean length of the magnetic path.
A = Area of the cross-section of magnetic path.
μ = Permeability of the magnetic material.

G = A/ ℓ = Geometric form factor,

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BLEX IV
Hence, from the above expression, the self inductance of a coil can be varied by varying
the number of turns of the coil, permeability of the material and by changing the geometrical
configuration of the magnetic circuit.
These transducers are usually used for the measurement of linear as well as angular
displacement. The displacement under measurement causes the change in self inductance of the
coil (L) by (∆L) by varying any of the three variables viz. N, μ or G.
2. Variation of Mutual Inductance of the Coil:
Such transducers operate on the fact that mutual inductance between the coils depend upon the
self inductance of the coils and co-efficient of coupling between them as mutual inductance
between two coils and is given by the expression: M = K√(L1L2)
Where, K is the co-efficient of coupling and L1, L2 are self inductances of coils.
3. Production of Eddy Current:
When a conduction plate is kept near a coil carrying alternating current, eddy current is induced
in the current conduction plate, producing its own magnetic field in opposition to the main field
created by the coil; which reduces the net flux linking with the coil. The higher is the induced
eddy current, higher the reduction in the inductance of the coil. Thus the inductance of the coil
changes with the movement of the plate.
Conducting Plate
Coil O/P
Displacement Coil
Displacement
Short Circuit Sleeve
Fig: Inductive Transducers for Measurement of Linear Displacement.
Sensitivity of this type of inductive transducers is usually low.

2006 Batch
BLEX IV
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

This is most widely used inductive transducer for translating the linear motion into an
electrical signal. The basic construction of an LVDT is shown in figure below.
Secondary Winding
Primary Winding
Arm Movable Magnetic Core
S1 P S2
VO
VI
Differential O/P Voltage
AC I/P Voltage
Fig: Basic Construction of LVDT (Cross Sectional View)
LVDT is a differential transformer

consisting of one primary winding (P)
and two secondary windings S1 and S2,
Primary Winding
wound over a hollow bobbin of non-
magnetic and insulating material. The
secondary windings S1 and S2, which
have equal number of turns are arranged Movable Magnetic Core
concentrically and placed either side of
the primary winding P. A soft iron core,
attached to the sensing element of which es1 es2
displacement is to be measured in the
shape of rod or cylinder slides freely in Vout
the hollow portion of the bobbin.
Primary winding is connected to an ac source of voltage varying from 5 to 25 V and of

frequency ranging from 50 Hz to 20 KHz. When the core is moved inside the bobbin it varies
coupling of primary winding to secondary windings S1 and S2. In null position of the core i.e. in
central position coupling of primary winding to both of the secondary windings S1 and S2 is equal
i.e. es1 = es2, so output voltage induced in secondary windings S1 and S2 are equal. As the core is
moved towards left from its null position, the magnetic linkage to S1 increases whereas that of S2
decreases. Therefore output voltage induced in S1 increases whereas the output voltage induced in S2
decreases. The movement of the core to the right will have opposite effect. Since, S1 and S2 are
connected in series opposition so that difference of output voltages of secondary windings gives the
measurement of displacement.

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BLEX IV
From the characteristics

Eo- O/P Voltage
curve as shown in
primary Voltage
O/P Voltage in
phase with I/P
alongside figure, LVDT
is linear for limited range
of displacement (say 5
mm either side from the Residual Voltage X-Displacement
B A
O/P Voltage out

null position) and beyond
of phase with I/P

primary Voltage
this range curve starts
flattering out at both
ends.
Merits of Using LVDTs
 LVDT has infinite resolution as it gives step less output.

 It ha almost linear characteristics within its prescribed range.
 It has high sensitivity (10 mV/mm – 40 mV/mm)
 Its output is very high.
 These devices consume very less power.
 It can be used on high frequencies up to 20 KHz.
 Output impedance of LVDT remains constant.
 LVDT is a more reliable device.
 It has very low hysteresis, so a good repeatability can be achieved with it.
 LVDTs are very rugged device in construction, so it can tolerate shock and vibration without any
adverse effect.
 It is very stable and easy to align and maintain due to simplicity of construction.
Demerits of Using LVDTs
 These devices are sensitive to stray magnetic fields.

 Relatively large displacement is required for appreciable differentiable output.
 Sometime, the transducer performance can be affected by vibration.
 The receiving instrument must be selected on ac signal or a demodulator must be used if a dc
output is required.
 The dynamic response is limited mechanically by the mass of the core and electrically by the
frequency of applied voltage.
 Temperature affects the performance of the transducer.

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Application of LVDTs
 LVDTs are suitable for the application, where the displacement are too large for strain gauges to
handle; e.g. LVDTs can be employed for measurement of displacement that ranges from a
fraction of a mm to few cm. If LVDT is to be employed for measurement of mechanical
displacement greater than 25 mm, an appropriate mechanical gearing must be used.
 LVDTs can also be connected to other transducers, whose outputs are mechanical displacement,
so these are often employed together with other transducer for measurement of force, weight,
pressure etc.
Piezo Electric Transducers
Piezo electric material is one in which an electric Force

potential appears across the opposite faces of the material
as a result of dimensional changes when a mechanical
force is applied to it.
The potential is produced by the displacement of t
Vout
charge and this effect is reversible. Common
piezoelectric materials are: Rochelle-Salts, Ammonium
Di-Hydrogen-Phosphate, Lithium-Sulphate, Quartz etc
Let ‘t’ be the thickness of piezo electric material, ‘A’ be the area of crystal, where force ‘F’ is
applied and Q be the charge produced, then:
Q α F
i.e, Q = dF;
Where ‘d’ is crystal charge sensitivity. Its unit is coulomb/Newton.
Therefore, Vout = Q/C, where C = εo.εr A/t
i.e; Vout = Qt/( εo.εr A) = F.d.t/(εo.εr A)
= (d/εo.εr).(F/A).t
i.e; Vout = g.p.t
Where, ‘g’ is the crystal voltage sensitivity (Vm/N) and p is the pressure applied (N/m2)
C
Q C R Vout Eo R Vout
Fig: Equivalent Current Source Fig: Equivalent Voltage Source

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Advantages of Using Piezo-electric Transducers:
1. These transducers are generally small in size, light in weight & simple in construction.
2. Piezo-electric materials have high stability and they also have very good high frequency
response.
3. They are self generating transducers as they do not need external power.
4. Their outputs are quite large (125 mV/Kpa for 2.5 mm).
Disadvantages of Using Piezo-electric Transducers:
1. The output voltage is affected by temperature variation of the crystal.

2. The leakage resistance gives reasonably low leakage to allow static measurement.
3. For a long life, it should be protected from moisture.
Hall Effect Transducers
If a strip of conducting material carries current in the presence of a transverse magnetic field, an
emf is produced between two edges of the conductor. The magnitude of voltage depends on the
current flowing through conductor, flux density and the property of the conductor-called hall-effect
co-efficient.
Mathematically, Vout = KHI(B/t) (Volts)

Where;
KH = Hall effect co-efficient (Vm3/Awp) Vo
I = Current flowing Direction t ut
B = Magnetic flux density of Current

Magnet
T = Thickness of conductor strip ic Flux
Hall Effect emf is very small in conductor and is difficult to measure, but in semi-conductor like
Germanium, the emf produces is sufficiently large.
Application:
 Hall-effect element can be used for measurement of current by the magnetic field produced due
to flow of current.
 It may be used for measuring a linear displacement.
Advantages:
 The main advantage of Hall-effect transducers is that they are non-contact devices with small
size and high resolution.
Disadvantages:
 The main drawbacks of these transducers are high sensitivity to temperature changes and
variation of hall co-efficient from plate to plate; thereby requires individual calibration in each
case.

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Optical Transducers
The primary types of optical transducers are; photo-conductive cell, photovoltaic cell, photodiode
and photo-transmitter.
1. Photo Conductive Cell (Photo Resistor)

LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)
When light falls on photo conductive material. It release

charge cannibal or free electrons due to which the
resistance between two electrodes is decreased. When the
cell is kept in dark, its resistance is called dark resistance
and may be as high as 1013 ohms. If the cell is laminated its
resistance decreases. The resistance depends on the
physical character of the photo conductive layer as well as
on the dimension of the cell and its geometric
configuration.
Material Time Constant Spectral Band
Cadmium Sulphite 100 ms 0.47-0.71 μm
Cadmium Selenide 10 ms 0.6-0.77 μm
Lead Sulphite 400 μs 1-3 μm
Lead Selenide 10 μs 1.5-4 μm
2. Photo Transistor:
Vcc
It is a normal transistor in which the junction is transparent to allow light
to fall on the base at any pn-junction hole, electrons pairs are generated
when light falls on junction. So any light falling on the base-emitter
R
junction produces a current which is amplified by transistor action.
3. Photo Voltaic Cell:
The photo-voltaic cell converts Light

PN
electromagnetic energy in electrical energy. Junction
Photo-voltaic cell is a large diode consists of P-Ty
pe L
ayer
a pn-junction between two semiconductors. N-Ty
pe L Vout
ayer R
Photons striking the cell pass through the p-
type upper layer and are absorbed by the Conduction
electron in the lower n-type layer causing Base

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formation of conduction electrons. Then the depletion layer of pn-junction separates its
conduction electrons and holes. Therefore a potential difference is developed across the junction.
The open circuit voltage is given by:
Vo = Vc. lnVe
Where,
Vc = Calibration Voltage
Ve = Radiant Incidence Voltage (w/m2)
Photo Conductive Material Time Constant Spectral Band

Silicon (Si) 20 μs 0.49 – 1 μm
Germanium (Ge) 50 μs 0.79 – 1.8 μm
4. Photo Diodes:
A photo diode is a silicon diode with an

V Reverse Bias
opening in its case containing a lens which
focuses incident light on the pn junction. The L
0
E
photo diode with no bias operates as a 2 A
C
photovoltaic device and with a reverse bias as a 0.1 W/m U
K
2 R
photoconductive device. A reverse bias 1 W/m A
R
semiconductor diode, when not exposed to light G
2 E
10 W/m E
allows only a small leakage current to bias and N
pass but when exposed to light the current rises i T
almost in direct proportion to light. The

photodiodes leakage current is detected and
amplified for providing a usable output.
The photo diode has the most important advantage of much faster response over the
photoconductive cell and so can be employed in applications involving light fluctuating occurring at
high frequencies.

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Chapter 4
Signal Conditioning & Processing
Introduction:
The signal after being sensed may be in highly distorted form and the interfering sources must be
removed. Certain operations are performed on the signal before further transmission. These process
may be linear like amplification, integration, differentiation, addition, subtraction etc. some
nonlinear process like modulation, detection, sampling, filtering, linearization, squaring etc; are also
performed on the signal to bring it to the acceptable form. This process of conversion is called
“Signal Conditioning”.
Importance of Signal Conditioning & Processing:
 It assists in transforming the output of the input stage to the desired magnitude or form
acceptable to the output stage.
 Signal conditioning supply excitation to passive transducers and acts as an amplification system
for active transducers.
 The transducer output is brought up to sufficient level to make it useful for conversion,
processing, indication and recording.
 It performs various linear and nonlinear processes on the signal as described above.
The signal conditioning or data acquisition equipment in many a situation is an

excitation and amplification system for passive transducers. It may be an amplification
system for active transducers. In both the applications, the transducer output is brought up to
a sufficient level to make it useful for conversion, processing, indication and recording.
Excitation is needed for passive transducers because these transducers do not generate
their own voltage or current. Therefore, passive transducers like strain gauges,
potentiometers, and resistance thermometers, inductive and capacitive transducers require
excitation from external sources.
Active transducers like techno generators, thermocouples, inductive pick-ups and
Piezo-electric crystals, on the other hand, do not require an external source of excitation since
they produce their own electrical output on account of application of physical quantities. But
these signals usually have a low voltage level and hence need amplification.
The excitation sources may be an alternating or D.C. voltage source.
Depending upon the excitation sources, the signal conditioning system can be classified as:
1. DC Signal Conditioning System

2. AC Signal Conditioning System.

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DC Signal Conditioning System:
- Generally used for common resistance transducers like pots and resistance strain gauges.
- The desirable characteristics of a DC amplifier in DC signal conditioning systems are:
1. It may need balanced differential inputs giving a high common mode rejection ration
(CMMR).
2. It should have extremely good thermal and long term stability.
- The advantages of DC amplifier in DC signal conditioning system are that:
1. It is easy to calibrate at low frequencies.
2. It is able to recover from an overload condition unlike its a.c. counterpart.
DC EXCITATION SOURCE POWER SUPPLY
I/P TRANSDUCER BRIDGE CALIBRATION & ZEROING N/W DC N/W L.P.F 0/P
Fig: DC Signal Conditioning System
- But the greatest disadvantage of a DC amplifier in DC signal conditioning system is that if suffers
from the problem of drift. Thus low frequency spurious signals come out as data information. For
this reason special low drift DC amplifiers are used. The DC amplifier is followed by a low pass
filter which is used to eliminate high frequency components or noise from the data signal.
AC Signal Conditioning System:
- Generally used for variable reactance transducers and for systems, where signal have to transmit
via long cables to connect the transducers to the signal conditioning equipment.
- In order to overcome the problems that are encountered in DC system AC signal conditioning
systems are used. In AC system, the carrier-type AC signal conditioning systems are used as
shown in figure below
DC EXCITATION SOURCE POWER SUPPLY
I/P TRANSDUCER BRIDGE CALIBRATION & ZEROING N/W AC AMPLIFIER 0/P
CARRIER OSCILLATOR POWER SUPPLY PHASE SENSITIVE L.P.F

DEMODULATOR
Reference
Fig: AC Signal Conditioning System
- In this system amplifier drift and spurious signals are not of much importance unless they
modulate the carrier. However, it is more difficult to achieve a stable carrier oscillator than a
comparable DC stabilized source. In carrier systems, it is easy to obtain very high rejection of
mains frequency pick up. Active filters can be used to reject this frequency and prevent
overloading of AC amplifier. The phase-sensitive, demodulators filter out carrier frequency
components of the data signal.

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- After the physical quantities like temperature, pressure, strain, acceleration etc. have been
transduced into their analogous electrical form and amplified to sufficient current or voltage
levels they are further processed by electronic circuits. In some applications the signal does not
need any further processing and the amplified signal may be directly applied to indication or
recording or control instruments. But many applications involve further processing or signals
which involve linear and non linear operations.
Analogue to Digital
Digital Output
Analogous Multiplexer
Signals from
Signal
Conditioning
Equipment
Control Control
Unit Signal
Analogue
Multiplexer
Sample &
Hold Circuits
Fig: Data acquisition and conversion system
- The signal may be applied to:

1. Sample & Hold Circuit (S/H): The S/H units sample the different inputs at a specified
time and then hold the voltage levels at their output.
2. Analog Multiplexer:
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): It means that each input channel is
sequentially connected to the multiplexer for a certain specified time. The input
signals are not applied to the multiplexer continuously but are connected in turn to
the multiplexer thereby sharing time. The timing of the various input channels is
controlled by a control unit, which controls the S/H circuits, the multiplexer and
the A/D converter. It may be controlled itself.
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): In this case, the multiple data analog
inputs can remain in analog form and re transmitted all at the same time, using
frequency division multiplexing. The voltage input from the signal conditioning
equipment is converted into frequency. Thus a change in voltage input of the
measurand produces a corresponding change in frequency.
3. Analog to Digital Converter (A/D): Since, the most naturally occurring phenomena are
analog in nature. Analog quantities are continuous functions with time and most
transducers give an analog output. So, in order to introduce such analog inputs to digital
devices like computer they need to be converted in digital form. Therefore A/D
conversion devices are used in measurement and instrumentation systems.

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Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)
On the basis of amplification ICs are of two types, namely:
- Linear ICs
- Digital ICs
An important application of linear ICs is operational amplifier commonly referred to as an Op-

amp. An operational amplifier is a direct coupled amplifier with two differential inputs and a single
output. It is a versatile device used in almost all analog circuit. It provides very high open loop gain.
It is a linear active device, which consists of different stages. It was originally designed for
performing mathematical operation such as, summation, subtraction, multiplication, differentiation,
integration, sigh changing etc. Now-a-days it has numerous usages e.g. scale changing analog
computer operation, in instrumentation and control system and in various phase-shift and oscillator
circuits.
Inverting I /P Terminal +Vcc
V1 -
V1 -
Op-
Op-Amp Vout
Amp Vout
Output Terminal V2 +
V2 +
Non Inverting I /P Terminal

-Vcc
Fig: Circuit Symbol of Op-Amp Fig: Power Supply Connections
Ideal Op-Amp
The Op-amp is designed to sense and amplify the difference between the voltages signal applied
at its two input terminals. The output of Op-amp is:
Vo = A(V2-V1)
Where, A = Open loop gain.

V2 = Voltage between terminal 2 and ground, and
V1 = Voltage between terminal 1 and ground.

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Characteristics of Ideal Op-Amp:
1. The input impedance of an ideal Op-amp is infinity, i.e. I1=0

V1 -
the signal current into terminal one and two both are zero.
Vout
2. The output impedance of an ideal Op-amp is zero, i.e. the
V2 +
output voltage with respect to ground is always equal to I2=0
VO = A(V2-V1) and is independent of the load.

-
3. It has infinite common mode rejection, i.e. it ignores any I1=0 -
signal common to both inputs. V1 +

-
Vo=A(V2-V1)
4. Ideal Op-amp has infinite band width, i.e. it has gain ‘A’
+
I2=0
that remains constant down to zero frequency up to V2
infinite frequency.
Virtual Short Circuit & Virtual Ground:
If the Op-amp has infinite open loop gain, i.e. A → ∞; and 1 -

V1
producing finite voltage at output, then voltage between the
Op-amp input terminals should be negligibly constant as
A Vout
shown.
VO = A(V2-V1) V2 +
i.e. V2-V1 = VO/ A (i.e. finite/infinite) 2
i.e. V2-V1 = 0
i.e. V2 = V1
This means that, Gain (A) → ∞; the voltage V1 → V2, we call this as two input terminal
‘Tracking Each Other in Potential’ or ‘Virtual Short Circuit’ exists between the two input terminals.
A virtual short circuit means that whatever voltage is at terminal two, will automatically appear at
terminal one because of infinite gain.
If terminal two is grounded, voltage at terminal one is zero volts, so we call the terminal one as a
virtual ground.

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Op-Amp Circuit
1. Inverting Configuration:
R2
In this circuit input is supplied on the
i2
inverting terminal of the Op-amp, so called
R1 V1 1
inverting configuration. R2 closes loop around -
the Op-amp, so acts as a negative feedback. Vi

i1
A Vo
Calculation of Closed Loop Gain: V2=0 2

+
Case I: If A → ∞;
From short circuit theory, V2 = 0 =V1
As, (Vi – V1)/R1 = i1

i.e. i1 = Vi/R1 ……….. (i)
and also i1 = i2 ………..(ii)
Again, V1 – i2R2 – Vo =0
i.e, Vo = V1 – i2R2
= -i1R2 = (-Vi/R1)R2 (from i and ii)
Therefore,
Closed loop Gain (A) = Vo/Vi = -R2/R1
i.e, A = -R2/R1
Case II: If A is finite, then:
Vo = A(V2-V1)
Since, V2 = 0, but V2≠V1
Therefore from calculation, it is observed that, Af = Vo/Vi = - R2/R1

1 + 1/A(1+ R2/R1)

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2. Non inverting Configuration:

R2
Here, input is fed into the non inverting
terminal - 2; so called non-inverting i2
R1 V1 1
configuration. -
i1
A Vo
Calculation of Closed Loop Gain:

+
V2 2
Case I: If A → ∞; Vi
V1 = Vi
So;
0 – i1R1 - V1 = 0
i.e. V1 = -i1R1
i.e. i1 = -V1/R1 = Vi/R1
Also, i1 =i2
Therefore,
i1 = i2 = -Vi/R1
Again, V1 - i2R2 – Vo = 0
i.e. Vo = V1 – i2R2
= Vi + Vi.R2/R1
i.e. Vo/Vi = A = (1+R2/R1)
Case II: If A is finite, then:
Vo = A(V2-V1)
Then,
Vo/Vi = A = (1+R2/R1)
(1+1/A +1/A.R2/R1)

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3. The Voltage Follower (Buffer Amplifier):
The non inverting configuration has

infinite input resistance. It enables using this
Vi = V1 1
-
circuit as a buffer amplifier to connect a
source with high impedance with low A=1 Vo
impedance. Buffer amplifier has voltage
+
gain of 1. V2 2
Vi
4. Integrator:
It consists of a capacitor-C in the

Vc(t)
feedback path of the inverting configuration.
I2(t)
R1 1
From the alongside figure, we have: Vi(t) -
V1
i1 = {Vi(t) – V1}/R1 I1(t)
A=1 Vo(t)
= {Vi(t) – 0}/R1 (V2 = 0 = V1)
+
V2 = 0 2
Therefore;
i1 = Vi(t)/R1 and i2 =i1
So, from loop equation,

V1 – Vc(t) – Vo(t) = 0

i.e. V1 – 1/C i2(t)dt – Vo(t) = 0

i.e. 0 - 1/C i2(t)dt = Vo(t)
Therefore,

Vo(t) = -1/C Vi(t)/R1dt

i.e. Vo(t) = -1/R1C Vi(t)/R1dt

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5. Differentiator:
It consists of a capacitor in the inverting R

terminal – 1 of the inverting configuration.
I2(t)
In which V2 = 0 = V1. Vc(t)
1
Vi(t) -
V1
I1(t)
So, from alongside figure, we have: A=1 Vo(t)
Vi(t) – Vc(t) – V1 = 0
+
Therefore V2 = 0 2
Vi(t) = Vc(t)
Since;
i1(t) = C dVc(t)/dt
i.e. i1(t) = C dVi(t)/dt
Again,
V1 – i2(t)R – Vo(t) = 0
i.e.Vo(t) = - i2(t)R
i.e Vo(t) = -RC dVi(t)/dt
6. Adder:
R1 I1
From the alongside figure: V1
Rf
i1 = (Vi – V1)/R1 = V1/R1 R2 I2
V2
Similarly; i i
R3 -
I3 o V1
V3
i2 = V1/R2,
Vo
R4 I4
i3 = V2/R3, V4
V2 = 0
i4 = V3/R4, +
in = Vn/Rn,

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At junction o;
i = i1 + i2 + i3 + … + in-1 + in
= V1/R1 + V1/R2 + V2/R3 + … + Vn-1/Rn-1 + Vn/Rn
Again from loop equation.
V1 – iRf – Vo = 0
i.e. Vo – iRf
Therefore;
Vo = -{ V1Rf/R1 + V1Rf/R2 + V2Rf/R3 + … + Vn-1Rf/Rn-1 + VnRf/Rn}
Where,
Rf/R1, Rf/R2, Rf/R3 … Rf/Rn-1, Rf/Rn are known as the weights of V1, V2, V3 … Vn-1, Vn respectively.
If R1 = R2 = R3 … Rn-1 = Rn, then
Vo = -(V1 + V2 + V3 + … + Vn-1 + Vn)
Op-amp summing amplifier are also called mixers.
7. Subtractor:
Op-amp can be used in Rf
subtracting mode. The alongside

figure shows a circuit that can i
R1 1
Vi1 -
provide the difference between two V1
inputs. i1
A=1 Vo
From figure, we have: V2
Vi2 +
V2 = R3  Vi2 2
(R2 + R3) i2 R3
Since, V1 = V2;
Therefore,
V1 = R3  Vi2
(R2 + R3)

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As;
Vi1 – i1R1 – V1 = 0;
i.e. i1 = (Vi1 – V1)/R1 and i1 = i2;
So, from another loop equation;

V1 – iRf – Vo = 0
i.e. Vo = V1 - iRf
= R3  Vi2 - (Vi1 – V1)  Rf
( R2 + R3) R1
= R3  Vi2 - Vi1  Rf + R3  Rf  Vi2
( R2 + R3) R1 (R2 + R3) R1
For this case, we have:

Rf/R1 = R3/R2
Therefore,
Vo = R3/R2  Vi2 - Rf  Vi1 + R3/R2  Rf  Vi2
(1+R3/R2) R1 (1+R3/R2) R1
Rf/R1  Vi2 - Rf  Vi1 + Rf/R1  Rf  Vi2
(1+Rf/R1) R1 (1+Rf/R1) R1
Rf  Vi2 – Rf  Vi1 + Rf  Rf Vi2
(R1+Rf) R1 (R1+Rf) R1
R1Rf + Rf2  Vi2 - Rf  Vi1
R1(R1+Rf) R1
Rf(R1+Rf)  Vi2 - Rf  Vi1
R1(R1+Rf) R1
i.e. Vo = Rf/R1(Vi2 – Vi1)
If Rf = R1, then
Vo = Vi2 – Vi1
8. Comparator:
Vin -
Vo Comparators are similar to Op-amp except that open loop gain is
VR +
made longer by including positive feedback in the internal circuit. Due
Vo to very large open loop gain, output voltage essentially provides digital
Vmax operation. There are only two possible outputs, they are Vmax and
Vmin.
VR
Vin
When, Vin > VR then Vo = Vmax

Vmin Vin < VR then Vo = Vmin

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9. Instrumentation Amplifier:
It is a dedicated differential
+ R2 R4
amplifier with extremely high input
1
impedance and its gain can be -
controlled by a single internal or
R1
external resistor. It consists of two
stage amplifier. The first stage offers Vout
Rg Vo1 3
very high input impedance to both
R1
input signals allows setting the gain
with a resistor. The second stage is
differential amplifier with output, - R3 R5
2
negative feedback and ground
+
connection for further amplification.
Fig: Instrumentation Amplifier
Let; V2 > V1, then V2 – V1 = IgRg
Therefore, Ig = (V2 – V1)/Rg
Now;
Vo1 = Ig(2R1 + Rg) = (2R1+Rg) (V2 – V1)/Rg
Therefore, Vo1 = (1-2R1/Rg)Vin
The gain of amplifier is constant but can be changed by varying the external resistance Rg. Op
amp – 1 and op amp – 2 act as a buffer with unit gain for common mode signal and with a gain of
(1+2R1/Rg) for differential input of V1 and V2.
The circuit has high input impedance since op amp – 1 and op amp – 2 operate in non-inverting
mode for common mode signal.

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Digital to Analog (D/A) Conversion
Digital to analog conversion involves translation of digital information into equivalent analog
information and this is accomplished by the use of digital to analog converter (DAC). DACs are
used whenever the output of digital circuit has to provide an analog voltage or current to drive an
analog device. For example:
- Adjusting the motor speed

- Temperature of furnace
- Controlling almost any physical variable.
DAC is often referred to as decoding device. Basically, D/A conversion is the process of taking a
value represented in digital code and converting it into a voltage or current which is proportional to
the digital value.
Precision Reference Supply

D3 20R I3
LSB D Rf
L
O D2 21R I2
G C
I
I -
D1 22R I1
C
B
Vout
I/P 23R Op-amp
D0 I0 Analog O/P
MSB A
+
Fig: DAC Circuitry
The basic configuration of a simple DAC is shown in above figure, which consists of a precision
resistor ladder network, a reference precision voltage supply, logic inputs, semiconductor switches
and an operational amplifier. The inputs A, B, C, D are binary inputs, which are assumed to have
values of either 0V (low) or 8V (high).
When input  8V (high), the switches close the point and connects a precision reference supply
to the input resistor.
When input  0V (low), the switches are open. The reference voltage produces a very stable,
precise voltage required for generating an accurate analog output.
If all switches are closed:
I = I0+ I1 + I2 + I3 ………….. (i)

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Therefore,
Vout = -I  Rf
= -Rf (I0+ I1 + I2 + I3)
= -Rf[Vref(1/23R + 1/22R + 1/21R + 1/20R)]
= -Vref. Rf(D0/23R + D1/22R + D2/21R + D3/20R)
= -Vref. Rf (20D0 + 21D1 + 22D2 + 23D3) ……… (ii)
23R
Where, D0, D1, D2 & D3 are the position of switches.
i.e. Low Input  OFF State
High Input  ON State
Therefore, for Rf = R; equation.. (ii) becomes:
Vout = -Vref (20D0 + 21D1 + 22D2 + 23D3) ……… (ii)

23
Where, the equation … (ii) gives the analog output equivalent to digital inputs fed to the
converter. This is an example of 4-bit D/A converter.
For n-bit D/A converter, the above equation becomes:
Vout = -Vref (20D0 + 21D1 + 22D2 + 23D3 + ………..+ 2n-1Dn-1)

2n-1
In this converter, a summing amplifier is used to weigh the input voltage in digital form to
produce the corresponding analog voltage. This approach is not satisfactory for large number of bits
because it requires too much precision in the summing resistors. A 12-bit DAC of this type would
require the largest weighted resistors to be 211 (2048 * Smallest register value). So this approach is
impractical for large number of bits.

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R-2R Binary ladder Network
A DAC using R-2R ladder network with 4-input voltages, representing 4-bits of digital data and
dc voltage output is illustrated in the figure below.
LSB
L D
O I3 2R
G
I D3
C
C R Rf
I2 2R
I D2
N B I
-
P R
I1 2R
U Vout
D1 Op-amp
T A Analog
S MSB R Output
I0 2R +
D0
R
Fig: R-2R Ladder Circuitry
The output current ‘I’ depends on the positions of the four switches and the digital inputs D0, D1,
D2 and D3 control the states of the switches. The current is allowed to flow through an op-amp
current-to-voltage converter to give Vout.
If all switches are closed, then
I = I0+ I1 + I2 + I3 ………….. (i)
Therefore,
Vout = -I  Rf
= -Rf (I0+ I1 + I2 + I3)
= -Rf[Vref(1/24R + 1/23R + 1/22R + 1/21R)]
= -Vref. Rf (1/23R + 1/22R + 1/21R + 1/20R)
2R
= -Vref. Rf (D020 + D121 + D222 + D323) …….. (ii)
24R

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Where, D0, D1, D2 & D3 are the position of switches.

i.e. Low Input  OFF State
High Input  ON State
Therefore, for Rf = R; equation.. (ii) becomes:
Vout = -Vref (D020 + D121 + D222 + D323)

24
For n-bit D/A converter of this type, the above equation becomes:
Vout = -Vref (D020 + 21 + D1 22D2 + D323 + ………+ Dn-12n-1 + Dn2n)

24
Example:
1. A D/A converter have 6 bits and a reference voltage of 10 V. Calculate the minimum
value of R such that the maximum value of output current does not exceed 10 mA. Find
also the smallest quantized value of output current.
Solution:
Since, the maximum output current Imax is given by:
Imax = ER (2n-1)
2n-2 R
The minimum value of R = ER (2n-1)
2n-2 Imax
= 10 (26-1)
(25×10 ×10-3)
= 1969  = 2 K
So, Current with LSB = ER/(2n-1R)
= 10/(25×2000) = 156 A
2. Consider a 6-bit D/A converter with a resistance of 320 K in LSB position. The
converter is designed with weighted resistive network. The reference voltage is 10V. The
output of the resistive network is connected to an op-amp with a feedback resistance of 5
K. What is the output voltage for a binary input of 111.010?
Solution:
Output Current (Io) = ER/R [dn-1 + (dn-2/2) + ……. + (d1/2n-2)+ (d0/2n-1)]
Since, n = 6
Resistance in LSB = 2n-1R
320 K = 25R
 R = 10 K
Hence, the O/P current (Io) = 10/(10×103)[1×1 + 1×(1/2) + 1×(1/4) + 0×(1/8) + 1×(1/16) + 0×(1/32)]
= 1.8125 mA
Output Voltage (Eo) = -IoRf
= -1.8125×10-35×55×103
= -9V

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Analog to Digital (A/D) Conversion
The process of changing an analog signal to an equivalent digital signal is accomplished with the
help of an analog-to-digital converter (ADC); e.g. and ADC is used to convert an analog signal from
a transducer into an equivalent digital signal.
Measuring some physical quantity such as temperature, pressure, position, rotational speed, or
flow rate etc are usually found in analog form and they need to convert in digital form for the shake
of simplicity. ADC is often referred to as an encoding device, as it is employed for encoding signals
for entry into a digital system.
The A/D conversion is a process of converting an analog input voltage into an equivalent digital
signal. Hence the maximum permissible rate of change of analog voltage and maximum permissible
frequency of analog voltage should be fed to ADC.
As, V = Vm sinωt
So, dV/dt = ωVmsinωt
For t  0;
dV/dt = maximum
i.e. dV = ωVm = 2лfVm

dt max
If Vmax is full scale range of converter and Tcon be the conversion time of ADC then for the error,
we have no more than one LSB.
i.e. dV ≤ Vmax
dt max 2nTcon
i.e. 2лfVm ≤ Vmax

2nTcon
Now, For Vm = Vmax
i..e. f ≤ 1
2n+1
лTcon

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Sampling
The operation that transforms continuous time signal into discrete time signal is known as the
sampling process. The main purpose of signal sampling is efficient use of data processing and data
transmission unit.
In sampling process, the continuous time signal is multiplied by a train of pulse of unit
magnitude. Once the continuous time signal is converted into discrete time signal, there is no record
of what the signal was doing in between the sample points. For sufficiently low frequency, signal
can be assumed that missing data falls on straight lines between two known sample points.
Analog Signal Unit Train Pulse Discrete Signal
In order not to lose the identity of the continuous time signal, when it is sampled, the sampling
theorem states that, “If the highest frequency content in the input signal is fn in Hz, then the input
signal can be recovered without distortion, if it is sampled at the rate of 2fn sample per second.” This
rate is known as Nyquiest Rate, i.e.; fs ≥ 2fn. If the sampling frequency is smaller compared to
frequency of input signal then the reconstructed signal wave form is different than the original
signal.
Sample & Hold Circuit
A sampler is a digital system which converts a continuous time signal into a discrete time signal.
The hold circuit holds the value of sampled pulse over a specified period of time. Sample and hold
circuit is necessary in ADC to produce a number that accurately represents the input signal ate the
sampling instant.
Fig: Sampling CIrcuit
Hold
- Drop
Vout
-
Sample & Hold
+ Effect
Vin +
Pulse
Width
Sampler
Aperture time
Fig: Sample & Hold Effect in O/P

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Quantization
The main functions involved in ADC are sampling, holding, quantizing and coding. When the
value of any sampled signals falls between two permitted output states, it must be road on the
permitted state nearest the actual value of the input signal.
The process of representing a continuous or analog signal by finite number of discrete state is
called quantization. The standard number system used for processing the digital signal is binary
number system. In this system, the code group consists of n-pulses, each indicating 0 or 1. The
quantization level (Q) is the range between adjacent decision points and is given by:
Q = Full Scale Range

2n
Where, LSB of digital signal is quantization level.
v
+Q/2
Q
t
-Q/2
Fig: Quantization Level Fig: Quantization Error
Quantization Error:
When the input to the quanitzer is moved through its full scale range and subtracted from the
discrete output levels, the error signal is obtained as shown in figure known as quantization error.
The rms value of quantization error is given by: Eq = Q/2√3
Quantization error is due to the fact that bits in the digital world are finite. ADC results in finite
resolution the analog signal must be rounded off to a quantization level. The error varies from 0 to
±Q/2; no matter how many bits are used there is always some quantization error in ADC.
Aperture Time:
In order to perform the operation of quantizing and coding a signal, and A/D converter requires
an aperture time. The use of a sample and hold circuit provides a very small time for taking a very
rapid sample of signal and then holding its value till it is converted.

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Types of Analog-to-Digital Converter:
Out of many other methods of analog-to-digital conversion, we will discuss the following types:
- Successive Approximation ADC

- Digital Ramp ADC
- Dual Ramp ADC
- Flash Type ADC
Successive Approximation ADC
This is one of the most widely used methods of A/D conversion. Though it ahs complex
circuitry, it has much shorter conversion time.
This type of ADC makes direct comparison between and unknown input signal and a reference
signal. The basic arrangement of a successive approximation ADC is shown in figure below. It can
be employed at conversion speeds of up to about 1,00,000 samples per second at resolution of up to
16-bits.
Start
Clear Bits
Start at MSB
Comparator Clock
Register
+ M L
Bit = 1
Sample Logic
S S
Pulse Circuit B B
-
If Yes
Go to Next Bit Vb > V a Clear Bit to 0
VD
DAC
Reference
Voltage
If All
Fig: Basic Diagram of Successive Approximation ADC Bits are
Checked
Fig: Flow - Diagram Stop

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Working Principle:
A generalized block diagram and flow chart of successive approximation ADC are shown in
above figure.
- First of all, both the control and the distribution register are set with 1 in the MSB and 0 in all bits.
- Distribution register indicates the starting of a cycle in first stage.
- The control register shows 1000, which causes an output voltage at the DAC one half of the
reference supply.
- At the same time, a pulse enters the time delay circuitry.
- By the time that the DAC and Comparator have settled, this delayed pulse is gated with the
comparator output.
- When the next MSB is set in control register, the MSB remains in 1 state or it is reset to 0
depending upon the comparator output.
- The procedure repeats itself until the final approximation has been corrected and the distribution
register indicates the end of the conversion.
Digital Ramp ADC

A digital ramp ADC is shown in figure below. It consists of a digital counter, a DAC, an analog
comparator and a control AND gate. The digital counter advances from a zero count while the
reference voltage VD-output of DAC driven by the counter, increases on voltage increment for each
count step. A comparator circuit receiving both DAC’s output and analog input voltage VA provides
a signal to stop the count when VD rises above VA. The counter value ate this time is the digital
output.
Clock
VA + VD < VA = 1
VD > VA = 0
Analog
Sample
-
Reference Ramp
Signal VD
Reset
Analog Input
Voltage VA
VD Count
DAC Pulse
Reference
Voltage
Digital
Counter Count Count
Start Stop
Count Interval
MSB Digital Output LSB
Fig: Logic Diagram of Digital Ramp ADC Fig: Output Wave Form

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Dual Ramp ADC

This is a popular method of converting an analog voltage into a digital value. The block
diagram and wave diagram of a basic dual-ramp ADC are shown in figure below.
VO
i 1
VA Integrator ii
2
iii
3
Input
Comparator A B C
Sample
a
Fixed Time b t
VO Interval
c
Legend:
I: Larger I/P Voltage
II: Normal I/P Voltage
III: Smaller I/P Voltage
VD Control Logic
Reference Clock A: Smaller Digital Count
Input
B: Normal Digital Count
C: Larger Digital Count
1,2,3: Fixed Discharge Rate
Digital Counter
a, b, c, are count intervals correspond
to A, B & C respectively
Fig: Logic Diagram of Dual Ramp ADC
The analog voltage to be converted into a digital signal is applied through an electronic switch
to an integrator or ramp generator circuit, which essentially a constant current is charging a capacitor
to give a linear-ramp voltage. The counter operated during both positive and negative slope intervals
to the integrator gives the digital output
Working Principle:
- The reference voltage and the analog input voltage must be of opposite polarity.
- The input voltage is integrated for a fixed input sample time.
- It is then discharged ate a fixed rate and the time required is measured by a counter.
- The control logic gives (i) Reset and (ii) Convert command to the counter.
- If a convert command is received by counter, it resets to all zeros and the switch connects the
input voltage to the integrator.
- The output from the comparator is designed so that ate this time it will permit the counter to
count up for an output from the integrator.
- On the next count after the converter has counted all 1s (i.e. the next count will cause it to go all
zeros and start over again), the switch changes its position and connects the reference voltage to
the integrator.
- The integrator now integrates the opposite polarity voltage, which causes the output to decrease
towards zero voltage. In the mean time, the counter is counting up from zero again.
- When the output of the integrator goes to zero, it causes the comparator to switch its output,
thereby stopping the counter via control logic.
- The binary number in the counter at this time is proportional to the time taken to integrate down
from its starting point to zero.
- Therefore, the binary count is proportional to the input voltage.
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Summary
For a fixed time interval (usually the full count range of the counter), the analog input voltage
connected to the integrator raises the voltage in the comparator to some positive level as shown in
characteristic curve. It is obvious that at the end of fixed time interval the voltage from the integrator
is greater for greater input voltages. Ate the end of the fixed count interval, the count is set to zero
and the electronic switch connects the integrator to a reference or fixed input. The integrator output
or input to the comparator then decreases at a fixed rate as shown in the same figure. The counter
advances this time. The integrator output voltage decreases at a fixed rate until it drops below the
comparator reference voltage, ate which the control logic receives a signal to stop the count. The
count shown by the counter at this time represents the digital output of the ADC.
Flash Type ADC
The resistor net and comparators provide an input to the combinational logic circuit, so the
conversion time is just he propagation delay through the network. It is not limited by the clock rate
or some convergence sequence. It is the fastest type of ADC available but requires a comparator for
each value of output (63 for 6-bit, 255 for 8-bit etc). Such ADCs are available in IC form up to 8-bit
and 10-bit flash ADCs (1023 comparators) are planned. The encoder logic executes a truth table to
convert the ladder of inputs to the binary number output.
Vref Vin
Thermometric
1k Code
+
7
-
1k +
E
-
6 N
C
1k +
O MSB D
5 I
-
D G
E I
1k +
4 R T
-
I
L
L
1k +
LSB
3 O O/P
-
G
1k + I
-
2 C
1k +
-
1
Comparators
Fig: Flash Type ADC

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Example:
1. Find the successive approximation A/D output for a 4 bit converter to a 8.217 V input if the
reference is 5 V.
Solution:
Let the 4-bit A/D converter has its bit element given by d3d2d1d0
(i) Setting d3 = 1 Output = 5/21 = 2.5 V
Since, 3.217 > 2.5  Setting d3 = 1
(ii) Setting d2 = 1 Output = 2.5 + 5/22 = 3.75

Since, 3.217 < 3.75  Setting d2 = 0
(iii) Setting d1 = 1  Output = 2.5 + 0 + 5/23 = 3.125

Since, 3.125 < 3.217  Setting d1 = 1
(iv) Setting d0 = 1  Output = 3.125 + 5/24 = 3.4375

Since, 3.4375 > 3.217  Setting d0 = 0
Thus output of 4-bit SAR converter is: 1010
2. A 5-bit converter is used for a d.c. voltage range of 0 – 10 V. Find the weight of MSB and
LSB. Also the exact range of the converter and the error. Find the error if a 10 bit
converter is used.
Solution:
Range of MSB = ½ × Range of Converter = ½ × 10 = 5 V
Range of LSB = (½)5× Range of Converter = ½ × 10 = 0.3125 V
So, the exact range of the converter is given by:

Eo = ER (dn-1×2-1 + dn-2×2-2 + ……. + d1×2-n-1 + d0×2-n)
= 10 (1×2-1 + 1×2-2 + 1×2-3 + 1×2-4 + 1×2-5)
= 9.6875 V
Error = 10 – 9.6875
= 0.3125
= 3.215 %
Again, the exact range of the converter when 10 bits are used is:
= 10 (1×2-1 + 1×2-2 + 1×2-3 + 1×2-4 + 1×2-5 + 1×2-6 + 1×2-7 + 1×2-8 + 1×2-9 + 1×2-10)
= 9.99 V
Error = 10 – 9.99
= 0.01
= 0.1%
Thus if a large number of bits are used, the error reduces considerably. But the use of
converter with a large number of bits results in higher cost of the converter itself and also of
the system where it is used. Also, a higher number of bits add to the complexity of the
system.
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Grounding & Shielding
A. Grounding:
Grounding provides safety and signal reference. The principle of grounding is to minimize the
voltage differential between the instrument and a reference point. The following figure shows
grounding and illustrates two different configurations.
Circuit A Circuit B
 V=0
Ground Current
Ground Structure
- +
Ground Potential not equal to zero

Fig: Single Point Ground
Circuit A Circuit B
dV=0
Low Impedance Ground Plate
- +
Ground Potential = 0
Fig: Multi Point Ground with Low Impedance Ground Structure
Safety grounding seeks to reduce the voltage differential between exposed conducting surfaces,
while signal referencing seeks to reduce the voltage differential between reference points. Obviously
a dynamic tension exists between these concerns. Safety grounding should have many connections
between exposed conducting surfaces and signal referencing should have one connection between
reference points at low frequency.

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+
Power
Supply Circuit A Circuit B Circuit C
-
Fig: Series Return Connection
+
Power
-
Single Point Return

Fig: Series Return Connection
Bus Bar of Return Plane
+
Power
-
Fig: Multi Point Return
Ground and Return Symbol:
Safety Ground Symbol

A connection to an electrical ground structure like building steel or an
isolated ground wire.
Signal Ground Symbol

A connection to a chassis that does not normally conduct current.
Signal Ground Symbol

A conductor that sustains return current for signal and power.

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B. Shielding:
Shielding either prevents noise energy from coupling between circuits or suppresses it. The
energy coupling may be through magnetic flux; electric field or electromagnetic wave propagation.
Because prevention is cheaper and effective than suppression, shielding also prevents noise
coupling.
Types:
- Inductive Shielding
- Capacitive Shielding
- Electromagnetic Shielding
B.1 Inductive Shielding:
It is concerned with self-inductance and mutual-inductance. It reduces noise coupling by

reducing or recording magnetic flux. Magnetic noise coupling depends on the loop area and current
within both the emitting and receiving circuits.
The most effective inductive shielding minimizes loop area. The cost of manufacturing makes
magnetically permeable enclosure an even less desirable solution for inductive shielding. Twisting
the signal and return conductors in a cable reduces the mutual inductance and improves the shunt
capacitance.
Twisted Pair Cable

+
Signal
Source Ic
-
Stray
Capacitance Loop Area
Earth Ground
Fig: Inductive Shielding
Twisting the wire and running it close to the ground will reduce the common-mode current Ic by
reducing the loop area for inductive coupling.
B.2 Capacitive Shielding:
It reduces noise coupling by reducing or rerouting the electrical charge in an electrical field.
Capacitive shields shunt to ground charge that is capacitively coupled as shown in figure. At low
frequencies less than 1 MHz, we should connect a capacitive shield at one point if the signal circuit
is grounded. Multiple connections can form ground loops. Furthermore we can improve capacitive
shielding by reducing the following:

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- Noise Voltage & Frequency

- Signal Impedance
- Floating Metal Surfaces
Stray Capacitive
Coupling Susceptible
Circuit
Noise
Source
Faraday Shield Susceptible

Circuit
Noise
Source
Noise Driven Shield for

Source Noise Sensitive
Electronics
A Single Point
Connection
Fig: Different Cases of Capacitive Shielding

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B.3 Electromagnetic Shielding:
It reduces emission and reception. Emission sources include lightening, discharges, radio and
television transmitters and high frequency circuits.
Electromagnetic interference (EMI) always begins as conductive, becomes radiative and ends as
conductive as given in figure below:
Complete
360o Seal
Circuit Circuit
Enclosure Enclosure
A B
Cable Shield
Fig: Electromagnetic Shield
Several techniques can reduce EMI.
- Reduced bandwidth (Longer wavelength)

- Good layout and signal routine
- Shielded enclosures
C. Filtering:
Filtering reduces conductive noise coupling. A filter can either block or pass energy by three
criteria.
- Frequency
- Mode (Common or Differential)
- Amplitude (Surge Suppression)
C.1 Frequency:
A low pass filter passes low frequency energy and rejects high frequency while a high pass
filter passes high frequency energy and rejects low frequency. Time average and time
synchronization filters are frequency selective as well.
C.2 Mode:
Common mode noise injects current in the same direction in both the signal and return lines.
Differential mode noise injects current in opposite direction in the signal and return lines.

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Ic Id
Common Mode Differential Mode
Signal
Source Load
Fig: Common Mode Filter
+
Vdm/2
- Signal
Sources Load
+
Vdm/2
-
Vdm
Icm + -
Fig: Differential Mode Filter
C.3 Amplitude:
An amplitude-selective filter generally removes large transients or spikes of noise energy from a
signal line. Surge suppressors that are built into ac power strip are amplitude-selective filters to
protect sensitive equipments.

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Chapter 5
Signal Transmission
Transmission Media:
The transmission media or channel is a physical medium used to pass the signal from transmitter
to receiver. Essential features of the transmission media is that it introduces multiplicative (multipath
fading) and additive (natural & manmade) noise to the signal picked up by the receiver.
Transmission media may be wire line or wireless.
A. Wire line Channels:

For landline telemetry wire line channel are used. This type of channel is extensively used in
telephony, computer networks as a link between the transmitter and antenna in wireless
communication etc. this channel uses a pair of wires, co-axial cables or optical fibers as the medium.
In order to select the transmission media following points may be considerable.
- Low attenuation
- Impedance matching
- High SNR
- Not susceptible to radio frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic interference (EMI);
such that less number of repeaters are required.
- High data rate and high bandwidth.
A.1 Co-axial Cable: PVC Jacket Conductor Insulator

Mainly co-axial cables are of two types; Aluminum Sleeve
- Thick Co-axial Cable Copper Center Conductor
- Thin Co-axial Cable
Characteristics of Thick Co-axial Cable (10Base5):

- Device attachment possible at every 2.5 m.
- Maximum cable length is 500 m.
- Maximum cable length with repeater is 2500 m.
- Transmission rate is 10 Mbps.
- Support base band transmission.
- Maximum delay per segment is 2156 nsec.
- Uses 50 ohms terminators.
Characteristics of Thin Co-axial Cable (10Base2):

- Construction is similar to that of thick co-axial cable.
- Device attachment possible at every 0.5 m.
- Maximum cable length is 85 m.
- Data transmission rate is 10 Mbps.
- Support base band transmission.
- Maximum delay per segment is 950 nsec.
- Uses 50 ohms connectors.

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A.2 Twisted Pair Cable:
Characteristics
- Maximum cable length: 100 m.
- Transmission rate: 10 to 100 Mbps. PVC Twisted
Jacket Pair
- Support base band transmission. Cables
- Maximum delay per segment: 1000 nsec.
- No external terminators.
A.3 Optical Fiber Channel:

Protective Layer
A portion of fiber is shown in Cladding (100-150µm)
alongside figure and a general Core (3-50µm)
optical fiber communication
system is given below.
Information Electrical Optical

Source Transmit Source
Optical Fiber
Cable
Optical Electrical
Destination
Detector Recieve
Optical Fiber Communication System
The information source provides and electrical signal, which drives an optical source to give
modulation of the light wave carrier. The optical source (LED or LASER) provides the electrical to
optical conversion. The transmission medium is and optical fiber cable. The optical detector (APD
or PIN Photodiode) demodulates the optical carrier.
Basis Of Light Propagation In Optical Fiber:
? 2
? 2
? 1
? 1 ? 1
? 2
Fig: I Fig: II Fig: III

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When light propagation from denser medium with refractive index η1 incidents on a rarer
medium with refractive index η2; (η 1 > η 2) it bends away from the normal, then according to
Snell’s law:
η1sinФ1 = η2sinФ2
i.e. sinФ1/ sinФ2 = η2/η1 ……….. (i)
The corresponding angle of incidence in the denser medium for which the angle of refraction is
90o is called critical angle (Фc). When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, almost
all incident light (99.9%) reflects back to the denser medium. This phenomenon is called the total
internal reflection.
Then, equation (i) becomes: Cladding (? 2)
sinФC/sin90o = η2/η1
Air Air
i.e. sinФC = η2/η1 …….. (ii) Core (? 2)
Cladding (? 2)
In case of optical fiber cable the refractive index of core (η1) is greater than that of cladding (η2).
The light entering from air is incident on the core-cladding interface as an angle greater than the
critical angle. Hence the light is propagated down the fiber with low loss.
B. Wireless Channels:
B.1 Radio channels:
Where longer distances greater than 1 km, are involved or where measurements have to made in
a missile or moving vehicle, it may be necessary to be radio frequency (RF) techniques to transmit
the signals.
- Radio waves are easy to generate, can travel distances and penetrate building easily.
- Widely used for data transmission both indoors and outdoors.
- Radio waves are omni directional, so that Tx and Rx does not have to be carefully aligned
physically.
- Radio waves frequency generally ranges from 104 Hz to 106Hz.
- Radio links are used for radio (Short Wave, FM) and television (VHF, UHF) broadcasting.
- It is commonly deployed with air borne instrumentated flight vehicles, rockets, unmanned space
crafts etc.
Frequency 104 106 108 1010 1012 1014 1016 1018 1022 1024
Waves Radio µ - Wave Infrared Visible Light UV Rays X - Rays Gamma Rays

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B.2 Microwave Channels:
This is a special case of radio transmission, employ high frequencies several bands of 890 MHz
to 30 GHz, and have been allocated for microwave transmission. Use of microwave media has
increased due to heavy requirement of chemicals in industries like power and gas types of
microwave.
(a) Terrestrial Microwave

(b) Satellite Microwave
(a) Terrestrial Microwaves:
- Usually operate in low GHz range (typically between 4 to 6 and 21 to 30 GHz).

- Typical data rate for a single-frequency varying from (1 to 10 Mbps).
- Microwave links are susceptible to extend interference, jamming, attenuated by rain and fog.
(b) Satellite Microwaves:
- Usually operate between 11 to 14 GHz.

- Maximum capacity depends upon the bands used (less than or equal to 45 Mbps).
- it is subjected to a propagation delay ranging from 500 msec to more than 5 seconds.
- Also susceptible to external interference and affected by rain and fog.
Transmission Schemes
The data on the signal may be retained in an analog form during transmission or they may be
converted to digital before being to its destination.
A. Analog Transmission Scheme:
Analog signal can be sent directly from the transducer to the measuring/recording instruments
without any prior conditioning (amplification, filtering). This transmission method is the simplest
but is quite limited in its application. If the signal source and measuring instruments are very close
(within 1-2 meters) and the signal levels are not too small (greater than 100 mV), the technique
may be sufficiently effective to yield satisfactory results.
However, if the signal levels are small (less than 100 mV) and if the instrument must be located
at some distance from the measuring point (greater than 5 meters), the other two data transmission
methods are usually employed. They are:
1. Analog Voltage Transmission.

2. Analog Current Transmission.

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A.1 Analog Voltage Transmission:
Slider IA Channel
V
End Device
Receiving Terminal
Bourden
Gauge
Tube
Transmitting Terminal
- This is popular techniques if the distances are less than 30 meters.
- This is less expensive than analog current method as long as the distance limitation is not
exceeded.
- The low level signal from the source is amplified by an instrumentation amplifier (IA) placed
close to signal source.
- The output of the IA is a high level analog voltage signal of 0-5 V or 0-10 V.
- Since, they possess substantially large amplitudes in systems that are well designed against
external noise pickup. Such high level voltage signals don’t suffer much degradation during
transmission.
- For greater distances, cable resistance, grounding problems etc; reduce the effectiveness of these
type techniques.
A.2 Analog Current Transmission:
DC Power
Process End
Supply
Transmitter Device
24V/48V
Measurand Sensor
- This method uses an analog dc current signal with a value of 4 mA corresponding to zero signals
and 20 mA representing full scale.
- The current signal can be transmitted for distances up to 2 miles and this allows measurements of
parameters like temperature, pressure etc to be brought into control room from remote plant
locations.
- Different loads can be connected to the transmitting circuit because the circuits are designed to
work into any load from 0 ohm to 1000 ohms.
- Since, the current in a series circuit is constant everywhere along the path; there is no
degradation of the signal with distance as there is when transmitting voltage signals.

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B. Digital Transmission Scheme:
Analog data transmission system suffers from three basic demerits, they are:
1. Limited distance (30 m in analog voltage transmission and 3000 m in analog current
transmission scheme).
2. Prone to degradation by interference signal.
3. Must be converted to digital form fro digital computers and records to handle the data.
Measurand data can also be converted to and transmitted in digital form. By using various
transmission techniques, digital data can be sent to he destination points of virtually unlimited
distance. Data transmission can be performed in a highly efficient and virtually errorless manner;
elimination the problem of reduced accuracy that results from interference. Finally digital data
can be transmitted in the format required by the receiving digital computers or display device.
There are mainly five types of standard interface which are most commonly encountered
when transmitting digital data between instruments and other digital devices. They are:
(i) Parallel Interface

(ii) Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) Interface
(iii) IEEE-488 Bus Interface
(iv) CAMAC Interface
(v) Serial, Asynchronous Interface.
B.1 Parallel Interface:
- This is general interface method. Data Bits

- Digital data transmitted along paths that T
R R
may physically consists of wires, micro- A E
waves, radio waves etc. N C
S E
M I
- Such paths (data buses) usually consists of I Control Lines V
not only lines for carrying measured data T E
T R
but also additional lines whose function is E
to carry out the control signals between R
instruments and digital devices. Fig: Parallel Interface
- The digital data that are carried on such buses are encoded in a digital format (BCD, 8-Bit Word
or ASCII).
- If all the bits that make up a digital word are transmitted simultaneously, this is known as
‘Parallel Transmission’. In this system, each bit of the data-word requires its own data lines and
together with control lines appears as the interface shown in above figure.
Parallel transmission can be either synchronous or asynchronous.

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1. Synchronous System:
In this system a clock pulse is also transmitted in parallel with the data. The rate of parallel
synchronous can be very high. The distance of transmission is limited to about 12 ft; and
synchronization is costly and complex to implement. It is employed for data transfer within
computers and from computer to computer.
2. Asynchronous System:
It is performed without the use of synchronizing clock pulses. It requires handshake signal
(‘Data Ready’) between the transmitting and receiving devices to ensure that valid data are
transferred.
B.2 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD) Interface:
- The BCD interface is a parallel asynchronous interface that originated when attempts were made
to connect digital instruments to other digital devices.
- In this system of interface the output of ADC is in the instrument is fed to a series of 4-Bit
Counters, which encode the digital data into BCD words. The output of counter together with
control and handshake forms the BCD interface.
- The main disadvantage of this system is that for each bit of added resolution, 4-parallel lines
must be added.
- The second disadvantage is that the computer needs to convert the BCD data to ASCII data
before processing it.
- It is designed only to send data in uni-direction.
Seven Segment Displays
Measurand BCD BCD BCD

ADC Counter Counter Counter
Analog Signal
M B
S C
B D
I
N
T
L E
S R
B F
A
Control C
Circuit E
Fig: Binary Coded Decimal Interface

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B.3 IEEE-488 Bus Interface:
- The IEEE - 488 standards defines a byte-serial, 8-bit parallel, asynchronous type instrument
interface.
- The IEEE - 488 standards is a document that describes the rules, specifications, timing
relationships, physical characteristics etc of an interfacing technique that allows digital
instruments and devices to be interconnected.
- It is a hardware (wires, connectors etc) that is used to implement the standard.
- Sixteen signals line comprise the complete IEEE – 488 bus structure as shown below.
1 D 1
2 A 2
T
3 A 3
4 4
5 L 5
I
6 N 6
7 E 7
8 S 8
Hand-Shake Lines
1 DAV 1
2 NRFD 2
3 NDAC 3
Bus Management Lines
4 IFC 4
5 ATN 5
6 REN 6
7 SRQ 7
8 EOI 8
Fig: IEEE – 488 Interface
Legend:
Bus Management Lines
EOI – End or Identity
SRQ – Service Request
REN – Remote Enable
ATN – Attention
IFC – Interface Clear
Hand-Shake Lines
NDAC – Not Data Accepted
NRFD – Not Ready For Data
DAV – Data Valid
Since, it is not guaranteed by the standard that instruments will send information coded in
this suggested manner, two IEEE – 488 interconnected instruments may always be able to talk to
each other, but they may not always be able to understand each other.

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B.4 CAMAC Interface:
- It can be used to transmit data in parallel, serial or byte-serial manner. It was originally designed
to meet the requirements of nuclear instrumentation labs.
- The basic word length in CAMAC system is 24 – bits.
- But when all control lines are added, a parallel CAMAC requires a 66 – wires interface.
- When data are transmitted by as serial CAMAC interface just two data lines are required and
only a nine-wire cable is needed.
- CAMAC I/O boxes are called CAMAC CRATES. The crate contains a power supply and up to
25 – plugs in modules.
- The fastest data transmission rates in CAMAC systems are achieved using parallel interfaces.
- Longer distance transmission up to 300 ft. ate equally high speeds can be performed using the
Parallel CAMAC Highway (66 – wire cable).
- For further longer distance transmission, date rates up to 5 Mbps can be achieved by using either
of the two serial transmission options (CAMAC – Serial Highway).
B.5 Serial Interface:
- Transmission of data over long distances becomes expensive if done in parallel fashion.
- If the data are transmitted serially, only one path is required, since the data are sent only on bit at
a time.
- Single serial data pack requires just two wires, only one transmitting processor to log the data out
and one receiving processor to log it in.
- Serial transmission interfaces operate either in simplex, half duplex or full-duplex modes.
Transmitter Receiver
Fig: Serial Data Transmission
- Serial transmission methods are characterized by how many bits per second they can transmit,
i.e. 1 bit/sec = 1 baud.
- Most serial interfacing in instrumentation system is done in an asynchronous manner rater than a
synchronous one.
- Although serial synchronous, transmission rates can be higher (9600 bauds) than asynchronous
serial rates, it has greater system complexity.
- Serial asynchronous methods are usually adequate for most instrumentation applications.
- Serial asynchronous are relatively slow because they require a handshake for each character of
data transfer.

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General Telemetry System

The signal or data must often be transmitted from the point of measurement to some other point
in the instrumentation system. For example, those measured data may need to be sent to display
devices, recording devices, computers or other processes controllers. In many systems the
destination may be quite far from the measurement point. The data must be transmitted ate the
required rate while preserving the desired accuracy.
Telemetry is the science of signal transmission and refers to the process by which signal from
transducer and signal conditioning equipments is transferred to a remote location.
A general telemetry system is shown in the figure below and consists of three basic components:
transmitter, channel and receiver.
Sensor
Meaurand
OR Transmitter Channel Receiver End Devices
Transducer
Fig: General Telemetry System
Telemetry may be defined as measurement at a distance. It is a technology, which enables a user

to collect data from several measurement points at inaccessible or inconvenient locations; transmit
that data to a convenient location and to present the several individual measurements in a usable
form.
- The primary detector (Sensor/Transducer) and the end device have the same position and
functional roles as in a generalized measurement system.
- The function of telemetry transmitter is to convert the output of a primary sensing element into
an electrical form and to transmit I over a telemetry channel.
- The signal is received by a receiver placed at a remote location. This signal is converted into a
usable form by the receiver and is indicated or recorded by an end device, which is graduated in
terms of the measurand.
Types:
- Land Line Telemetry

- Radio Frequency Telemetry

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A. Land Line Telemetry System:
A land line telemetry system requires a telemeter channel which is a physical link between the
telemeter transmitter and receiver. This physical link may be a cable, a specially laid out wire,
existing telephone and telegraph cables or power line carriers. It is in fact, a direct transmission of
information through cables and transmission lines. Direct transmission via cables employs current,
voltage, frequency, position or impulses to convey information.
The land line telemetry systems can be classified as:
- Voltage telemetry systems

- Current telemetry system
- Position telemetry system.
A.1 Position Telemetry System:
A position telemetry system transmits and reproduces the measured value of variable by
positioning variable resistors or other electrical components in a bridge circuit form so as to produce
proportional changes at both the transmitter and the receiver ends. This is known as bridge type
telemetry system.
- Figure shows two potentiometers, one at transmitting end and other at the receiving end.
- Two potentiometers are energized by a common power supply.
- The sliding contact at the transmitting end is positioned by the bourden tube as pressure is
applied to the latter.
- If the sliding contact at the receiving end is positioned until the centre zero, galvanometer
indicates zero, the position of the contact will assume the same position as the contact of the
transmitter.
- The receiving contact moves the pointer which indicates on the scale, the pressure which is being
measured (the scale is directly calibrated in terms of pressure).
- Principle – Same as that of wheat Stonebridge.
Telemetry Channel
Sliding
Contact
V
Bourden Centre Zero
Tube Galvanometer
Potentiometer Scale in KN/m2

Transmitting Terminal Receiving Terminal
Fig: Position Telemetry System

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B. Radio Frequency Telemetry System:
- RF telemetry is used in applications where there is no physical linked between the transmitting
and receiving stations. The link between the transmission station and the receiving station can
only be established through radio links.
- The rocket or unmanned space craft presents more obvious need for radio link based telemetry.
The vehicle in this case is too small to carry even one person, much less the entire team of
engineers and also a computer. Here RF telemetry monitors all information which enables the
team of engineers to evaluate performance of the test vehicle with the help of computer, while
the flight is in progress.
- RF telemetry is usually more suitable if the data is to be transmitted over distance greater than 1
km.
- Certain parts of RF spectrum have been allocated for telemetry and micro wave links above 4
MHz. radio waves at these frequencies tend to travel in straight line requiring repeater stations
with disc like antennas on high building and towers ever 30 to 60 km.
- The modulation methods used for transmission in RF telemetry are:
(i) Amplitude Modulation

(ii) Frequency Modulation
(iii) Phase Modulations
- Modulation is a process by which some low frequency signal is impressed on high frequency
monochromatic carrier signal. The low frequency signal usually the information bearing signal
and is called modulating or message signal.
A: 2.1 Amplitude Modulation (AM):

m(t)
In amplitude modulation the amplitude of high

frequency monochromatic carrier signal c(t) is t
varied according to the rate of change of
modulating signal m(t).
Message Signal
In other words, in this modulation technique c(t)
the amplitude of a carrier signal is varied by a
modulating voltage signal whose frequency is
much lower than that of the carrier. Formally, AM t
is defined as system of modulation in which the
amplitude of the carrier is proportional to the
Carrier Signal
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal
whereas the modulating signal is the output
voltage of a transducer which is generated on
account of application of the measurand. Emax Emin t
The modulation index is the term that

defines the depth of modulation.
Amplitude Modulated Signal
i.e. M.I. = (Emax - Emin)
(Emax + Emin)

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A: 2.2 Frequency Modulation (FM): m(t)
In frequency modulation the frequency of the

t
carrier signal is varied in accordance to that of
modulating signal. In frequency modulation, the Message Signal
c(t)
frequency deviation in the carrier signal is directly
proportional to the modulation signal m(t).
t
In other words, frequency modulation is

Carrier Signal
a system in which the amplitude of modulated
carrier is kept constant, while its frequency is varied
t
by the modulating signal.
Frequency Modulated Signal

The general equation of an unmodualted wave,
or carrier, can be written as:
x = A sin (t+)
Where, x – instantaneous value of current/voltage
A - amplitude of current/voltage
 - angular frequency, rad/sec
 - phase angle, rad
If any of these three parameters is varied in accordance with another signal, normally or a
lower frequency, then the second signal is called modulating signal, and the first is modulated by the
second. Amplitude modulation, already discussed, is achieved when amplitude A is varied, alteration
of phase angle f will yield, phase modulation. Finally, if the frequency of the carrier is made to vary,
frequency modulated waves are obtained.
The modulation index for FM is defined as:
M.I. = Maximum frequency deviation ()

Modulating frequency (fs)

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Unguided Media
For unguided media, transmission and reception are achieved by means of an antenna. For
transmission antenna radiates electromagnetic energy into the medium usually air and for reception
antenna picks up electromagnetic wave from the surrounding media. There are basically two types of
configuration for wireless transmission.
- Directional, and
- Omni Directional
For directional configuration the transmitting antenna puts out a focused electromagnetic beam;
the transmitter and receiver antenna must therefore be carefully aligned. In omni directional case, the
transmitted signal spread out in all directional and can be received by many antennas.
Frequency range of 30 MHz to 1 GHz is suitable for omni directional application and micro-
wave frequency range of 2 GHz to 40 GHz is suitable for point to point (directional) transmission.
A. Microwave Link:
A microwave link performs the same function as co-axial by using point to point microwave
transmission between repeaters. Microwave links require less number of power amplifier or repeater
than the co-axial cable over the same distance. Microwave link is commonly used for both voice and
data transmission. Common frequencies used for transmission are in the range of 2 - 40 GHz. The
higher the frequency used, the higher the potential bandwidth and therefore higher the potential data
rate.
As with any data transmission system the main source of loss is attenuation. For microwave link
the loss can be expressed as:
PL = 10 log (4πd/λ) 2
Where;
d – Distance between the transmitter and receiver antenna.
λ – Wave length
In microwave links, transmitter and receiver are placed about every 50 km.

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Receiving Transmitting
Antenna Antenna
Receiver
Power
Protection
Amplifier
Circuit
IF Amplifier Amplifier
Receiver Band Pass Transmitter Band Pass
& Limiter
Mixer Filter Mixer Filter
AGC
Band Pass 25 % Power 75 %

Filter Mixer Splitter
Shift µ – Wave
Oscillator Generator
Fig: Simplified Block Diagram of Microwave Link Carrier Chain
Legend:
IF – Intermediate Frequency
AGC – Automatic Gate Controller

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B. FM/FM Radio Telemetry:
The term FM/FM refers to the fact that two FM processes are employed. In the first process
analog signals are converted to propagation frequency by using voltage-to-frequency converter. Low
frequency range of 400 MHz – 70 GHz cannot be practically transmitted by radio propagation since
they would require antenna of very large size; because the size of the antenna must be in the order of
wave length to be transmitted so there is an additional FM to boost all the frequencies into the radio
frequency range.
1 400 Hz Sub Carrier

Band
Oscillation
Pass
FM 400 Hz
FM
Sum
Receiver Demodulator
2 560 Hz
560 Hz
Low Pass 6 Hz
Modulator
Filter Cut-Off
RF Data
Oscillator
Frequency
Multiplier
Power
Amplifier
18 70KHz
70KHz
Fig: FM/FM Radio Telemetry System

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Chapter 6
Output Devices
Output consists of the last stage of a measurement system. This stage consists of display devices
and recorders. The result of any measurement system must be displayed for instant observation or
for storage for further study or analysis. The output devices are also called data presentation devices.
The output devices may also be used as control devices using inverse transducers.
The choice between the display devices and recorders depends upon
 The expected use of the output
 The information content of output
A. Indicating Instruments:
The electrical indicating instruments are used extensively for measurement of current voltage
resistance and power. They are classified as:
 Analog Instruments
 Digital Instruments.
Analog Instruments:
It deals with the measurement of information in analog form. These instruments generally make
use of a dial and a pointer for this purpose; e.g. ammeter, voltmeter and wattmeter belong to this
category.
Depending upon the principle of operation analog instrument is categorized as:
- Magnetic Effect (Dynamometer type)

- Heating Effect
- Electrostatic Effect (Voltmeter type)
- Electromagnetic Effect (Wattmeter, Energy meters)
- Hall Effect (Flux meters, ammeters etc.)
Digital Instruments:
These instruments indicate the value of the measurand in the form of a decimal number. The
digital meters work on the principle of quantization. The analog measurand is first subdivided or
quantized into a number of small intervals up to many decimal places. They are:
- Segmental Display
- Dot Matrices
- Rear Projection Display
- Nixie Tube etc.

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Advantages of Digital Instruments:
- The display is directly in decimal numbers and therefore human errors are eliminated.
- The readings may be carried to any number of significant figures.
- The output is in digital form and can be directly fed into memory.
- Low power requirements.
Advantages of Analog Instruments:
- They are cheap and simple

- Commonly used for ordinary purpose.
Comparison between Digital & Analog Instruments:
1. Accuracy:
Best analog instruments rated 10.1% of full scale. Much greater accuracy can be achieved with
digital instruments.
2. Environmental Reaction:
Analog meter movements operate under a wide range of environments. Digital instruments are
relatively complex and have large number of parts, which react to change in temperature and
humidity.
3. Resolution:
In analog instruments the limit is one part in several hundreds. In digital instruments it is one part
in several thousands.
4. Power Requirements:
Digital instruments draw negligible power whereas analog instruments may load the circuit
under measurement.
5. Cost & Probability:
Analog instruments are low in cost and are extremely portable. On the other hand digital
instruments are not easily portable and require an external power source. However the
development of VLSI and nano-technology, digital instruments are more portable and low in
cost.
6. Range & Polarity:
Most digital instruments are dc instruments and measures up to 100 V and 1000 V by mean of
the range attenuator. Many digital instruments have automatic polarity section and auto ranging
facilities.
7. Freedom from Observational Errors:
The digital instruments are free from observational errors like parallax and approximation errors.
Analog instruments have a scale, which give considerable observational errors.

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B. Data Recording System (Recorders)
A recorder records electrical and non-electrical quantities as a function of time. This record may
be written or printed which can be later examined and analyzed for better understanding and control
of the processes; e.g. flow, pressure, temperature, current, voltage etc.
Current and voltage can be recorded directly while the non-electrical quantities are recorded
indirectly by first converting them to equivalent currents or voltages with the help of sensors or
transducers.
Types of Recorder
1. Graphic Recorder
2. Magnetic Tape Recorder
3. Oscillographic Recorder
1. Graphic Recorder:
Graphic recorders are the devices, which display and store a pen-and-ink record of the history of
some physical event. There are two types of graphic recorder.
- Strip Chart Recorder
- X-Y Recorder
Strip Chart Recorder

Figure below shows a mechanism of a strip-chart recorder system. It records one or more
variables with respect to time. It is also called X-t recorder.
Indicating Scale
Stylus
Drive
System CHART
To Control
Circuit
Chart
Range
Speed
Selector
Selector
Information to
be Recorded
Paper Drive
Fig: Strip-Chart Recorder Mechanism

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A range selector switch is used so that input to the recorder drive system is written within the
acceptable level. Most recorders use a pointer attached to the stylus. This pointer moves over a
calibrated scale thus showing the instantaneous value of the quantity being measured and external
control circuit for the stylus may be used. The stylus is filled with ink (usually red) by gravity or
capillary actions.
X – Y Recorder
Since, a strip chart recorder records the variation of a quantity with respect to time while an X-Y
recorder is an instrument, which gives a graphic record of the relationship between two variables. In
X-Y recorder an emf is plotted as a function of another emf.
Reference Y - Channel
Source
Balance Pen Driving

Y- I/P Attenuator Y
Circuit Motor
Amplifier
Pen
Y - Dir
X - Direction
Balance Arm Driving

X- I/P Attenuator Y
Circuit Motor
Amplifier
Reference
Source
X - Channel
Fig: X – Y Recorder
An X-Y Recorder consist of:

 A pair of servo systems, driving a recording pen in two axes through a proper sliding pen and
moving arm arrangement with reference to a stationary paper chart.
 Attenuators are used to bring the input signals to the levels acceptable by the recorders.

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The above figure shows a block diagram of a type of X-Y recorder. A signal enters each of the
two channels. The signal after passing through attenuator (0.5 mV) passes to a balance circuit where
it is compared with and internal reference voltage. The error signal (i.e. the difference between two
voltages) is fed to the chopper, which converts dc signal to ac signal. The signal is amplified in order
to actuate a servomotor, which is used to balance the system and hold it in balance as the value of
the quantity being recorded changes.
An X-Y recorder may have:
- A sensitivity of 10 µV/mm.
- A slowing speed of 1.5 m/s.
- Frequency response of 6 Hz for both axes.
- Chart size of 250 × 180 mm, and
- an accuracy of about ±0.3 %
Uses:
- Speed torque characteristics of motors.

- Lift drag wind tunnel tests
- Plotting of characteristics of vacuum tubes, zener diodes, rectifiers, transistors etc.
Magnetic Tape Recorder
Magnetic tape recorder is necessary to record data in such a way that they can be retrieved or
reproduced in electrical form again. The most common and useful way is magnetic tape recording.
Advantages:
 They have wide range of frequency from dc to several MHz.

 They have low distortion.
 The magnitude of the electrical input signal is stored in magnetic memory and this signal can be
reproduced whenever desired.
 The recorded signal is immediately available, with no time lost in processing; playback or
reproduced many times without loss of signal.
 Tape can be erased and reused to record new data.
 Data may be recorded at very fast speeds (1.52 or 3.05 m/s) and played back at relatively slow
speeds (4.76 or 2.38 cm/s), which can be recorded with low frequency recorders like graphic
recorder.

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Principle:
When a magnetic tape is passed

through a recording head, any signal
recorded on the tape appears as
magnetic pattern dispersed in space
along the tape. The same tape when Recording
passed through a reproduce (playback) Current
head produces variations in the
reluctance of the winding thereby
inducing a voltage in the winding
dependent upon the direction of the
magnetization and its magnitude on the Magnetic Oxide Magnetic tape
magnetic tape. The induced voltage is
proportional to the rate of change of
flux linkages. Therefore the emf
induced in the winding of reproducing
head is proportional to the rate of Plastic Base Non Magnetic Tape Motion
change of the level of magnetization Gap
on the tape.
Fig: Magnetic Tape Recording Head
i.e; erep α N(dФ/dt)
Supply Reel Take Reel

Let, the original signal be : Asinωt
The current in the recording head winding
and the flux produced will be proportional to
this voltage.
Ф = K1Asinωt ( K1 – Constant)
The voltage induced in the reproduce

Inertia Roller Pinch Roller
head winding.
erep = N(dФ/dt)
Tension Arm
= K1NAωcosωt
Recording Tape Reproduce
Heads Heads
= K2Aωcosωt
Fig: Tape Transport Mechanism
Thus the output signal is a derivative of the input signal. The output signal is proportional to the
flux recorded as well as the frequency of recording signal.

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A Notebook on Instrumentation Systems

Book · April 2010

Shree Krishna Khadka

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 An Instrumentation System is a physical system, which is a collection of physical objects

 Instrumentation System may be defined as an assembly of various instruments and other

(i) Analog Instrumentation System

 Analog Instrumentation System deals with measurement of information in analog form. An

 Digital Instrumentation System handles measurement of information in digital form. A digital

Prepared By: SriKisna Khadka 1

General Instrumentation System

All Instrumentation System can be generally described by a simple Block-Diagram as shown in

Fig: Block Diagram of General Instrumentation System

1. Physical Variable – I/P to the Sensor/Transducer (Primary Sensing Element).

Here the General Instrumentation System consists of three major parts.

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General Requirements of Sensor/Transducer in Instrumentation System

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General Requirements of Processor in Instrumentation System

4. The processor shouldn’t load the sensor

5. The processor should provide sufficient signal to output

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General Requirements of Display & Storage in Instrumentation System

Input Output Output

ROM/ R/W Output

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5. System Software (Programs):

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In the alongside figure a kind of signal is varying its magnitude f(t)

General Types of Signal

1. Continuous Time Signal (Analog Signal)

1. Continuous Time Signal (Analog Signal)

It is defined over a continuous range of time i.e. it is a continuous

2. Continuous Time Quantized Signal

The continuous time signal being represented by a distinct set of

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3. Sampled Data Signal

The signal defined at discrete interval of time is known as discrete

It is the discrete time signal with quantized magnitude. It is the

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General Types of Instrumentation System

(a) Analog Instrumentation System

(A) Components of Analog Instrumentation System

(B) Components of Digital Instrumentation System

Display Analog to Sampling &

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Analog Instrumentation System

Digital Instrumentation System

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Units and Standards of Measurement

Function of Measuring Instrument

Characteristics of Measuring Instrument

1. Static Characteristics of Measuring instruments

(a) Accuracy & Precision

It is the ratio of the magnitude of the output signal to input

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A straight line is drawn by using the techniques of least