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/ 21
POWER QUALITY AND FACTS [JNTU-HYDERABAD}
ESSAY QUESTIONS WITH SOLUTIONS.
'7¥ PROBLEii@ IN DiSrRibuTion Svotems t Transient ano Steapy Stare
eee ONS: epee AND. Frequency ~ UNBALANCE ie
‘axa. What is power quality and what is voltage quality? Explain how the power quality is ‘equal to voltage
quality.
‘anst Model Papert, data)
ower Quality
For answer refer Unit, QL.
Voltage Quality
Voltage quality isthe significant form of describing power quality, It includes both steady state power quality variations
and temporary disturbances that impact the loads. It can also be described as the quality ofthe product delivered by the utility to
the customers.
Power Quality is Equal to Voltage Quality
Generally power is the amount of energy delivered and is proportional: the product of voltage and current.
to define this quality of power as the power supply system can control only the voltage quality, it has no control over'the currents
‘drawn by the particular loads. Therefore, the power quality standards are helpful to control the supply voltage within certain limits.
Even though the generator provides complete sine-wave voltage, the current through the impedance causes voltage disturbances
For example, the current due to short circuit causes the voltage to sag or disappear completely. Hence, in order to understand the
_ basis of power quality problem the phenomenon of current along with voltage must be considered.
lifficukt
Explain the importance of power quality. _
2 ara oa
Why we are concerned about the power quality? 5
Ans:
‘Whether it be sy petsonne, customers or load equipment manufacturers, all have serous concems about the power
* quay withthe main concern being the economic impact.
" For industrial customers, the quality of power that is being delivered can have direct economic impact. With continuous
‘techndlogical advancements, industries are opting for modem equipments which are more automated, electronically controlled
‘and more sedsitive tothe supplied voltage. This makes them more concerned about the power quality as éven minor disturbances
in the supply can have major impact on the equipments. Not only this, any production shut-down due to failure of equipments
‘oF power outage will lead to hige losses for industrial customers, Residential customers are sGimetimes sensitive about powver
problems like during an online transaction where they may face incomplete or wrong transactions due to power disturbances.
Although residential customers do not suffer from any diréct losses due to power quality problems, they can make utilities lose
its customers and switch to other suppliers.
- For electric utility, maintaining customer confidence and meeting theit expectations afe more important these days, as
competition between utility providers exist: Utilities will have financial impact if their customers are not satisfied with the power
uly and shif to other competing power suppliers.
For load equipmient manic ‘quality isan important factor as good power quality will lead to longer life of
the equipments making customers Sati today’s competitive marke, customers mostly opt for lowest cost and reliable
products. Thus, manufacturers need 46 pi uipments which are cost effective, reliable and which can withstand minor
disturbances in power system.
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tribution Systems)
G21. What dre the categories and characteristics of power system dlectiomagne
phenomena?
} ie a
| What are the general classes of power quality problems.
Ans: : : z Model Papei a2(b)
I ‘The following table gives the categories and characteristics of power system electromagnetic phenomena
bE Character
t : Categories ‘Typical ‘Typical Typical
| ks Voltage Duration Spectral
f Magnitude Content +
F
f L.AsImpulsive
| Nano second = <50ns Snstise +
t : ~ Micro sééond ra 50.ns~Ims ps rise
I Milli second is > Ims O.1 ms rise;
ki x 1.2 Oscillatory
' Low frequency 0-4pu 03+ 50ms Imin &
08-09 pu >1min eh ar
11-12pu >1min , a
-05-2% Steddy state eae
0-0.1% Steady state =
0=20% +] Steady state 0-100"
" 5.3 Interharmonics # 0 Steady state 0- 6 kHz
5.4 Notching s Steady state ia Fa
5.5 Noise ee 0-1% Steady state Broad band’
1. pote equncy ie <10s atic
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Model Papers, azia)
in of Power Quality Issues
const
sor answer refer Unit-l, Q3-
power Frequency Disturbances
ef .
turbances are low frequency issues which results mainly voltage sags and swells. These disturbances
Power frequency dist
nay be source (ot) load generated due to faults in power systems.
{iy Power System Transients
Power sysem transients are fast and short-duration issues which results in notching, ringing and impulse. Power system
transients are affected by propogation, transmission and dissipation of energy. i
(lil) Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI)
Electro magnetic interference isa high frequency issue which mainly occurs due to the interaction between electric, mag.
‘netic fields and sensitive electronic circuits. Radio frequency interference (RFI) refers to the interaction between conducted
radio frequency and sensitive data. In general, though EMI and RFI are not similar, itis advantageous to introduce radio
frequency interference instead of EMI.
(iv) _Electro-Statie Discharge’
Electrostatic discharge is an unpleasant issue which exists in our periodic lines. They are highly harmful to electronic
__ equipments or devices as they cause impairment and damage. .
(®) _ Power System Harmonics
Pow system harmoniés are low frequency issues which are represented by waveform distortion, Harmonics are unwanted
effects, which occiar on the system. The interaction between harmonics and power system parameters-results in multiplied
(Power Factor
Power factor is considered as the economic issue in the power system. Depending on the type of / nature of use, both low
‘Power factor and high power factor causes damage to the equipment. Due to the increase in utilities with demands, Penalty
‘of low power factor should be increased. +
RE: Bhs
~_ The main aim of grounding and bonding is to protect the equipment. In case of ground faults it provides low-impedance
eh for the flow of fault current. It also uses the phenomenon signal reference ground (SRG), which varies depending on
the nature of use. SRG means to create a ground reference for sensitive equipment (or) devices.
Ibe various sot 5 power quality deteriorates and there maybe different causes for those problems:
ae aclened ash oe ‘quality depending oi the type of problem. But in general there are some
followed to analyze and identify the problems. These general steps are graphically represented as shown
Wie mierconsdcatontobefoemedwaachuee,
IG XeroxPhotocépying ofthis books @ CRIMINAL act. (UNIT-1.(Power Quilty Problems in Distribution systems)
Identify Problem Category
‘Voltage regulation
Voltage sags i Harmonie
/Unbalance Doe Flicker
‘/nterruptions distortion
Problem Characterization
Transients
‘Causes =
Measurements/ ;
Data collection Characteristics
: Equipment impacts
Identity Possible Solutions.
Utility transmission Utitity distribution End-use — EEnd-use Equipment
system system customer customer design’
interface - “system specification
at ‘ Evaluate Solutions .
a * pabdblling/ Analysis : Evaluate technical
procedures —So
alternatives
Optimum Solutions
_ - Evaluate economies of possible solutions
° Figure: Power Quality Problem Evaluation Steps
Whi investigating the problems, it must also be considered whether the system is an existing Gne where problem occured
or newly designed or: changes to existing system, Measurements form an important part in identifying the cause and it is the
primary method by which the 5 ‘problem be evaluated. Problems are then correlated with causes by recording the impacts of
S variations in power quality during measurements, Keeping in mind the economic and technical limitations, possible solutions
are evaluated and identified at all levels. Only feasible solutions re then considered and compared. The choice of best possible
© solution depends on the type of problein, number of users impacted etc.
Q24. Draw and explain CBEMA and ITI curves In detall.
i
Ans:
CBEMA Curves _
CBEMA curve is a curve that was developed by the computer business equipment manufacturers association which |
describe the tolerance of computers to the variations in voltage magnitude and duration in a power system. Although the withstand
capabilities of modern computers are more than this, the curve had been followed as a standard for designing and measuring the
Performance of equipments.
«SPLCTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL-FOR ENGINEERING ‘STUDENTS & im
Scanned with CamScanner POWER QUALITY AND FACTS ENTU-HYDERAB AD, ’
10
3
Voltage tolerance envelope
‘Voltage magnitude (¥4)
e368
0.001 Ole “Otc O5e. Ie 10c 100¢ 1000
Duration in eycles
Figure (1)
The curve shows the magnitude and duration of voltage variations on the power'system. The region between the two: sides
‘of the curve is the tolerance envelope within which the equipment is expected to operate well.
TTI Curves y 5 =
" Tl curve is developed by information technology industry ‘which describes the tolerance of 120 V computer equipment to
the variations in Voliage magnitude and duration in a power system, This eurve is designed after the CBEMA has been replaced
by TTI council. Although itis designed for 120 V equipments, it is usually applied for all general power
‘volta
Xaxis
Aa ofa guy GLE ui LEGAL pocedigs ©)
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UNIT-1 (Power Quality Problems in Distribution Systems) 1
In igure (2), the x-axis represents the time duration in segonds or eycles while the y-axis represents the percentage of
voltage applied to the power circuit. The graph contains three regions,
(Tolerance envelope
a
(iil) No damage region.
Prohibited region and
o _ Tolerance Envelope
The acceptable area ic, the area within the graph in which the equipment operates well is the vollage tolerance envelope
Gi Prohibited Regi
‘The area above the tolerance envelope in which the equipment may get damaged is the prohibited region.
(i) No Damage Region
‘Thearea below the tolerance envelope in which the equipment may not function well and causes no damage to the equipment
is the no damage region,
‘@25. Explain about transient over voltages.
‘fest Model Papers, @3(b)
‘Transient over voltages or switching over voltages are of high frequency which appear when the state of the network is
changed by a switching operation or fault condition these over voltages are generally oscillating and these are of relatively higher
magnitudes as compared to lighting over voltages for UHV system. When there isa sudden release of internal energy stored in the
clectromagrietic form in the inductance or in the electfostaic stored in the capacitance over voltages are induced in EHV system.
‘Switching ON and OFF of equipments such as switching of high voltage reactors and switching of a transformer at no
loads causes over Voltages of transient nature, The frequency of these over voltages ranges from few hundred Hz to a few kHz.
‘The switching voltage surges are also occur during opening and closing unloaded EHV A.C lines, breaking inductive loads or
capacitive loads ete.
“Thee over voltages are of short duration, The eff ct ofthese over voltages is Very much pronounced when the voltage is
sreater than 300 KY. The causes these voliages are,
4:-~- Switel’of an unloaded line of épen lite
2. Switching ofa loaded line :
3. Reactor switching 4
4. Short eieuits and tine faults interruption
a aie reclosing. of ere breaker in long EHV lines.
26. Explain about various sources of transient over voltages.
‘Model Papers, 20)
‘Ans:
“The various sources of transient over voltages are as follows,
(> Capacitor Switching
[, Q28.
() Lightning : :
For answer refer Uni
For answer refer Unit-I, Q27.
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ents
Switching Tr
(Gi) Magnification of ape onsen large capacitor on te IV side ofthe power system is energized. Load sigg
{Capacitor sitchin a ee rage at low voltage capacitors and step down ransformer sizes, Figure (1) showy
is ne fomeretaeitor duc Yo energizing capacitor on uty system. Magnification occurs oye
the lla ge ee apacitor sizes, Thus the transient overvoltage atthe utility capac controlleg
a vast ange of rans or + used to limit the transient voltage magnitude atthe customer buy
customer side car
"gurge aresters at the cust
Higher ener) 8
ty
. ae,
Seong Hg
Source : ‘
Substation .
Feeder”
Service transformer
Load.
Skee
Figure (1)
‘The arrester energy duty caused by magnified transient for a range of low voltage capacitor sizes is shown in figure (2),
‘Switched
capacitor size
6.0 MVAR
4.5 MVAR
*> 3.0 MVAR
2.4 MVAR
18 MVAR
1.2 MVAR
Be
Peak local voltage (pu)
3 ay j
: 200° 400 600
t +") ‘Local capacitor size (KVAR)
re (2)
The arresters can only limit the transient to the transient protective level which is approximately equal to 1.8 p1. This level
is insufficient to protect i¢ equipment with capacity 1.75 pu. Thus, the withstand capacities of the equipment
‘must be evaluated carefully. The'voltage magnification transient can also be limited by converting the end user power
factor corrections banks to harmonic filters. » 3 5
Ferro Resonance
Ferro resonance is a type of résonance which involves edpacitance and iron-core inductance. It causes disturbances when
" the magnetizing impedance of a in series with the system capacitor. It can be employed in constant voltage
‘tansformers under controlled co different from linear résonance that occurs when inductive and capacitive
feactances are equal. In linear he current and voltage are linearly related with resonant frequent. It can also
» "Jed to high voltages and currents, but the resulting waveforms are irregular in shape.
Other Switching Transients ashe
Line energization transients occur when a line isco {o the power system during the off condition of switch. They
« }pvolve higher frequency content than ¢épacitor energizing transients. These transients occur when the travelling wave
effects and the interaction of the line capacitance and the system equivalent source inductance combines. The switching
‘control for line energizing can be implemented for tranismission lines operating at 345 kV and above. The life span of these
‘transients is about 0.5 cycle. These transients do not caus¢ problem to the end user equipment.
at iaapenccl S. 5
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Model Pape0210)
» power system lightning, These are some common pases the
nd moves into power system loads, These places are shown in figure, t
Lightning.
unit-1_ (Power Quality Problems in Distribution Systems) =
—taplain briefly about
7. Explain briefly about transient overvoltagos due to lightning. : t
3: ~
‘AA one ofthe major soitce of impulsive wansients in
| gem where lightning mostly strike
: 1D
Uinine-7Z
|
{
|
1, Primary phase 4, Secondary phase |
2. Primary grouind 5, Secondary ground I
3. Arrester 6. Grounded structure
Figure: Places of Lightning Strikes
Among the places as shown in above figure, a direct strike On phase wire on either primary dr secondary side of transfemer
js considered as the obvious and common conduction path resulting in generation of very high voltages and causing damges.
+ Lightning entering through the grounds will also have similar effects generating similar transient overvoltages. Moreover, mutiple
| paths exist for lightning to enter the grounding system with primary ground, secondary ground and grounded structure bei, the
rest common among the grounding paths: Arresters on the transformers also facilitates lightning to enter the grounding sjtem
| when lightning hits the primary phase. " :
f ‘As grounds are not perfect conductors, some surge currents will also flow in other connected g.ound conductors foifirst
| few microseconds besides most surge Cunt getting {ssp ted in the ground connection which is closer tothe point of stké.
' ‘When lightning causes a direct strike on a phase conductor, line lashover takes place near the strike point with transents
along with voltage sags and interruptions. This surge travels some distance causing several flashovers at tower structures and ples.
| Surge arresters properly installed in the system will intercept the transient but sometimes arresters niay not bear the impules if
the stike occurs ear the arrester.” 7/8 8 NE |
Pe ie Marites B33 duets \
tis not necessary for lightning to strike ditectly on a conductof to enter the system as, it also finds its way by strikingnear,
» the line and inducing impulse with electrié field collapse. Lightning may also cause rise in ground reference by striking nar a
ground facility thereby passing impulses near sensitive load apparatus. {
| Q28. Explain about capacitor switching transients. ~
\
Ans: . 2 " west rapa. Gi
|” Capacitor switching is an event in a tility system which causes transient overvoltages. Capacitor banks are used ina
[system for power factor correction. These rovide reactive power, reduce losses and supports system voltage, Althoigh
there are ether methods for power Factor éoirection Jke using elecironi¢ VAR compensators or rotating machines, capacitorsare
Most economical and trouble fret « e# most commonly used, However, one disadvantage in using capacitor baiks
© nihat oscillatory is 0 se they This problem is identified as it oceurs nearly the same time is a dy,
< the time whens capacitor banks are switched according to load peak timings. | i
One line diagram of atypical utility feeder is shown in figure (1) showing capacitor switching situation. The result
Wveform is as shown in figure (2) where the capacitor contacts close at voltage peak. It occurs commonly for most switches 2
breakdown tends to occur at switch contacts at peak voltige. Capacitor-Voltage becomes zero at this point and the system volt
comes down to zero at capacitor location then rises again due to capacitor charging. Voltage across the capacitor overshoots ind
tings at natural frequency because of inductive nature of source voltage change at the monitoring location will not be zero du to
impedance between the switched capacitor and the monitoring logation, : }
Eee PECTRUM ALLAN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS 7
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eam - = damping. This transient
Atransient ranging from 1 102 pu will be generated by the overshoot which also depends on system |
‘moves into customer load facilities through distribution transformer, the magnitude of which is proportional to transformer tums,
= '
Substation
Monitor location
Feeder impedance
Switched capacitor, peere
. igure (1): One Line Diagram of Utlity Feeder. =
Pepe
05 20
25 30 35 4045 50.$5.60 65 70,
| Time (ms)
Figure (2k: Waveform Showing Capacitor Switching Transient:
Q29. Explain in detail about voltage fluctuation.
Ans: aes
‘Any systematic or random variations of voltage ina power System whose magnitude stays within the range of 0.9 to IL pit
is known as voltage fluctuations. Variation of voltage magnitude will also lead to variation in the total power flow to the equipment
and iflthese variations are large the equipments performance will be affected, Lee
‘The characteristics of voltage fluctuations depends on the load type, size and capacity of the power system, The voltae
‘waveform as shown in figure, illustrates variations in magnitude due tothe fluctuating nature or intermittent, operation of connected =
Joads. The frequency ofthe voltage envelope is often referred to as the licker frequency. Thus there are two iy
10 voltage fluctuations, the frequency of fluctuation and the magnitude of fluctuation. Both of these ‘components are significant.
in the adverse effects of voltage fluctuations. .
Voltage envelope
Magnitude °
Voltage waveform +
Figure: Terminal Voltage Waveforin of Fluctuating Load
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i
UNIT-1 (Power Quality Problems in Distribution Systems)
‘The foremost effect of voltage huctuations is lamp flicker.
terms voltage fluctuation and flicker ar interrelated and are
interchangeably used Flicker isthe recult voltage Muctuations
‘on lamps and iS measured with respect to the sensitivity of
an eye. The term ‘voltage flicker’ is also commonly used
to define flicker occurring due to voltage fhictuation. Flicker
intensity is a quantity introduced which measures the severity
offficker occurring due to fluctuations.
Voltage fluctuations on a utility transmission and
distribution system are mostly caused by an ate furnace. Also,
Jods that exhibit continuous rapid variations are thus the most
IWoely cause of Voltage fluctuations. Examples of loads that may
roduce voltage fluctuations are,
Installations with frequent motot starts (air conditioner
mits, fans).
Motor drives with eyctic operation (mine hoists, rolling
mills).
Exessive motor speed changing cupinents (wood
chippers, car shredders).
30. Exptain in detail about long-duration voltage
variations.
Ans:
Classification of Long Duration Variations
~ For answer refer Unit-1, QU
@. Overvoltages
Long duration voltage variations ‘are considered as
overvoltage whén the increase in rm.s A.C voltage at
the power frequency is greater than 110 percent for more
than I minute long duration. There can be various reasons
Jike switching off large loads, energizing capacitor
banks, too weai-system for required voltage regulation,
inadequate voltage couttrols or incorrect transformer tap
‘settings which cause overvoltages.
‘Underyoltages
“Long duration voltage variations are considered as
_ undervoltages when the :Jecrease in rm.s,A.C voltage
“atthe power frequen:y is less than 90 percent for more
than 1 minute lon:, duration, Switching events which
‘cause undervoltag:s are to the events causing.
oars. like switching on Joads, switching. off
etc, Overloaded circuits can also
: system that suffers from
Se mae pack tive voltage in specified
limits with voltage regulation equipments installed in
the system.
(i). Sustained Inte
“Long duration voltage variations are considered:
sustained interruptions when the supply voltage remains
ero for more than 1 minute long, Sustained interruptions
are often permaneiit until nianual intervention to restore
the system is carried out. Sustained interruption is not a
“synonym of the terms outage or interruption but itis a
specific power system phenomena,
w
Gi)
Re
SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL
\ as
Q31. Discuss about different problems of the port
voltage transients.
‘Ans:
Short duration voltage variations are impact of eae
luring the fault condition for short duration which are eased
by large loads energization requiring high starting currents,{zult
conidition or frequent loose connections. Based on the loeition
of fault of system condition the short duration voltage ¥
can either be,
1, “Temporary voltage drops or sags
2. Complete voltage loss or interruptions
3. Rise in voltage or swells
Bach of these faults are again categorized either ax
instantaneous, momentary or temporary based om the duration
1. Temporary Voltage Drops or Sags
For answer refer Unit-1, QS, Topic: Sag.
Complete Voltage Loss or Interruptions
Decrease in supply voltage or load current to Its than
0.1 pu for a dufation of fess than 1 minute is sad to be
an interruption,
Causes of interruption include malfunctions of cantrols,
failure of equipments or any power system faults. the
magnitude of voltage in interruptions will always Ve less
than 10 percent, tine is used as a measurement criteia the
duration of which is obtained by operating time of protitive
devices used. Momentary or temporary interrupions
‘may cause due to delayed reclosing of protective dev.ces
but if reclosing of protective devices is instantanesus,
interruptions will be limited to less than 30 cycles. When
the interruplions are caused due to source system faules,
these interruptions may be preceded by 2 volta
Rise in Voltage or Swells \
Q5, Topi
What is the impact of transient on power
quality? Classify the transients that occur in
power systems,
2
For answer refer Uni Swell
Ans:
Impact of Transient on Power Qu:
as.
However following are some ofthe eflects of transient
on power system.
“Transetis degrade the contacting surfices of circuit breakers
and switches and also reduce transformer efficiency
For answer refer Uni
‘Transients results in micro-jogging. leading to motor
vibration, excessive heat and noise.
It also reduces the insulation of the motor winding
resulting to equipment failure.
Efficiency of electronic devices will be reduced.
Damages due to such power quality problems ere
‘uncommon as compared to voltage sags and interruptions, but
When it does occuir it is more destructive.
Classification of Transient
For answer refer Unit-l, Q40.
FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS.
Scanned with CamScanner i3. Define and explain what do you understand by voltage sag,
= .
Papers, a0
According to IEEE standard 1159-1995 voltage sag is defined as a decrease in r.m.s voltage at power frequency for a
uation which may range from 0.5 eyele to 1 minute,
‘Voltage sag is characterized as a most commonly occurring power frequency disturbance. This event is expected to last
arywhere between a half of the cycle to several seconds, ‘ I
Basically very short duration decrease in r.m.s voltage is classified as voltage sag. They case nates
‘which include,
@ Process control equipment
(Gi) Adjustable speed drives
ii) Computers.
A few sensitive equipments trips even when the rms voltage-drops below 90% of the normal value when the duration of
sag exceeds one or two eyeles. Ifthe equipinent is subject to such voltage sags, then the controls would tip the equipment
of tines over a year. For example, if this equipment is a process control of a paper mill, then frequent, Sipping would result
enormous damage due to voltage sags
nunber of voltage sags than interruptions and as such the total damage caused by sags is still greater.
Interruptions of both type (short and most long) originate in the local distribution network. But sags in voltage takes place 4
[tthe load side even when short cireuit fault occurs several hundred Kilometers away inthe transmission system. Thus 596i
veltage can be considered as a ‘global’ problem. In order to reduce the frequency of interruptions, i is required to improve one
feeder. But to reduce the frequency (number) of voltage sags it requires improvement on several feeders and even the transmis
lines far away.
Measurement of voltage sag is done asa pecentags ofthe nominal voltage. This, a volge sag 6 3 60% i equivalet
(60% of the nominal voltage or 184 V for a nominal 230 volt system.
Q34. Write a short notes on voltage swells.
Ars:
Votage Swell
For answer refer Unit-l, Q7, Topi
Voltage swell is basically the opposite of voltage sag. Compared to sags, swells are rare events but often more destruct
valtage swell caused by an SLG fault is as shown in figure (1).
‘Voltage (p.u)
‘Time (sec) :
Figure (1): Voltage Swell due to SLG Fault
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17
Depending on the magnitude and duration, weliewe classified
0 following types,
Voltage Swells
‘ Instantaneous Mi
: a‘ fomentary Temporary . :
i Voltage Swell Voltage Swell ‘Voltage Swell Z
a i ‘
The variation Of magnitude and duration of different types of swells is show in table betovw, |
|
‘Type of Swell Instantaneous Momentary ‘Temporary
Voltage Swell Voltage Swell
Z 1.110 1.8 pu 1.11014 pu 1 t0 1.2 pu
0.51030 cycles | 30 cycles to 3see | 3 sec tot min |
Table
_ Theeffects of voltage swell are similar to the ef
of components etc.
Q35. Explain how the harmonics are
associated with harmonics.
Ans:
Generation of Harmonics :
In electrical system, the harmonics are electric voltages and currents that appear on electric power system, which afe
because of uncertainty in loads. In a normal system, voltage varies sinusoidally at a specific frequency. Under these con ‘ons
-, when the linear load is connected it draws the current at sate frequency. But when the non-linear load like reetfie ot ister
és connected then the system draws a non-sinusoidal current which leads to generation of harmonics in the HVDC transm ion
systems ic. harmonics are generated by the HVDC converters It shoilld be noted that these harmonics will not cause any harm
* tothe converters but they travel along the transmission path.
- Major Problems Associated with Harmonics’
-__, The harmonies generated by the converter will not interfere with it, but the harmonics will flow through the transmission
line and cause the following harmful effects, ,
“1 Extta power loss in capacitors, transformers; rotating machines, A.C filter ete’, in the HVDC transmission system.
: Overheating of machines like generators, induction motors. 2
Overheating of transforiners.
© Due to this overheating, the life span ofthe electrical equipments (like transformers, generators et.) is decreased. In case,
if any of the equipment is failed, then it is necessary to replace it with the new one. This increases the cost of installation.
fects of sag such as control and hardware failure in the equipment, breakdown
Generated in the transmission systems and what are major problems
Gi) Flash overs
Gv) Insulation failure ete. *. ‘
Due to harmonics the pfs very poor
Interference with nearby communications like,
@ Radio interference
EB (i) Telephone interference etc. : :
| Due to these interference the converter in HVDC transmission system generates harmonics.
| 10." False tripping of branch circuit breakers. eo -
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G36. Explain different modes of waveform distortion and causes for it. é
Ans: + ‘ ‘i
For answer refer Unit-1, QU0. *
Harmonics: ¢ i 3 t
Sinusoidal voltages or currents whose Frequencies are integer multiples ofthe fundamental frequency of asupply systemare |
known as harmonies, Nonlinear characteristics of loads and deviees present in the system give rise to harmonic distortion {
‘and waveform which ate periodically distorted and can be divided into fundamental frequency and harmonics,
Levels of harmonie distortion with magnitude and phase angles of exch individual compare of harmonic are given by
‘complete harmonic specitum. For measuring effective value ‘fharmonic distortion, single quantity Total | Harmonic Distortion |
(THD) is more commonly used. In some cases, THD can give incorrect values like when many Adjustable Speed Drives
(ASD) nun at light loads, THD values will be bigh input currents, but it is not of concern as although relative distortion.
is high, harmonie current m pee i
For this reason another term Total Demand Distortion (TDD) has been defined by
meaning as TIID but in TDD the distortion is expressed as a percentage of rated
asa percent of magnitude of fundamental current.
2.‘ Interharmonics : és
Voltages or curents whose frequencies are not integer multiples ofthe fundamental frequeney ofa supply system are knows
as interharmonics,Interharmonies ean appear in any voltage class network as wideband spectrum or discrete frequencies.
Tnterharmonic waveform distortion mostly appear due to eyeloconverters, arcing devices static frequency converters |
inductions furnaces ele. ‘pote wae ae
3. D.C Offset wes 2H 5
When a D.C voltage or current appears in an A.C power system then iis referred as D.C offset. Asymmetry of electronic:
power converters and geomagnetic disturbance can cause ‘D.C offset harmonic distortion, Several damaging effects of
presence of direct current include electrolytic erosion af grounding clectrodes and ther comectors and tansformer cor
biasing, e 5 : ‘ . %
4. Noise ‘ (Gr ce dae lle ee
‘Any unwanted electrical signal whose broadband spectral content i lower than 200 Ki ‘and which is either superimposed
tpon the vaage or current in phase conductors or on neural conductors scaled nese,
ee isomer supries power leone deve, arcing Equipment control cic, and loads wit solid-state rectifiers
ean cause noise in power system. Lack of proper grounding can ‘make the noise problem worse.in.the system. To reduce |
mofse problem, fine conductors, filers and isolation transformer are used ad
ss, Notehing a |
srrinn nurmal operation of power cleatonie devices, any perodie vate disturbance eaused when the et |
Dar eet on one phase to oer is known as notching, Notcing is curaterized by harmonic spectrum a8 in ocews
continuously. When notches occur during current commutation, voltage tiearly drops Close to zero as momentary shot
Circuit occurs between two phases 2
GGT. Explain about sources of sagt ‘aterruptions..
Ans: ecu 4
she main eawe of voltage sags and interruptions are fauls on the wily sytenis, However the various surest of
and interruptions gre Tisted below,
1 Iethe rural location 16 be distributed is far rom the power source.
Long distance from a distribution tsformer with interposed loa
: é
43, Afthe grid system is unreliable 7 # 4
4, Switehing of heavy loads i
S, When the power distributors tolerances are not suitable for voltage sensitive culpa Se 4
{When the loud on the thece phase syst fs unbaanged
4, When the eget sot table foe the pastcaarpowwer supply.
Mostly, equipment al the customer
fault importance deperads om the specific
# wiay malfunction depending upon the fault location on the feeden, Whee
uacleristies ofthe system and the sensitivity of the equipment to voltage sags:
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‘938. List out the power quality terms and ex
19
in.
What do by ok
at do you m .
os aexmon any feo Lpeshinae ‘terminology? List i most commonly used torms in power quality
| anst : ;
1° Power aialty terminology refer tothe terms which are inpower quality. Lea cei aoa
"avo ein wih ese, Tc most common wed ems in por qu = is nun
Banding - Linear and non-linear loads
Noise and notching
Periodic
Power distrbition
Power factor
(iv) Crest factor and form factor
|) Distortion and distortion factor
(Gi) Flicker
’) : Recovery time
Nee ue Surge and sag
ii) Harmonies Swell
| Ga) Impulse ‘Transient
(@) Inductance
Bonding
Intercomection of conductive parts (or) two different variables to form a common electrical potential is termed as bonding.
‘Bonding plays 2 vital role in power quality as it decreases the voltage difference in the system to minimum and in faulty conditions,
it safeguard the metal by connecting it to ground or other grid systems serving as ground.
Coupling : . :
‘Coupling is a phenonienon in which the energy or noise is transferred from one‘cicuit to another which may (or) may not
be connected electrically to it
Flicker .
|__Flickeris a term used to define the impact of voltage variations on lamps, the effects of which are visible to human eye.
: The ficker occuring due to voltage fluctuation is known as voltage flicker. Mostly, voltage fluctuations on a utility transmission
Power
Voltage * Current e
‘of the angle between voltage and current.
: Vv
1
E Figure
E
Feri uZtmet fttr varies trom Oo 1. Fr purely esintive cites, the angle between voltage and currents zr, and hence the
Peis unity, ohn
| Thep.fis lagging when the current lags the applied voltage and is leading when current leads the voltage.
f ‘The presence of harmonics results in increase of the displacement between the composite voltage and current waveforms
| and hence total power factor is less than te displacement power factor.
[Transient % i te
f
| sega, Mansions are defined asthe part of change in variable. They disappears during transition from one steady stats operation
| Bother. When the operating characteristics of the system are dependent on time, then the system is said to be in transient state.
| Tansient mainly occurs due to load switching, faults, lightning etc.
: ‘SPECTRUM ALL-IN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS
a
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039.
Ans:
@
©
©
@
WER QUALITY AND.FACTS [JNTU-HYDERABAD}:
Explain the following terms related with power quality. °°.
(a) Crest factor
(b) Distortion and distortion factor
(c) “Noise
(d)_ Nothing. ‘ifibe We ates
Crest Factor
Crest factor is defined as the ratio of peak value ofthe input waveform to
Peak value of input
factor 2 eb ee
(Crest factor= "RMS value i
“The erest factor of sinusoidal and square periodic waveforms is shown in figure.
‘V(RMS)= 0.707 V(Peak)
y v !
on) ; ‘ves Vek)“
! Figure yt Se we
equal to 1.414. The non-sinusoidal waveforms have crest factor great
The crest factor of a pure sinusoidal waveform
than 1.414.
Distortion and Distortion Factor e ‘ Saint
pistortion refers to any deviation in any parameter like amplitude, time, shape ofan electrical signal froman ideal inpat
signal. The distortion occurs due to'the inherent non-linear characteristics of components and devices that form the le,
tronic circuit, The non-linear characteristics ofthe circuit cause some harmonies to take place in the output wavelorm
the resultant deviation or distortion contains sine waves with frequency multiples of the fundamental of the signal opPli
nie Distortion or Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) or distortion factor. Its measu™
This distortion is known as Harmor
ty harmonie distortion analyzer or distortion analyze or distortion factor meter,
Noise
whose broadband spceral content sre lower than 200 kHz and which are ether superims
‘Any unwanted electrical signals
‘hase conductors or on neutral conductors is called noise, "
upon the voltage or current in
i ele evices, arching equipment, control ci ;
‘Switching power supplies, power electronic devices are , conto iui anand yt aici
Sec an power system, Lack of proper grounding can make the nose problem worse in the sysiem, 10
ofse problem, line conductors, filters and isolation transformer are used system.
Notehing
jal operation of power electro ny periodic voltage di ik
During normal operation of power electronic devises any periodic voltage disturbance exused when the cure
ari ated from one phase to oer is known as notching. Notching is characterized by harmonic esas ‘toc
coy, When notches occur dring cuent sommutation,volage neatly drop close to zero as momenta
Cireuit occurs between two phases. : t
F WARNING: YoroxPhotocopyin of tis book it CRIMINAL ect Anyone found gly Is LMBLE fsa LEGAL procooding
Scanned with CamScanner Problems in Distribution Systems)
nt types of ra as
* Impulsive Transients :
Impulsive transient is defined as, sudden dthan
that is either positive ot negative in polarity
generally occur due to lightning. Impulsive
i i a
ie in frequency in steady state condition of either voltage or current or both
‘These type 6f transients are characterized by the rise time ant decay time and
n ds transients can have quick .
ay ee i Quick variations in its shape duc to high frequencies and
wet ais die he observed ftom different parts ofa power system. These are usually acted closet the
a system. A graph tie lightning stroke current impulsive transient is ai shown in figure (1).
0 1
6 ¥ Figure (1): Lightning Stroke Current Impulsive Transient i
- Oscillatory Transient _ : :
Oscillatory transient is defined as sudden change in frequency in steady state condition of either voltage or current or both
that is both positive and negative in polarity. The polarity of instantaneous values of voltages and current in an oscillatory
‘ansient ‘changes rapidly. These transients are ‘characterized by duration, magnitude and spectral Gontent. Oscillatory
transients are again categorized as high, medium or low frequency transients based on their primary frequency component.
When the primary frequency component of a trarisient is greater than 500 kHz with a typical duratiém in microseconds,
these transients are considered as high frequency, transients and if the primary frequency component ranges between 5 and
500 kHz. with duration in microseconds, they are considered as medium frequency transients, Usually these transients are
resilt of local system response to impiilsive'transient. Low frequency transients have primary frequency component less
than 5 kElz arid duration between 0.3 and 50 microseconds. ‘There are many causes for these kind of transients and they
‘occur frequently on utility transmission and distribution system. Oscillatory transients also have principle frequencies less
than 300 Hz, generally associated with ferroresonance and transformer energization and occurs when the system responds
by resonating with low-frequency components,
AAA A
Oscillatory Transient Cur
rant due to Capacitor Switching
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at.
Ans:
@)
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POWER. QUALITY AND. FACTS {JNTU-H 0} 4
Write a short note or
(a) Notching (b) Voltage imbalance (c) Voltage fluctuations. “nod PAA, cay |
Notching i
For answer refer Unit-l, Q36, Topic: Notching.
Voltage Imbalance esti
Voltage imbalance or voltage unbalance is defined as the ratio of maxifum deviati
from their average values to the average values of three phase voltages oF currents.
values, cas
As per IEEE or IEC standards voltage imbalance is defined using symmetrical compon
ccther negative sequence component or zero-sequerice component to positive-sequence
cate era oe one of negetive-sequence eomponent over 22r0-sequence component is neu
on of three phase voltages or cureny |
Tris expressed in terms of percentage |
ents, Ibis defined as the ratio of
Voltage unbalance of less than 2% is mostly caused due to ‘Single-phase loads on three-phase zt
voltage unbalance include blown fuses in any phase of a 3-0 capa
percentage is more than 5%, it may be due to single-phasing condition. i : Rae
The following graph shows ari example of valtage unbalance trend for a residential feeder which includes both negative.
sequence component and zer0-sequence component.
q
=
a 5
&
&
3
‘ 7 “
— Time in days :
Figure '
Voltage Fluctuations Pas § 2
For answer refer Unit-1, Q29,
Q42. What are the causes of long interruptions.
Ans:
Causes of Long Interruptions
eauses as explained below,
1
Basically causes of long interruptions are due to component outa
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Fo face LEGAL
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weet
ings.
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unit-1 (Power Quality Problems in Distribution Systems)
ond com iaaaet
Preps wl ators om 's due incorrect interfere of protection relay which might again lead to @ long interruption.
redundancy, While the situation rrebtion ithe incorrect tripping (or maltrip) takes place in a part ofthe system without
‘hance that the reduridant ea might, different if it occurs in a. part of the system with redundancy:*There is very less
es int component is out of operation for & completely random maltrip. Random maltrips are thus not
serious reliability concem in redundant systems
However maltrips are often not fully random a ‘
ee hips by tis, ly random but more likely when the system is faulted. Consider a situation that there will
tan ie eoteetion i.., a correct interference and an incorrect one we notice thatthe maltrp trips the redundant
component at an instant that edundance i needed because faulted mallrps area serious concern redundant systems.
baa oar iee esate is duc to operator actions which ean also lead toa Jong interrution. A numberof measutes should
; eted ca ie de iter correct oF incorrect to the power system protection. But for preventive maintenance an
coer eee aasacide {0 switch off certain parts of the system. Ina few low voltage networks there is no redundancy
present re signifies that preventive maintenance and changes in the system can only be performed when the supply
to.apart of the Consumers i interrupted. However in most cases atleast some level of redundaney is available so that the
maintenancé does not lead to an interruption for any of the consumers, These interruptions due to absence of redundancy
are called “scheduled interruptions” or “planned interruptions." To make the consequiences ofthe interruption less than
for a nonscheduled interruption the consumer ean take some precautions.
| G43. Explain how the sag magnitudes were calculated for meshed systems.
23
Model Papers, @2(a)
| voltage Calculations in Meshed Systems ‘
‘The meshed Systems are used in medium and high voltage transmission systems with some exclusion, The general meshed
sytem can be shown in below figure,
1 72
. 4 a
FL i }—>F7
Fo FIO. FI FIZ
, z ia Figure
__ Inorder to calculate the Voltagé in meshed Systems at fault'condition, consider two main principles such as Thevenin’s
superposition thedrem and node impedance matrix.
According to Thevenin’s superposition theorem, the voltage or current in the system during sag is equal to the sum of
idual voltages or currents before and after fault conditions respectfully.
"The node impedance matrix (Z) is expressed as follows,
Vea ()
Tis a veetor sum of node currents.
‘The node voltage is the voltage between a node and the reference node (typically ground) and node current is equal to the
‘um of all currents flowing toward a node. For most nodes ‘the node current is zero according to Kirchhoff’s current law, So we
| Otsider generator nodes, where the node current flowing from the generator into the system. i
| Now, letus consider a system with + 1 node anda shor circuit fault occur at node. According toThevenin's superposition
{hor the voltage during the fault condition at any node kis,
HeVOr ayy” : 1)
f Where, ¥; = Voltage before fault oF Source Voltage -
AAV, = Change in voltage at node k due to faut.
(2277 SPECTRUM ALLIN-ONE JOURNAL FOR ENGINEERING STUDENTS |.
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POWER QUALITY AND FACTS [JNTU-HYDERABAD),
24 TRIE oeragsonesn poem Aaa :
aac leca |
that node fis the only n° “ |
_yp= |
From equation (1) WE Bet
a =)
° |
|
[-: Position of fault k= /] |
|
‘And from equition (2), |
: W=VO+Z4,
o@
Generally, the pre-fault voltages‘are close to unity,
i.e., equation (4) becomes,
Ifthe node impedance matrix is known, then it becomes very easy to calculate the sag. The drawback of this method is
‘the node impedance matrix needs to be calculsied. This matrix method is a step by step procedure where the matrix is updat
from adding the new branches, The node admittance matrix isthe alternate method of this method to calculate branch impedan
Q44. How voltage sag types are classified? Write the factors that affect the voltage sag types.
‘Type of Sag Duration Magnitude
Instantaneous | 0.5 ~ 30 Cycles 0.1-09 pa
es 2. | Momentary _} 30 Cycles~3 Seconds | 0.1 ~0.9 pu
: ce te 3. emporary’ 3 Seconds—1 Minute | 0.1-0.9 pu
Factors that Ame Voltage Sag Types
Voltage sag types are generally based onthe individual voltages (oth magitude and angle) fo each ofthe three phase
sags or dips. ‘Consequently, the élassification is based on incomplete ‘assumptions and cannot be used to obtain the characteris
of measured sags. The symmetrical component classification is more general and gives direct link with measured voltage
is harder fo understand. er ss
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if (Power Qualily Problem in Distibution Sytem) 2t
Specifically, the factors that affect the voltage sag type are at the equipment terminals and some of them are discusse.
| lo :
10% qult Type: Voltage sags are primarily caused by system faults, Each fault type has
4: galt point, which subsequently defined the voltage sag types,
2G Single-Line-to-Ground (SLG) Fault
ii) Line-to-Line (LL) Fault
Gi) Double-Line-+o-Ground (LLG) Fault
(iv) Tee Phase (3P) Fault
‘Transformer Winding Connection: Transformer winding connection ate classified into three types of explain the transfer
of three-phase unbalanced voltage sags, as well as the change in voltage sag types.
©) Type 1~ Transformers that do not change anything to the voltages ic, the primary voltages (p.u) are equal to the
secondary voltages (p.u). The only transformer configuration that falls unde this type isthe Y-Grounded to Y-Grounded
(¥n-Yn).
(i) Type 2— Transformers that remove the zero-sequence voltage. Basically, the secondary voltage (p.u) is equal to the
primary voltage (p.u) excluding the zero-sequence component. The A-A, A-rigzag and Y-¥ belong to this type.
Gi). Type 3 ~ Transformers that changes line and phase voltages, A-Y, Y-A and Y-Zigzag connections are under this type.
4. Lond Connection: Voltage sag types are also affected based on the type of losds such as,
() Starsconnected load
= Ail) _Delta-connected load.
245. Explain the behavior of computers and consumer electronics due to voltage sag.
different effect to the voltages at the
aa Model Papers, 025)
‘Computér and Consumer Electronics
+ he electronic equipments on consumer premises consist of diodes along with vollage regulators. These power electronic
devices aze sensitive to the voltage sag. The voltage sag and interruptions induced in the supply restricts their output for few
seconds. Normally the television and video recorders consist of batteries to maintain the power to their memory containing settings
to avoid memory loss. Ifthese batteries don’t have sufficient energy, the sag could lead to loss of settings.
“The power supply to process control computer in chemical plant is similar to the desk top computer. They both respond to
voltage sag and interruptions very quickly and trip with in one second. But here the difference is the desktop computer trip might
get lead to an inconvenience for few hours or minutes, whereas the trip of process contr computer may lead to an inconvenience
formore than 48 hours which is unacceptable. So to avoii
‘which is shown in figure (1)..
ita simplified configuration of power supply to a computer is introduced
Converter’
Regulated D.C
Volt
Capacitor
Voltage
Controle
‘ Figure (1)
This cireuit consi bes
