THEA Book

Why
Theatre?
Claire Abernathy
Lisa Bohn
Overview
Course Description
This book is designed to increase the reader’s critical and aesthetic sensitivity to the art of theatre. Through this text experience,
the reader should gain a broader appreciation and knowledge of the theatrical art form. The reader will learn about what defines
theatre and plays, how theatre productions are put together (playwright, director, actors, designers, etc.), the origins of theatre, mu-
sical theatre, contemporary theatre, etc. After experiencing this book, the reader should be able to go see a play and understand ex-
actly what went in to making that production happen, in addition to having the background to more fully appreciate the show.
Acknowledgments
Authors
C L A I R E A B E R N AT H Y
Why Theatre? Associate Professor of Theatre
1st Edition
LISA BOHN
Associate Professor of Theatre
Contributor
TIM BOHN
Associate Professor of Theatre
Editor
TBA
Title
No part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without written permission
from Arkansas State University.
ii
Student Learning
Outcomes
After experiencing this book, the reader will be able to:
• Interpret works of fine arts or literature.

• Recognize works of literature or fine arts and place them
in their historical, cultural, and social contexts.
• Understand the qualities, characteristics, and functions of
art and theatre.
• Analyze the role and characteristic of a good audience
member.
• Describe the role, functions, & process of the playwright,
director, designer, & actor.
• Cultivate a basic knowledge of the historical development
of Western theatre.
iii
HOW TO USE THIS BOOK
Swipe to move between pages. Pinch open to zoom in.
Tap to play, discover, reveal... Pinch closed to close chapter/image.
Tap to here play a video! Videos

Tap for copyright and title play from YouTube and require Wifi.
information on images.
Words in bold are glossary terms.

Tap to find out more.
Interactive element--tap and explore!
iv
Tips for best use:
• Engage your brain.
• Read for comprehension, not completion.
• Be curious.
• Ask questions.
• Look things up.
• Play with interactive elements.
• Have fun exploring!
Unit 1: What are the
Foundations of Theatre?
C H A P T E R 1 : W H AT I S A R T ? U NIT 1 I NTRODUCTION V IDEO
C H A P T E R 2 : W H AT I S T H E AT R E ?
C H A P T E R 3 : W H AT I S A P L AY ?
C H A P T E R 4 : W H AT I S T H E A U D I E N C E ?
m e!
y
Pla
vi
CHAPTER 1
What Is Art?
SECTION 1
Introduction
INTRODUCTION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Merriam-Webster defines art as:
After this chapter, the reader will be able to:
• “Something that is created with imagination and skill and
• Identify the benefits and functions of art that is beautiful or that expresses important ideas or feel-
• Describe challenges related to the subjectivity of art ings
• Explain how theatre is art • Works created by artists : paintings, sculptures, etc., that
are created to be beautiful or to express important ideas or
feelings
• The methods and skills used for painting, sculpting, draw-

ing, etc.” (http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/art)
8
C H A P T E R 1, S E C T I O N 1 : I N T R O D U C T I O N
W H AT I S A R T ? MUSIC
Would you add anything to the definition on the previous Music as an art form can entail many different things. Singing,
page? What do we mean when we talk about “art” - a paint- playing an instrument, composing, and conducting are a few
ing that hangs on a wall? While the term art can be used in ways artists engage in music. Even if you’re not a musician,
that manner, for the purposes of this text, art refers to any you probably enjoy music on a regular basis. Perhaps you en-
form of artistic endeavor created to be appreciated for it’s joy concerts, singing in the shower, or listening to the radio
skill, beauty, or emotional power. on the way to school.
Choreographer Twyla Tharp said, “Art is the only way to run VISUAL ART
away without leaving home.” What does art mean to you, We often think of visual art as a painting that hangs on the
and how do you define it? Tharp suggests that art is a form of wall, however, art can be many things. Painting, ceramics, il-
escape from our everyday lives. Do you agree with her inter- lustration, and cartoons, are a few of the many types of art.
pretation? While you may not consider yourself an artist, you probably
encounter art frequently. From book covers and newspaper
“Art is the only way to run away without leaving home.” comics to advertisements, art is all around you.
~Twyla Tharp, choreographer
T H E AT R E
As you will read in Chapter 11, musical theatre developed
FINE ARTS out of the tradition of operas, vaudeville, burlesque, and min-
Historically there were five predominate forms of fine arts, in- strel shows, among other things. While theatre can refer to
cluding painting, sculpture, architecture, poetry, and music; plays as well as musical theatre, it can also include perform-
theatre and dance were deemed performance arts. Today ance art and experimental forms like Cirque du Soleil and
many additional forms of art are included in these definitions, Blue Man Group.
including photography, printmaking, film production, and
graphic design, to name a few. Let’s look at what a few of DANCE
Ballet, folk dance, swing, modern, tap, and hip-hop are a few
these entail.
forms of dance. Dance might also involve choreography, or
9
staged movement. You might not have been to a ballet or ated on the wall in your own bedroom and call yourself an art-
dance concert, but you’ve probably experienced dance ist? Some of these questions don’t have clear answers, and
through art forms like music videos, films, and musical thea- that’s okay! As you read through this chapter, continue to
tre. think about these questions and your own feelings about
them.
A R T I N Y O U R E V E R Y D AY L I F E
Think about ways you engage with art on a daily basis;
“Every human is an artist. The dream of your life is to
maybe you listen to music in the car, enjoy a particular de-
make beautiful art.”
signer’s brand of fashion, go to the movies regularly, or have ~Miguel Angel Ruiz, author
a print you love hanging on your wall. What do these things
bring to your life? Playwright George Bernard Shaw said,
REFLECTION
“Without art, the crudeness of reality would make the world Do you see any potential challenges or problems with defin-
unbearable.” Do you agree with him? What does this state- ing art, after reading this introduction? Hopefully your brain
ment mean? juices are flowing with ideas! In this chapter you’ll read more
about art, its functions and benefits, and the subjectivity sur-
“Without art, the crudeness of reality would make the rounding it.
world unbearable.”
~George Bernard Shaw, playwright
THE ARTIST
Miguel Angel Ruiz, author, said “Every human is an artist. The
dream of your life is to make beautiful art.” Do you consider
yourself an artist? Why or why not?
What does it take to make someone an artist? Is it important

they are paid for their work? That their work is published in a
public format? Is it enough to hang something you’ve cre-
10
C H A P T E R 1, S E C T I O N 2: B E N E F I T S A N D F U N C T I O N S O F A R T
SECTION 2
The Importance of
Art
Archeologists have discovered primitive
paintings on cave walls in France dating
back as far as 10,000 years. Prehistoric peo-
ple, whose primary concerns in life were stay-
ing alive, finding food, and establishing shel-
ter, took the time to reflect on their exis-
tence by painting on the walls. Why? What
purpose did it serve to paint? It presumably
did not help them capture more game, fash-
ion better weapons, or any other conceiv-
11
able purpose related to the day-to-day struggle to survive of

I NTERACTIVE 1.1 W HAT IS A RT FOR ?
primitive peoples. So the act of painting must have served to
do something else.
THE BENEFITS AND FUNCTIONS OF ART

Multiple studies have shown that there are benefits to art in
terms of raising students’ test scores, helping them do better
in math, and more. But it is also important to explore the in-
trinsic value of art—that is, art for art’s own sake. Creating for
the sake of creating Art, not just because it has a direct corre-
lation to test scores, but because it feeds us as a people.
“I found I could say things with color and shapes that I

couldn't say any other way - things I had no words for.”
~Georgia O’Keeffe, artist Check out this video created by philosopher Alain de Bot-
ton exploring why art is such a vital force for humanity,
then keep reading to look at some of his ideas in more
depth.
The benefits and functions of art are many. Check out this
video created by philosopher Alain de Botton exploring why from a particular period, one can glean an idea of what life
art is such a vital force for humanity, then keep reading to was like in ancient Greece, Rome, during the Renaissance,
look at some of his ideas in more depth. He suggests that art etc. Not only can it reflect what was happening historically,
should be a “constant source of support and encouragement but more interestingly can inform us about social and political
for our better selves;” what do you think? ideals, family life and values, the role of children in a society,
and so much more.
ART HOLDS A MIRROR UP TO LIFE
The arts are a reflection of us and our society. Visual art, mu- In the video Alain de Botton indicates that art “keeps us
sic, dance, and theatre capture moments in time; the feel of a hopeful” and “rebalances” us. Both of these are ways art re-
culture, the dynamics of a particular period. By examining art
12
flects the current situation and ideals of a society or commu- because it helps us see we are not alone in our experiences
nity. with love, loss, pain, etc.
A R T E D U C AT E S REFLECTION
Art teaches us about ourselves and our world. It has the abil- What has art brought to your life? What would society be like
ity to provoke by presenting a particular view of something— without art? Can you think of a time when art has somehow
a person, event, place—and opening up the chance to talk changed your perspective on something?
about how it affects us, how it moves us, how it spurs us to
change ourselves and our surroundings.
Alain de Botton suggests in the video that art “helps us ap-

preciate stuff” and serves as “propaganda for what really mat-
ters.” Imagine how powerful art must be if it can help us see
things in a new light or with a fresh perspective (even some-
thing as ordinary as oranges) and encourage us to be better
people!
ART CONNECTS PEOPLE

The arts have the ability to make us think and feel, as well as
to connect us to our community. When people in a commu-
nity gather to witness art, it provides an opportunity for
shared experiences, discussions, and bonding. In Chapter 2
you will read about the “live, communal experience of thea-
tre” and the unique transaction that occurs between an ac-
tors and their audience and between the audience and itself.
In the video Alain de Botton claims art “makes us less lonely”
13
C H A P T E R 1, S E C T I O N 3: T H E S U B J E C T I V I T Y O F A R T
SECTION 3
The Subjectivity
of Art
“One person’s trash is another person’s treas-

ure.” This common saying encompasses the
idea that art is subjective. That is, art is not
rooted in facts that can be definitively
proven “right” or “wrong.” It is based on
thoughts, feelings, emotions, and opin-
ions…none of which can be proven. One per-
Would you pay $1.5 million for the piece

on the left if it were by Pablo Picasso?
What if it were by a four-year old (which
it is...Wyatt Bohn, Snow on Trees, 2014)
14
C H A P T E R 1, S E C T I O N 3: T H E S U B J E C T I V I T Y O F A R T
son might find a work of art to be terrible, while another calls THE PRICE OF ART
the same work a masterpiece. This subjectivity makes it diffi- From a financial standpoint, art is worth whatever someone is
cult to quantify art in terms of its value. willing to pay for it. In November of 2017, a painting by Leon-
ardo da Vinci sold at an auction for $400 million, making it
“Art is a subjective thing, and it should be a subjective the most expensive piece of art in the world. Was it worth it?;
thing. And the difficulty of subjectivity is that it becomes only the buyer can answer that question.
hugely problematized when you start applying large sums
of money to art objects. That's where it all starts to get a Whether it is the cost of a print or front row tickets to a con-
bit sticky.” cert, how much buyers are willing to pay can determine how
much something is worth. Additionally, the number of people
~Tim Crouch, theatre maker
willing to pay a particular price can play a role in something’s
cost. Can you think of a particular piece of art you would be
W H AT M A K E S “ G O O D ” A R T ?
interested in acquiring or experiencing? How much would
So, art is subjective; does that mean there isn’t any way of de-
you be willing (and able!) to pay for it?
fining “good” art? Are there (or should there be) any univer-
sal standards by which art is measured? Should the skill in- REFLECTION
volved in making art be considered part of its worth? For ex- What’s an example of a work of art (visual art, music, dance,
ample, if a sculpture is well executed or a composition played film, theatre) that you love/hate about which someone feels
flawlessly, does that make it good? What is the value of art the opposite way? What do you think accounts for the differ-
that is well done? ence?
When you are considering a piece of art (be it a composition,

play, sculpture, etc.), you first think about whether or not you
like it. If it pleases you, or speaks to you in some manner, you
might say it is “good;” but is it possible to see value in art
that goes beyond your personal preferences?
15
C H A P T E R 1, S E C T I O N 4: S U M M A RY
CHAPTER ONE
Summary KEY WORDS & PHRASES
Art is an important part of a society’s culture. It brings a com- Art

munity together and creates opportunities for us to learn Value of art
about ourselves and the world around us—our past, present,
Benefits/functions of art
and future. Art has many forms, including visual arts, music,
Subjectivity of art
dance, and theatre. It’s subjective nature creates challenges
in terms of how it is valued and supported in society.
“The point of theatre is transformation: to make an ex-

traordinary event out of ordinary material right in front of
an audience's eyes. Where the germ of the idea came from
is pretty much irrelevant. What matters to every theatre
maker I know is speaking clearly to the audience 'right
now.'”
~Lee Hall, playwright
16
CHAPTER 1 REVIEW
CHAPTER 1
Review
Use the quiz below to assess your understanding and retention of the chapter. You may take it as many times as you like, so
feel free to review the chapter at any time and reassess your comprehension.
Question 1 of 5
Which of the benefits/functions of art is BEST described by the following statements:
--Art can teach us something about ourselves and our world. It has the ability to make us think and reflect on
A. Art holds a mirror up to life.
B. Art educates.
C. Art serves to connect people.
D. Art is subjective.
Check Answer
xvii
CHAPTER 2
What is Theatre?
SECTION 1
Introduction
LEARNING OBJECTIVES • Explain the importance of the live element of theatre
• Compare and Contrast theatre with other forms of

entertainment
• Explain Peter Brook’s idea of the “empty space”
• Appraise the difference between “theatre” and

“drama”
• Define “theatron” and “dran”
• Differentiate between the main uses of the word

“theatre”
• Describe the needs of a performance space “Theater is the place where we process the question of
how we want to live our lives.” (Peter Brook)
• Discuss the collaborative nature of theatre
19
T H E S I M P L I C I T Y O F T H E AT R E T H E AT R E A S A S PA C E
Peter Brook is an innovative and important British theatre art- One of the easiest ways to use the term theatre is in referring
ist, born in 1929. In his book The Empty Space, he discusses to a space - the physical space where theatre takes place. For
his views on theatre. Brook argues that all we need for thea- example, the Belasco Theatre is a 1016-seat venue on 44th
tre to take place is for someone to walk across an empty street in New York City. There are many different types of
space while someone else watches. This suggests all that is theatre spaces and we will discuss these more in depth in
truly needed for theatre to happen is a place to perform and Chapter 7.
a place to watch; a person to perform and a person to watch.
The first theatre spaces were simply circles of tramped-down
T H E M A N Y M E A N I N G S O F “ T H E AT R E ” wheat in fields where spectators would gather. From here,
The word drama comes from the Greek word dran meaning theatres slowly evolved; the Greeks and Romans built huge
“to do.” This indicates some form of action (for example, outdoor amphitheaters; the Medieval people fabricated pag-
walking across an empty space). The word theatre comes eant wagons; the Elizabethans created open-roof theatre
from the Greek word theatron, meaning “seeing place.” This spaces. It wasn’t until the 17th century the first proscenium
implies we need a place for people to watch the action. Peter style theatre was built - similar to many theatres today. You
Brooks ideas directly reflect the Greek roots of both the can check out some of these historical theatre spaces in Gal-
words drama and theatre. Understanding these two words lery 2.1.
and their roots can help us have a better understanding of
Theatre spaces have three predominate needs. First, actors
theatre itself. Check out Interactive Image 2.1 to see where
have to be able to enter and exit from somewhere. Second,
the Greek word theatron comes from and to learn more
the audience must be able to see the performance and third,
about parts of a Greek amphitheater.
they must be able to hear the performance, as well. Acous-
Drama tends to refer to the genre of literature, whereas thea- tics in a theatre are helped by special materials that either re-
tre tends to refer to the overall activity. In fact, the word thea- flect or absorb the sound.
tre refers to many different things. Keep reading to learn
about theatre as a SPACE, an ACTIVITY, and a COMPANY.
20
I NTERACTIVE 2.1 P ARTS OF A G REEK T HEATRE
THEATRON
THYMELE
ORCHESTRA
PARADOS
PROSKENIUM
SKENE
21
room. But theatre requires interaction between the director,

G ALLERY 2.1 T HEATRE S PACES
designer, actors, technicians, etc. in order to succeed.
T H E AT R E A S P E O P L E
Theatre can also mean the group of people that comprise a
theatre company or organization. As you just read, it takes a
great amount of effort from a number of people to engage in
the action of theatre. The people who undertake this action
are frequently referred to as a theatre company. For example,
the Guthrie Theatre is an organization in Minneapolis, and
the Wooly Mammoth Theatre Company is an organization in
Washington, DC.
Roman Coliseum
Theatre companies have a lot of balls to keep in the air in or-
der to flourish. The elements of playwriting, direction, design,
T H E AT R E A S A N A C T I V I T Y performance, backstage, audience, marketing, maintenance,
Theatre is work! Sometimes people think of it as just a hobby, and more all need to be managed efficiently. Theatre compa-
but it takes an extraordinary amount of time, energy, and ef- nies need leadership that is strong, visionary, and able to find
fort from many different people to get a production mounted the balance between stability and risk-taking. Check out the
from script to performance. We use this version of the word sample not-for-profit theatre organizational chart in Interac-
when making statements like, “I love theatre,” or “I am a tive Image 2.2 to see some of the people who make up these
theatre major.” In these instances theatre refers to an activity. companies and organizations. Not every theatre has a differ-
Theatre is collaborative by nature, which is one thing that ent person to fill each roll, sometimes one person serves mul-
sets it apart from some other art forms. If you are a painter, tiple functions. Tap the icons to learn more about what that
you can do that in the privacy of your studio by yourself. If person does.
you are a violinist, you can play your music alone in a practice
22
I NTERACTIVE 2.2 O RGANIZATIONAL C HART
Artistic Director Managing Director
Designers
Technical Director
Marketing Director
Stage Manager
Crew Members
23
C H A P T E R 2, S E C T I O N 2: T H E AT R E A S A C O M M U N A L E X P E R I E N C E
Section 2
Theatre as a Live,
Communal Experi-
ence
Theatre is live, so even though it is the same
script, the same actors, etc. every night,
there are subtle differences that occur with
each performance. An actor may have a
cold, trip on a piece of furniture, or deliver a
line more slowly than usual, creating little
variations in the experience. We will revisit
this idea and the importance of theatre’s live,
communal experience throughout the text.
24
C H A P T E R 2, S E C T I O N 2: T H E AT R E A S A C O M M U N A L E X P E R I E N C E
THE ACTORS AND THE AUDIENCE positively or negatively, by the other people in the crowd?
There is a transaction that happens between the actors and What did it do to your memory of that event? The next time
the audience, and between the audience and itself. The ac- you see a movie, visit an art gallery, or attend a play, think
tors sustain the audience with their energy, just as the audi- about how those around you influence your experience.
ence “feeds” the actors. A Sunday matinee and an audience
filled with mostly elderly people, has a very different energy
from a Friday night opening where patrons have come from a
cocktail party!
THE AUDIENCE AND ITSELF

Similarly, the audience has a relationship to itself. There is of-
ten a “herd” mentality in an audience, where it feels safer to
laugh if others are laughing; it feels right to be solemn when
others are. Imagine the difference between seeing a raucous
comedy with a sold-out crowd versus a smattering of people
scattered around the seats. The makeup of the audience
changes the experience for each performance. We will talk
more about the audience and it’s role in Chapter 4.
The end result of these variations and the transaction that oc-
curs is that each performance is a completely unique experi-
ence and the people in that audience are communally experi-
encing something no other audience ever will.
REFLECTION
What are some other unique, communal experiences? Can
you think of a time when your experience watching an event
(play, movie, TV, sporting event, etc.) was affected, either
25
C H A P T E R 2, S E C T I O N 3: T H E AT R E A N D O T H E R P O P U L A R M E D I A
SECTION 3
Theatre and Other

Popular Media
Theatre has a lot in common with other
forms of art such as opera, dance, music,
etc., however there are some elements of
theatre that set it distinctly apart from those
other art forms, and those differences are im-
portant. Let’s look at some of the similarities
and differences.
A Rock n’ Roll Concert. Note the theatri-

cal elements--lighting, set, costumes,
sound, etc.
26
T H E AT R E V S . T E L E V I S I O N A N D F I L M are in a theatre space where they are in the same room as

Television and film grew out of the tradition of theatre and you. This is important because it helps us understand why lan-
share many similar elements: actors, directors, designers, dra- guage, nudity, etc. are received differently on stage than in
matic scripts, costumes, etc. The LIVE element of theatre is film and television.
what separates it from TV and film; there is something special
In spite of these differences there many similarities between
and exciting about being present for the art that is being cre-
film/television and theatre and a number of individuals who
ated right in front of you. As you just read, an audience con-
begin working in theatre find themselves working in film and
tributes to the experience of a play as it interacts with the ac-
television as well. Examples include actors like Sir Patrick
tors and other audience members. When you see a movie in
Stewart, Denzel Washington, and Julie Andrews.
a theatre the other audience members may affect your experi-
ence, but they (and you) aren’t engaging with the actors in T H E AT R E V S . R O C K N ’ R O L L
any way; the film will be exactly the same every single time it As with television and film the rock n’ roll/music world and
is shown, regardless of who is in the audience. Even TV theatre share many similar elements. Both frequently involve
filmed before a live audience is different, because when you costumes, extravagant lighting, sets, rehearsal, a script of
watch it at home, it’s not live; you are not part of that shared, sorts (song lyrics), and when live (concerts) provide a unique
unique, communal experience. communal experience. There is also a lot of crossover for ac-
tors who sing and singers who act, like Sara Bareilles, Hugh
In film and television there are often “do-overs”- something
Jackman, Daniel Radcliff, and Brandy.
that doesn’t exist in theatre! If an actor forgets their lines or
accidentally skips to a different part of the play, they don’t Music videos and concerts are often very theatrical in presen-
get to start again; they must work with the other actors on tation and many musicals today have a rock n’ roll sound.
stage to get the story back on track. In film, the actors would However, concerts don’t typically have a through-line, plot, or
simply go back and begin the scene again. story that ties the songs together (though a music video
might) and focus on spectacle over storytelling. Concerts also
Additionally, film and television offer a different kind of inti-
tend to be more episodic; each song can stand alone. If you
macy compared to theatre. While you may be right up in
someone’s face, you’re not actually as close to them as you
27
arrived late at a concert, left early, or went to the bathroom in same stage as productions like A Midsummer Night’s Dream
the middle, you wouldn’t be lost for the rest of the concert. and Hamlet.
Additionally, musicians often follow a more fluid structure, de- Sports teams practice (rehearse), they have a coach (director),
pending on the audience, their mood, the venue, etc. to wear uniforms (costumes), play on a particular kind of field
shape the specific performance, while actors follow the same (set), and require team work (collaboration). While sports and
script every night. theatre have much in common, they are very different in one
key way: theatre is calculated and has a pre-ordained ending,
while sporting events do not.
“The makeup is simply an extension of the personality
and colors, clothing, makeup, all express something.”
We know how Romeo and Juliet ends, and it will always end
~Gene Simmons, musician (Kiss) the same way. No matter how many times you watch Romeo
and Juliet, the text will be the same, the events leading to
the conclusion will be the same, and the ending will be the
T H E AT R E V S . S P O R T S / G A M E S same. This eliminates some elements of suspense or surprise
While you might not suspect it at first, theatre and sports/ and allows the viewer to anticipate what will happen. While
games also have some shared qualities. To begin, both were you may be familiar with a team’s record and statistics, you
highly socialized events historically (in ancient Greece, Rome, cannot know what the outcome of the game will be for cer-
Renaissance England, etc.) Theatre and sports created an op- tain until it unfolds. For that matter you do not know what
portunity for people to gather together. As you’ve read, this events will occur (nor does the team) during the game - who
live, shared experience, is a key component of theatre! will have the ball, what plays will be executed, will any play-
ers be injured, etc. The fact that sporting events are left to
Historically, theatre and sporting events also shared spaces.
chance (with the exception of the occasional cheating scan-
In ancient Rome’s Coliseum, they would have a gladiator bat-
dal) is part of their appeal and the primary difference be-
tle one day and then flood it and stage an epic sea battle
tween theatre and sports.
with boats the next. In the Globe Theatre, bear-baiting
matches (pitting a dog against a bear) took place on the
28
CHAPTER TWO
The word theatre comes from the Greek theatron meaning Peter Brook
“to see” and the word drama comes from the Greek dran Parts of an ancient Greek Theatre
meaning “to do.” Peter Brook’s suggestion that the only
Different meanings of “theatre”
things needed for theatre to happen are a place to perform
Theatre as a space and activity
and a place to watch reflects these Greek roots. The word
theatre can refer to a SPACE, an ACTIVITY, or a PEOPLE. Collaborative nature of theatre
Division of Labor in theatre

Collaborative by nature theatre requires a lot of different,
very talented people to get a show from page to stage. Most Theatre as a communal experience
importantly, theatre is a LIVE, communal experience, making Theatre vs. television and film
the audience a key aspect of the production. While theatre is Theatre vs. rock n’ roll/music
similar to film and television in many ways, this live element is
Theatre vs. sporting events
what makes theatre special.
Similarly, theatre shares many things in common with sports

and games, however, the unscripted nature of the sporting
events (which is a key component to them) makes them very
different from most theatre experiences.
29
CHAPTER 2 REVIEW
CHAPTER 2
Review
Question 1 of 7
Peter Brook said what two things were all that is needed for theatre to take place?
A. A director and an actor
B. A set and costumes
C. A place to perform and a place to watch
D. An actor and a written script
Check Answer
xxx
CHAPTER 3
What is a Play?
Introduction
LEARNING OBJECTIVES • Explain “willing suspension of disbelief” and its role

in theatre
• Identify elements of climactic structure
• Discuss why a play is not “complete” until it has
been realized in production
• Define the word “genre” and recall the two main Math’s basic unit is numbers; Chemistry’s basic unit is ele-
genres of theatre ments, Reading’s basic unit is words…Theatre’s basic unit is
• Identify characteristics of classical tragedy and the play. Think back to the Greek word dran, meaning “to
classical comedy do”; a play is something that is done; it is ACTION.
• Recall Aristotle and the components of drama While you can certainly just read a play, the play is not truly
• Connect the idea of theatrical convention as a realized until it has been put into full production on stage.
component of drama Plays are designed to be seen. As you read in the last chap-
32
ter, theatre’s live, communal experience is part of what makes As you can see, the word play can mean many different
it unique. Without the audience and the energy it brings, the things, and can be used as a verb or a noun. This makes the
play is not complete. word ideal for describing what theatre practitioners do! A
play exists as a thing you can see, work on, and experience,
Oxford Dictionaries defines play in the following manner:
but it also suggests that those involved (from the actors, direc-
tor and designers to the audience members) must participate
“P L AY ” ( V E R B ) in some way.
• Engage in activity for enjoyment and recreation

rather than a serious or practical purpose.
• Take part in (a sport).
• Represent (a character) in a theatrical performance

or on film.
• Perform on (a musical instrument).
“P L AY ” ( N O U N )
• Activity engaged in for enjoyment and recreation,

esp. by children.
• The conducting of an athletic match or contest.
• A dramatic work for the stage or to be broadcast.
http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/play
33
C H A P T E R 3, S E C T I O N 2: C L A S S I F Y I N G P L AY S
SECTION 2
Classifying Plays
The word genre comes from the French
word for “kind” or “type.” Referring to plays
by their genre can be helpful for discussing
them, but there are other ways of classifying
plays as well.
“Genre expectations can kill creativity. If

you do something different, it will get
hated...For me, I have a hard time being
creative when I have to color in between
the lines.”
~David Ayer
34
D U R AT I O N intermission or not will depend on how many plays are being

One of the simplest ways to classify plays is by their duration. presented.
If you have never seen a play before you may not have an
idea of how long a play generally lasts; let’s look at some ex-
amples together. D U R AT I O N
F U L L L E N G T H P L AY S • Full Length
Full-length plays are typically 2-3 hours long and include a
• One Act
10-15 minute intermission about half way through. While
2-2.5 hours is preferred by many, three hours is not uncom- • Ten Minute
mon for Shakespeare’s plays and musical theatre.
O N E A C T P L AY S GENRE
Plays ranging from about 30-90 minutes are known as one- Not specific to theatre, genre is perhaps the most common
act plays are are generally presented without an intermission way to classify plays. Genres can be used to talk about art,
(in one act). Sometimes two one-act plays might be pre- music, literature, films, television, and many other things, so
many people are familiar with the idea of genres, and many
sented together as an evening of theatre and then one play
genres apply to a variety of things.
would be presented prior to intermission and the other after
intermission. The two main genres of plays are tragedy and comedy, how-
ever, there are many others, including metatheatre, realism,
T E N -M I N U T E P L AY S restoration comedy, morality, dramatic, improvisational, and
While ten-minute plays suggest they are exactly 10 minutes
performance art, among others. Plays can have elements of
each, this term can refer to plays approximately 5-15 minutes
more than one genre, as well.
long. Frequently ten-minute plays are presented as part of a
collection; you might see six or eight ten-minute plays by one Let’s look at the two main genres of theatre in more depth
playwright, for example. Ten-minute play festivals might fea- and consider their histories.
ture a collection of playwrights, be based around a common
theme, or be completely unrelated! Whether they include an
35
TRAGEDY ences needed a break after watching so many tragedies! We

Classical tragedy (and Western theatre in general) originated will discuss the Festival of Dionysus more in Chapter 9.
in ancient Greece in the 4th and 5th centuries B.C.E., but
also applies to the Renaissance (Shakespeare), etc. In a classi- Comedies historically have happy endings, often involving a
wedding. Comedic characters are concerned with the human
cal tragedy, the main character, the protagonist, was typically
body - bodily functions or it’s desire for sex, food, etc. Fre-
of high rank (a king, prince, nobleman, etc.). This protagonist
quently there is an exaggeration of physical activities or char-
has some form of “tragic flaw” (pride, ambition, greed, etc.)
acters known as “slap-stick.”
that leads to their eventual downfall and they endure a series
of events that cause great suffering and often end in death. Comedy was not held in as high esteem as tragedy in ancient
theatre, but we have come to realize that comedy can be
The protagonist must learn a lesson through their suffering; a
smart, clever, intelligent, and have meaning. However, some-
self-recognition leads to a catharsis or purging of emotion
times comedy is still seen as less important, less “worthy”
that the audience also experiences.
than more serious work. Only two comedies (Shakespeare in
The protagonist in a modern tragedy has many of the same Love and The Artist) have won Best Picture in the past 30
characteristics, however, protagonists are now frequently of years. Comedic nominees for acting also rarely win.
lower rank (ordinary people). While tragedies are generally se-
rious in nature, there can be moments of levity, as well. These
moments of levity make it important to understand the char- GENRE
acteristics of a tragedy: it’s about more than being “sad” or
• Comedy
ending poorly.
• Tragedy
COMEDY
Comedies also started back in ancient Greece, where they • Many Others!
were mainly bawdy, lewd, and informal. Greek playwrights
wrote 3 tragedies and 1 comedy to enter in the Festival of
Dionysus. The comedies were quite literally comic relief; audi-
36
REFLECTION
Consider why people “enjoy” watching tragedies; what do
we gain by going along the difficult journey with the charac-
ters? In Chapter 1 you read about the ability of art to keep us
from feeling alone; do you think this is related?
Have you ever experienced catharsis while watching a movie,

TV show, or play? How did it make you feel? Often there is a
great feeling of relief afterwards, as if a weight has been
lifted or something has been purged from your life.
What makes a comedy funny? If you think about the actual cir-
cumstances, it’s not funny to whom it’s happening, so what is
done by the playwright, director, actors, etc. that makes it
funny? Comedy can often be a good teaching tool and way
to address more serious issues like corruption, politics, social
injustice, etc. What is it about comedy that might make it use-
ful in this way?
37
C H A P T E R 3, S E C T I O N 3: A R I S T O T L E A N D T H E P O E T I C S
SECTION 3
Aristotle and
The Poetics
Aristotle was a philosopher in ancient

Greece who first formalized the process of
examining and analyzing theatre. He is some-
times known as the “father of dramatic criti-
cism.” and in 335 B.C.E. he wrote an essay
called The Poetics, in which he broke down
the analysis of literature (dramatic lit in par-
ticular) to six components of drama: plot,
character, theme, diction, melody, and spec-
tacle.
Bust of Aristotle. Marble, Roman copy

after a Greek bronze original by Lysip-
pos from 330 BC; the alabaster mantle
is a modern addition.
38
ARISTOTLE’S POETICS THEME

Theme refers to the central message or central idea of the
PLOT play, such as the horrors of war, the importance of family, or
Plot is not synonymous with story; story is the narrative or de-
the fickle nature of love. For example, the theme of The
scription of what happens. The story of The Three Little Pigs
Three Little Pigs might be “Taking time to do things right and
is that three porcine siblings try to make their way in the
patience lead to success,” however, there can be more than
world while escaping the clutches of an evil wolf.
one theme. Different people might see different themes in a
Plot is the sequence of events in a play, the timetable, the play or piece of literature, and that is okay, too! A good
structure of actions. For instance, the plot of The Three Little theme will offer a message without being too “preachy.” We
Pigs is the three brothers set out from their childhood home, will talk more about theme and how it relates to producing a
then they each build a house of different materials, then a play when we get to Chapter 6.
wolf destroys the first home and then the second home, etc.
DICTION
CHARACTER
Diction for Aristotle had a different connotation—it didn’t
Character refers to the figures who undertake the events of
mean the way the actors pronounced things. In The Poetics it
the plot. The characters in “The Three Little Pigs” are the 3
refers to the way the playwright uses language. The use of
pigs, the wolf, and the pigs’ mother (depending on the ver-
diction in “The Three Little Pigs” might reflect the fact that
sion). While characters are typically human figures, there are
it’s a children’s story--short words, simple vocabulary, etc.
plays with dogs, fairies, witches, beasts, manifestations of ab-
stract concepts, etc. (as seen in the story of The Three Little It varies greatly in theatre. Some playwrights write in a very
Pigs). common vernacular, while others use very elevated language.
Think about the way language is used in The Great Gatsby
On some level the audience has to care about the characters
versus The Fast and the Furious.
and what’s happening to them.
39
MUSIC
In ancient Greece, all plays were chanted or sung, so that was THE POETICS
Aristotle’s original context for music. These plays are often re-
ferred to as being written “in verse.” You can find and exam- • Plot
ple of this text in Chapter 9. Today, music also refers to the

• Character
use of live or pre-recorded music (pre-show, intermission,
etc.), sound effects, and more. In The Three Little Pigs music • Theme
might include sound effects of the wolf huffing and puffing as
• Diction
well as the straw house tumbling down.
• Music
S P E C TA C L E
Spectacle here does not refer to “spectacular;” it means • Spectacle
something that is seen, like glasses are spectacles. It refers to
• Convention (added)
the visual elements of a show such as costumes, scenery, and
makeup, to name a few. In The Three Little Pigs spectacle in-
cludes the pig and wolf, costumes as well the special effects
CONVENTION
that allow for the houses to blow over.
Although not part of Aristotle’s original essay it is important
Spectacle in theatre has changed dramatically throughout his- to understand an additional component of drama as well:
tory as technology has changed. During Aristotle’s time, there convention. Convention refers to the sort of “shorthand”
were no lighting fixtures, no automated set pieces moving that occurs between the audience and production that is part
around; but visual elements have always been an aspect of of the willing suspension of disbelief.
theatre. Even though today’s audiences love to see elaborate
For example, when the lights go out at the end of a scene,
costumes, moving lights, grandiose sets, and large casts, it’s
the audience understands it’s because the scene is over, not
important to remember that in regard to The Poetics, specta-
because there’s been a power outage. Similarly, when an ac-
cle simply refers to what is seen, not how impressive it is.
tor on stage whispers something that the audience can hear,
40
we accept that they other characters on stage could not hear

“With theatre, we all agree to suspend our disbelief about so
what was said. These are just a few examples of conventions many things, but not about race. It's totally OK to have one
used in theatre. actor playing five roles - people are willing to believe that.
But they won't believe it if there's a black or an Asian kid
Of particular note in the area of theatrical convention is that who has white parents. What does that say about us?”
of the “willing suspension of disbelief.” This phrase was ~David Henry Hwang, playwright
coined by Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834), a British
writer and philosopher. The two parts of the willing suspen- Today, diversity in casting is becoming more prevalent,
sion of disbelief are: though it is still not practiced by everyone. We will look at
the changing dynamic of diversity more in Chapter 10.
1. The audience knows that what they’re watching isn’t real,
but… REFLECTION
Can you think of a time when you engaged in willing suspen-
2. They allow themselves to engage in the journey and enjoy sion of disbelief? Are there other forms of theatrical conven-
it anyway. tion you have seen? How did they contribute to your experi-
In the previous example of convention, the audience KNOWS ence? If you are not willing to engage in the willing suspen-
the other actors on stage heard what the first actor “whis- sion of disbelief, it can be very difficult to enjoy yourself! The
pered” but CHOOSES to accept that they did not because it next time you go to a play, opera, ballet, concert, or other
contributes to the story. Think of how hard it would be to en- theatrical event, try to go with an open mind and let yourself
joy theatre, film, television, novels, etc. if we couldn’t sus- become immersed in the magic of storytelling!
pend our disbelief! “Well, I would have liked Zootopia, but

c’mon...animals don’t talk! It was totally unrealistic.”
Tony award winning playwright David Henry Hwang said the

following about convention and modern audiences:
41
C H A P T E R 3, S E C T I O N 4: D R A M AT I C S T R U C T U R E
SECTION 4
Dramatic Structure
Dramatic Structure refers to the framework
of the story that is being told in a play or
film. The most well-known and utilized dra-
matic structure is known as climactic struc-
ture, where the plot has a cause-and-effect
framework.
Think of dominoes falling—one event hap-

pens, which causes another one, and so on.
While this form is the most well-known, it is
not the only one. Let’s look at some forms of
dramatic structure together.
Actors work on a Greek Theatre project

in a Period Styles in Acting class.
42
T Y P E S O F D R A M AT I C S T R U C T U R E set off into the world and each built their house and lived hap-
pily ever after! No wolf = no conflict = BORING.
CLIMACTIC STRUCTURE
Climactic structure follows a cause-and-effect sort of storytel- Climax: The moment of maximum tension; it becomes impos-
ling where one action leads to another. They frequently fol- sible for the conflict to go any further—something must give!
low one storyline and the action takes place over a brief pe- In The Three Little Pigs the conflict is likely to be when the
riod of time. Plays with climactic structure have SIX main wolf is trying to get into the third pig’s house, climbing down
parts: Exposition, Inciting Incident, Rising Action, Climax, Fal- the chimney.
ling Action, and Denouement.
Falling Action: Conflict unravels, starts to move towards a
Exposition: Background information needed to place things close and the tension of the climax is released.
in context. Going back to our Three Little Pigs model, the ex-
Resolution: This is a turning point in the series of events - the
position we’d need to understand the story is that the pigs
pigs are no longer in danger. The wolf has fallen into the pot
are brothers, they want to make their way in the world, and
of boiling water, burning fire, etc. and we know the pigs will
the mother encourages them to always do their best.
now be safe.
Inciting Incident: The event or happening that sets the
course of action moving forward. For instance, the pigs decid-
ing to set off in the world. The status quo (the world as we
know it) has been altered. Without this event, the events that
follow would not occur.
Rising Action: Subsequent events (generally conflicts) build- Resolution

ing towards the play’s climax. Good theatre has conflict; we
want to see people struggling to overcome adversity. No con-
flict means it’s just an ordinary day! No one wants to pay to
see that… Think how boring it would be if the three little pigs
Climactic Structure
43
Denouement: What happens after the resolution. The pigs Episodic plays can have many climaxes, resolutions, and con-
reflect on the theme of hard work and patience paying off in flicts, Think of it like a journey: the characters encounter
the end and live “happily-ever-after.” many different situations and have a variety of experiences
that shape them from the beginning to the end. Ultimately
there is still one overarching story - the story of their journey:
what they learned and accomplished, who they met, and how
CLIMACTIC STRUCTURE
they changed. Television shows often follow episodic struc-
• Exposition ture; each episode can stand alone, but together they lead
toward some kind of conclusion.
• Inciting Incident
• Rising Action
• Climax
• Falling Action
• Denouement
EPISODIC STRUCTURE Episodic Structure
Plays written with episodic structure generally feature a lot O T H E R T Y P E S O F D R A M AT I C S T R U C T U R E

of characters and take place over a number of years and in a In addition to climactic and episodic, there are other types of
variety of locations. Rather than condensing the story, epi- dramatic structure. Plays may follow a combination of struc-
sodic structure draws it out and the play frequently includes tures, jump around in time, begin at the end, include a num-
subplots in addition to the main story. ber of subplots and numerous other variations. Dramatic
44
structure refers to the framework of the story - what that

framework looks like depends on the playwright’s intent!
REFLECTION
Which type of dramatic structure are you most familiar with?
Do you prefer one to another? Can you think of some other
types of structures you have experienced?
45
CHAPTER THREE
Theatre’s basic unit is the play. The use of “play” as a verb Play
and a noun gives us a better understanding of what a theatri- Genre
cal play is - it isn’t just a thing, it also requires action! As an
Tragedy
audience member, you are expected to participate and en-
Comedy
gage in the production and because of this key factor, plays
are not considered truly complete until they are being per- Aristotle and The Poetics
formed. Dramatic structure
While plays can be classified in a variety of ways, the two Six parts of climactic structure
main genres of theatre are tragedy and comedy. These grew

out of the traditions of ancient Greece, but characteristics of
tragedies and comedies have changed over time.
In spite of these changes, there are many aspects of theatre

which remain the same. In his Poetics, Aristotle wrote about
the six components of drama and their roles; many of these
still form the foundation for contemporary theatre. He also
wrote about dramatic structure and the need for a beginning,
middle, and and end. While not all plays follow Aristotle’s
structure (climactic structure), they all use some type of frame-
work around which to build their stories. These frameworks
are known as dramatic structures.
46
CHAPTER 3 REVIEW
CHAPTER 3
Review
Question 1 of 8
Theatre’s basic unit is the __________
A. Plot
B. Director
C. Actor
D. Play
Check Answer
xlvii
CHAPTER 4
Who is the Audience?

SECTION 1
Introduction
As mentioned in Chapter 2, the LIVE element of theatre is
LEARNING OBJECTIVES part of what makes it so unique as an art form. The interac-
tion between the actors and the audience is a living, breath-
ing organism that responds and changes with changes in en-
• Recall qualities of a good audience member ergy and dynamics. It is important that audience members un-
• Identify strategies to enhance the live theatrical derstand more about what might be expected of them at a
experience as an audience member live theatrical performance, qualities of a good audience
• Compare and contrast different forms of theatre and members, tips for theatre etiquette, and some thoughts
where to find them about how to make the theatre-going experience a positive
• Explain the role of a theatre critic one.
• Identify a critic’s considerations when viewing a

production
• Recognize qualities of a good critic
49
If you have never been to a theatrical event before, you tors, sponsors, and upcoming productions. Sometimes there
might not know what to expect. Let’s look briefly at the expe- are also director’s notes or a brief summary of the play to fa-
rience from start to finish. cilitate your experience. Getting to your seat early allows you
a few minutes to look around the theatre, thumb through the
S E E I N G A P L AY
program, and take in the stage.
When you arrive at the theatre, you will most likely enter the
outer lobby, first. Here you generally find the ticket booth Before the play begins there will be a house announcement.
and can pick up your tickets at will call if you purchased them This may be pre-recorded and played through a speaker sys-
in advance. From the outer lobby you’ll move into the main tem or it might be given live. During the announcement you
lobby of the theatre; this one is often more elaborately deco- will be asked to turn off your phone and other electronic de-
rated and may have a few seating areas scattered around. vices.
The main lobby is a place for audience members to mingle
Now the play can finally begin, so sit back, relax, and enjoy
before/after the show, and during intermission. You will find
the show! If there is an intermission, you will have 10-20 min-
access to the restrooms here. Arriving early ensures you have
utes to stretch your legs and get a drink before the second
plenty of time to get your tickets, familiarize yourself with the
act. Theatre’s frequently flash the lights in the main lobby as a
theatre, and use the restroom before taking your seat.
warning the play is about to begin again.
As you entered the main lobby you might be greeted by the
At the conclusion of the play, the actors will participate in a
house manager. The house manager can assist you with find-
curtain call. During the curtain call actors return to the stage
ing the restrooms, fountains, trashcans, and the best entrance
to be recognized by the audience for their performance. This
to the theatre based on your seats. When you’re ready, enter
is your chance to applaud the actors and the production as a
the theatre!
whole. Sometimes audiences choose to give a show a stand-
Someone will take your ticket (or scan it) as you enter the ing ovation, rising out of their seat as they clap for a particu-
theatre and an usher will help you find your seat. They will larly outstanding performance.
probably provide you with a program, as well. In the pro-
gram you’ll find information about the production team, ac-
50
REFLECTION
Now that you have an idea what to expect when you attend RECAP, CHAPTERS 1-3
the theatre, hopefully some of your fears are assuaged. It
can be fun to go with someone because there is a lot to see • Every theatrical performance is a unique, communal
and talk about, especially afterward! experience that will never happen exactly the same
way again.
Think back on your experiences as an audience member for
various events—movies, church, speaking engagements, wed- • The relationship of the actor to the audience needs
dings or funerals, sporting events, etc. What elements contrib- to be considered, as well as that of the audience to
uted to your experience either positively or negatively? Did itself.
you know what was expected of you? How did either know-
• The “willing suspension of disbelief” is the notion
ing or not knowing affect your experience?? that the audience knows that what they’re watching
isn’t real, but they consciously allow themselves to
engage in the story.
51
C H A P T E R 4, S E C T I O N 2: E X P E C TAT I O N S F O R T H E A U D I E N C E
SECTION 2
Expectations for
the Audience
BRAINSTORM:
What are qualities of a good audience mem-
ber? What behaviors and practices will en-
sure that you are being respectful to the
theatre space, the artists, and the other audi-
ence members?
The lobby of the Fowler Center, Arkan-

sas State University. The lobby of a thea-
tre is often the first experience the audi-
ence has with the production.
52
QUALITIES OF A GOOD AUDIENCE MEMBER do if you arrive late or leave early, are distracted by a cell
In addition to creating a positive experience for yourself, it is phone or other device, or engage in conversation during the
important to respect those around you and their experiences performance. Here are a few things you can do to ensure you
as well. You will be best able to enjoy the performance and get the most out of your experience, and those around you
ensure the enjoyment of those around you if you are: do too.
• On time A R R I V E E A R LY
Always arrive at least 15 minutes early to the theatre. This al-
• Respectful
lows time to get to your seat without rushing and to preview
• Open-Minded the production program. The program often gives informa-
tion about the play that is helpful to the viewer such as time
• Observant
and place.
T H E AT R E E T I Q U E T T E
NO FOOD OR DRINK
Attending the theatre is not as common for everyone as it
Please don’t bring any food or drink to the theatre. Eating
used to be. Often people in an introductory theatre apprecia-
and drinking can be disruptive and can interfere with audi-
tion class such as this one have never been to see a live play,
ence members’ ability to listen to the play. Even if conces-
so it is important you understand what is expected of you as
sions are sold, consume them in the lobby and don’t bring
a respectful audience member. This will improve your experi-
them into the theatre.
ence, as well as the experience of those around you. In Chap-
ter 2 you read about the transaction that happens between NO TALKING
the actors and the audience, and between the audience and Talking during the performance is disruptive to other audi-
itself; this is part of what contributes to the unique, live, com- ence members and disrespectful to the performers.
munal experience. L E AV E T H E K I D S AT H O M E ( E X C E P T F O R A K I D ’ S S H O W )
If you have any questions about whether or not a show would
In order to do your part as an audience member, you must be
be appropriate for a child you are interested in bringing, call
prepared to engage in the production fully (remember,
“play” is a verb and requires some action). This is difficult to
53
the box office. Many theatres do not allow children under a performers. Furthermore, leaving the theatre prior to the rais-
certain age into the performance. ing of the house lights may be hazardous.
S TAY I N Y O U R S E AT AVOID TAKING NOTES DURING THE SHOW

Entering and exiting the theatre during the performance is Note-taking can be disruptive to audience members. One
disruptive to the other audience members, distracting to the will understand and retain information more effectively by
performers, and possibly unsafe during scene or lighting watching and listening without taking notes. Consider jotting
changes. down notes during intermission and immediately after the
show.
NO PICTURES OR VIDEOS
The taking of photographs and/or any form of recording of a D R E S S A P P R O P R I AT E LY
published play without specific permission is a violation of What should you wear to the theatre? While most theatre’s
the copyright laws. don’t have a specific dress code, it can be fun to think of it as
a special occasion and dress appropriately. Put on your favor-
TURN OFF CELL PHONES, IPADS, ETC.
ite shirt and a clean pair of jeans, or feel free to wear a skirt
Any noise-making device is disruptive to audience members
or dress. Consider taking a light sweater or jacket, too,
and distracting to the performers. Texting is also inappropri-
bcause theatres can be quite cold!
ate, as the screen lights up and is very obvious. Additionally,
cell phones can interrupt the functioning of the theatre’s TIPS FOR MAKING A GOOD EXPERIENCE
sound system. In addition to following some general rules of theatre eti-
quette, there are a few other things you can do to add to the
R E S P E C T T H E T H E AT R E S PA C E
quality of your experience. Consider some of the following
Avoid placing feet on the seats or seat backs, littering, or
as you prepare for your night at the theatre:
causing any harm to the theatre.
•Go with an open mind: Be ready to enjoy the play! If you
R E M A I N I N T H E T H E AT R E U N T I L T H E E N D
Leaving before or during the curtain call is disruptive to other are convinced you will not like it and will not have a good
audience members, distracting as well as disrespectful to the time, it will be very difficult for you to do either. Having
54
an open mind puts you in a good mindset for experienc- you are going to see. This can help you know if there is
ing the play. anything that might delight or offend you, wether it is ap-
propriate to bring your children (or your mother!) with
•Bring a friend: Having someone to share the experience
you, or simply what genre the play is.
is always good - just like at the movies, it’s great to have
some you can talk to about the experience during (at in- Each of these actions can contribute greatly to your experi-
termission!) and after the play. It also makes it a little less ence and enhance your enjoyment of the production you are
intimidating and, let’s be honest, who wants to go alone? seeing!
•Stay focused on the performance and be present in the REFLECTION

moment: If you allow yourself to be distracted from the Is there anything about going to see a live play that makes
play, it will be harder for you to enjoy it. You may not un- you nervous, anxious, or uncomfortable? If so, can you think
derstand some of the plot, miss humorous things the char- of something you can do to ease that tension before you go?
acters say or do, and you’ll be distracting those around
you, too.
•If you have special accommodations you need, be sure to

contact the theatre ahead of time: Theatre’s want to ac-
commodate their patrons, but they cannot do that if they
are not aware of these accommodations.
•Be polite, considerate, and respectful: This is just a good

life rule - treat other people the way you would like to be
treated. This can go a long way to creating a positive ex-
perience for you and others.
•Find out something about the show before you go: Some-
times it can be helpful to know a little bit about the play
55
56
C H A P T E R 4, S E C T I O N 3: T Y P E S O F T H E AT R E O R G A N I Z AT I O N S
SECTION 3
Types of Theatre
Organizations
Often, people associate “theatre” with

“Broadway,” but theatre can be found pretty
much in any town in America, if you know
where to look! What kind of theatre is near
you?
“In terms of theater, there’s not a more

supportive theater community than in New
York. It’s really kind of a real thrill to go
there. I mean, don’t forget, I’m a boy from
the suburbs of Sydney, so getting to New
York is a huge, huge thrill. “
~Hugh Jackman
Times Square, New York City
57
This type of theatre includes Broadway, national tours, and

M A I N O R G A N I Z AT I O N A L S T R U C T U R E S F O R some dinner theatres/summer stock.
T H E AT R E
Commercial theatre is very risky; especially on Broadway, pro-
Not-for-Profit Professional
ducers risk thousands to millions of their own money to see a
Commercial project take off, and they might not get any of it back!
Community/Amateur C O M M U N I T Y /A M AT E U R
Community theatre often gets a bum rap, but remember
Educational that the derivation of the word “amateur” means LOVER; so
amateur theatre (like community theatre) is being produced
by people who are doing theatre just because they love it.
NOT-FOR-PROFIT PROFESSIONAL
With the exception of a few key management positions, com-
Not-for-profit theatre: “Non-profit” doesn’t mean that it
munity theatre artists typically aren’t paid for their time, en-
doesn’t make a profit; it just means that any money taken in
ergy, and effort. They are there for the love of the craft.
(via ticket sales, donations, advertising, etc.) that goes over
the spending for the season goes back into the budget for E D U C AT I O N A L
the next season. Educational theatre is any work that is done with some sort
of teaching or training associated with it. This type of theatre
This includes regional theatre, off-, off-off, off-off-off Broad-
includes college and university theatre all the way down to
way, etc.
elementary school and pre-K, as well as professional training
COMMERCIAL programs.
Commercial theatre is out to make a profit. Producers invest
T H E AT R E F O R Y O U T H
money to finance a project, and they (hopefully) receive a re-
Theatre for Youth (sometimes called Theatre for Young Audi-
turn on their investment if the show is successful.
ences or TYA) encompasses two main types of programming:
Either adult performers who are creating theatre for young
58
audiences, and/or adult artists teaching children and direct-

ing them to star in the productions themselves. Theatre for
youth by its nature is a type of educational theatre. Many
companies offer classes as well as a full season of staged pro-
ductions.
REFLECTION
Do you know where and how you can find theatre near you?
What are some specific challenges that educational theatre
might face?
“If you take a child to the theater, not only will they practice
empathy, they might also laugh uproariously or come home
singing about science, or want to know more about history,
or tell you what happened at school today, or spend all din-
ner discussing music, or learn how to handle conflict, or start
becoming future patrons of the arts.”
~Lauren Gunderson, playwright
59
C H A P T E R 4, S E C T I O N 4 : T H E C R I T I C
SECTION 4
The Critic
Merriam Webster defines critic as:
1 a : one who expresses a reasoned opinion on

any matter especially involving a judgment of its
value, truth, righteousness, beauty, or technique
b : one who engages often professionally in the

analysis, evaluation, or appreciation of works of
art or artistic performances
(2 : one given to harsh or captious judgment)
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/critic
60
T H E AT R E C R I T I C S D R A M AT I C C R I T I C I S M
It is the first definition of “critic” on the previous page with Dramatic criticism is a more formalized version of the type of
which we will concern ourselves primarily. The use of the processing that goes on by the average theatre-goer. Theatre
phrase “reasoned opinion” and words such as “analysis,” critics help us to put the show into perspective and give us a
“evaluation,” and “appreciation” are very important when framework in which to examine the production, but ultimately
considering the idea of a theatre critic…they are not evil mon- whether or not a play is “good” depends on each audience
sters who are just out to humiliate and tear down a produc- member’s individual aesthetic.
tion. A critic serves as a guide for the audience. S/He pro-
Think back to Chapter 1, when we discussed the challenges
vides a historical, artistic, and informed perspective on that
faced when trying to assign value to art…what makes some-
particular production and how it fits in with the canon.
thing good or bad? A critic can help shed some light.
When you see a play, the experience is not over just because
F O R M S O F D R A M AT I C C R I T I C I S M
you leave the theatre. You continue processing your experi-
Professional dramatic criticism can be found in several forms:
ence afterward, discussing what you’ve seen as you walk to
your car or over coffee the next morning. • Newspapers and magazines
• Scholarly journals and academic books

YOU THINK ABOUT QUESTIONS LIKE...
• Online reviews and magazines
Did I like it? Why or why not?
Reviews in journals and books don’t tend to have as much im-
What was the message? Was it successfully conveyed? pact on the immediate production, as they are published
later, often after the production has closed. However, a re-
How did this show affect me and what will I take away view by a big newspaper like The New York Times can make
from it? or break the run (and the commercial success) of a multi-
What was the production itself like? million dollar Broadway show. Newspapers and online re-
sources provide the fastest, most immediate opportunities for
reviewers because of their immediacy. These venues allow
61
critics to publish their thoughts and impressions within hours STUDENT CRITICS
of seeing a production! Students in this course are not professional critics, but that
doesn’t mean you aren’t critics. Your viewing experience and
“The critic has to educate the public; the artist has to edu- your ideas about a show are just as valid as a professional’s.
cate the critic.” There are some who would probably value your review of a
~Oscar Wilde, playwright production over that of a critic because they know you and
trust you.
As an audience member today you have a lot of resources

available to you to share your experiences, namely through
social media outlets. A theatre appreciation class is designed
to give you the ability to place your viewing experience in
context. This text and coursework should give you the tools
and information to make you a more skilled and knowledge-
able theatre-goer.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD CRITIC

What do we expect out of a qualified critic? If s/he can make
or break a major Broadway show, we should hold them to a
high standard.
Let’s explore the qualities of a good critic.
BACKGROUND & TRAINING

We expect a professional critic to have some sort of back-
ground and training in theatre. She needs to know what she’s
talking about.
Playwright Oscar Wilde
62
O B S E R VA N T REFLECTION
A critic should be observant. He has to be able to take in Do you think of yourself as a theatre critic? Why or why not?
every aspect and element of a production. What does the presence of a critic do to the work/event be-
ing evaluated? Have you ever been part of an event that was
GOOD WRITERS
being critiqued? It can be difficult feeling like your work is be-
Critics have to be articulate and know how to economically
ing judged when a critic is present. Remember, their job is to
and effectively put their thoughts down on paper.
provide their perspective, nothing else.
RESPECTFUL & FAIR
She goes into a production with an open mind, ready to en- The next time someone recommends a restaurant or tells you
joy it (not expecting to hate it), considering all the hard work to go see a particular movie, ask yourself if you value and
that went into it. trust their opinion on the subject and consider if they are ob-
servant, fair, and honest!
H I G H E X P E C TAT I O N S
This doesn’t mean that he thinks that every play should neces-
sarily be Tony-worthy, but that every artist involved should be
putting in their best work.
HONEST
This aspect of dramatic criticism helps to keep the work hon-
est. If a company knows it is going to be reviewed, it is more
likely to put in the time, energy, and effort to make it the best
it can be.
“A good writer is not, per se, a good book critic. No more

so than a good drunk is automatically a good bartender.”
~Jim Bishop, author
63
C H A P T E R 4, S E C T I O N 5: T H E C R I T I C ’ S C O N C E R N S
SECTION 5
The Critic's Con-

cerns
When examining the value of a play through

the critic’s eye, there are some considera-
tions that can be helpful to guide one’s view-
ing experience.
“A good drama critic is one who perceives

what is happening in the theatre of his
time. A great drama critic also perceives
what is not happening.”
~Kenneth Tynan
64
P E R S O N A L I M PA C T
THE CRITIC’S CONCERNS: Remember that art holds a mirror up to life, so we can exam-
ine the personal impact that a play has on us. Ideally we see
What is the production’s/play’s social impact? reflections of ourselves in theatre, and ideally theatre should
What is the production’s/play’s personal impact? lead us to examine our lives more closely. Plays that have per-
sonal impact address issues such as mortality, love, family,
What is the overall artistic quality of the production? trust, and betrayal. While these are subjects that affect every-
one, they do so on an individual (personal) basis.
What is the production’s overall entertainment value?
ARTISTIC QUALITY
What was the production itself like?
A good critic will be able to put aside their personal aesthetic
and place the work they are seeing within the context of the
S O C I A L I M PA C T rest of the theatrical canon. Examining artistic quality will in-

Throughout time, theatre has been used as a means to make volve looking at all the various aspects of the production: the
commentary on politics, social injustice, class warfare, racial script itself, direction, design elements, acting, etc. A critic
prejudice, and more. The social impact of a play refers to it’s must ask: Does the play make you think? Is it engaging? Dy-
effect on a community or society. Subjects like race, gender, namic? Do you care about the story? Even if you don’t person-
class, hunger, and the environment are all examples of topics ally love it, can you see why it is an important work?
plays might address that would have social impact.
When considering the artistic quality of a play, it is necessary
While not all plays have a huge social impact it is something for the critic to have some experience or reference from
that should be considered. which to make their assessment.
E N T E R TA I N M E N T V A L U E
“The theatre was created to tell people the truth about life The word “entertain” comes from the French word entretenir,
and the social situation.”
which means “that which holds the attention.” So, the enter-
~Stella Adler tainment value of a play is not necessarily about making you
laugh or the number of car chases and explosions; it’s about
65
whether or not it held your attention. Good theatre should al-

ways be entertaining in this definition of the word; even if it’s
a tragedy.
THE PRODUCTION
Finally, the critic must look at the production as a whole and
determine it’s merit. This involves considering how all of the
elements worked together, from direction, to design, to per-
formance, to execution. It might also involve asking ques-
tions like, “What was the goal of this particular production?”
and looking at the theatre company producing the work, as
well.
REFLECTION
Is it difficult for you to have an open mind about some of the
merits of a work of art (play, movie, TV show, work of art, etc.)
that is not in your personal aesthetic? How do critics inform
your decisions to see movies, read books, listen to music,
etc.? Understanding the concerns of a critic can help us un-
derstand their reviews as well!
66
CHAPTER FOUR
You’ve read how the live, communal experience of theatre is

what makes it so unique. As an audience member, you are Qualities of a good audience member
part of that experience! It is important for you to respect that
Tips for enjoying your theatre-going experience
responsibility by observing appropriate theatre etiquette to
Different types of theatre: nonprofit professional,
ensure you and those around you are able to fully enjoy the
commercial, community/amateur, educational, theatre
production. for youth
When you see a play, you continue processing your experi- Definition of “critic”
ence even after you’ve left. Dramatic criticism is a formalized Qualities of a good critic
version of that exploration. Critics consider the social and per-
Critic’s considerations
sonal impact, artistic quality, and entertainment value of the
plays they see and a good critic has some background and
training in theatre from which to assess this concerns.
67
CHAPTER 4 REVIEW
CHAPTER 4
Review
Question 1 of 15
Which one of the following is NOT a quality of a good audience member?
A. Observant
B. Respectful
C. On-time
D. Closed-minded
Check Answer
lxviii
Unit 2: Who’s Involved?
U NIT 2 I NTRODUCTION V IDEO

C H A P T E R 5 : W H O I S T H E P L AY W R I G H T ?
CHAPTER 6: WHO IS THE DIRECTOR?
CHAPTER 7: WHO ARE THE DESIGNERS?
CHAPTER 8: WHO IS THE ACTOR?
m e!
y
Pla
lxix
CHAPTER 5
Who is the Playwright?

SECTION 5
Introduction
Playwrights are simultaneously the most central, and most pe-
LEARNING OBJECTIVES ripheral collaborators in theatre. It is important to note the
spelling of playwright (not, playwrite), as playwrights create
or build stories in much the same way a shipwright builds a
• Explain the playwright’s process ship - “wright” meaning maker or builder.
• Describe the playwright’s tools
The process of writing a play is different for everyone and
• Identify specific contemporary playwrights and plays only appear in their finished form when they are per-
some of their works
formed. Let’s look together at some of the playwright’s tools
• Discuss key aspects of a good play and techniques.
• Summarize the roll of a dramaturg
P L AY W RI GH T N O T P L AY WRITE
71
C H A P T E R 5, S E C T I O N 2: T H E P L AY W R I G H T ’ S T O O L S
SECTION 2
The Playwright's
Tools
Playwrights work with action (what characters
DO) and dialogue (what characters SAY). As
you read in Chapter 2, the word drama
comes from the Greek dran, meaning “to
do” - an action word! Action is at the heart
of every play. Action and dialogue are the
two primary tools available to the play-
wright.
Keep reading to see what action and dia-

logue look like in a play.
The Voice of the Prairie, Arkansas State

University, February 2013.
72
Q U A L I T I E S O F A G O O D P L AY When you’re watching a play ask yourself: “Do I believe it?”

What makes for a good play? In addition to using action and Hopefully you can answer yes! If you believe what is going
dialogue, there are other things a playwright must consider. on, the playwright has done a good job of creating credibility
Credibility, pertinence, intrigue, and compression are all as- within the world of the play.
pects of a good play. Let’s look at each of these together in
PERTINENCE
more detail.
A play’s pertinence refers to it’s relevance to the audience or
time period. Plays pertinent in one city may not be pertinent
Q U A L I T I E S O F A G O O D P L AY in another, while those written for a 1950’s audience may not
have the same weight today.
Credibility
Pertinence When you’re watching a play ask yourself: “Does this pertain
to me? To others? To my school/world/city/country?”
Intrigue
Compression INTRIGUE
Intrigue is the quality of a play that makes us curious and en-
gaged - it’s why we keep watching! Without this component
CREDIBILITY we aren’t concerned with what happens to the characters, or
Credibility, or the quality of being convincing or believable, is why.
important to a play because it helps the audience understand
Ask yourself: “Am I curious about what is going to happen?
and engage in the story. Within the world the playwright cre-
Do I care about what is going to happen?”
ates, things must be consistent.This does not mean every-
thing that happens must be possible in real life though. For COMPRESSION
example in Peter Pan many of the characters can fly, which is “Trimming the fat” - or compression - deals wth a play-
not actually possible. However, it is believable within the wright’s ability to effectively condense a story. While most
world of the play because there are other magical and won- plays are presented in about two hours, the stories them-
drous things that happen as well, such as children that never selves are much bigger and the playwright must decide what
grow up and a crocodile with a ticking clock inside it.
73
information to share and in what order to most effectively I NTERACTIVE 5.1 H OW DO YOU WRITE ?
communicate the story.
Ask yourself: “Is there too much information? Is there enough

information?”
“The art of the dramatist is very like the art of the archi-
tect. A plot has to be built up just as a house is built--story
after story; and no edifice has any chance of standing un-
less it has a broad foundation and a solid frame.”
~Brander Matthews, writer and educator
REFLECTION In this video, several playwrights talk briefly about how

Do you think you could write a play? What a difficult thing to they tackle writing a play and what motives them.
do! In this video, several playwrights talk briefly about how
they tackle writing and what motives them - or distracts them!
74
C H A P T E R 5, S E C T I O N 4: T H E P L AY W R I G H T ’ S P R O C E S S
SECTION 3
The Playwright’s
Process
How do playwrights work? Playwrights work

in a variety of ways and many work differ-
ently on different plays - there isn’t a right or
wrong way to go about it. Each playwright
must address four different considerations:
conception, execution, revision, and produc-
tion. While playwrights go about these steps
in various ways, they address all four in some
format. Let’s look at the process together.
75
T H E P L AY W R I G H T ’ S P R O C E S S shopping the play to allow the playwright to see the action

and hear the dialogue on stage, as a play is meant to be ex-
CONCEPTION
perienced! Because plays are meant to be seen and heard,
First, they experience the conception of an idea; this can
rather than read, this can be a very useful experience for the
come from personal experience, real life, someone they
playwright as part of the revision process.
know, a work of art, a historical event, a social issue, etc. The
conception of an idea inspires the playwright to write a play This process can take years and the play may change drasti-
or tell a story. cally from the first draft to the final product. It can involve a
lot of people working with the playwright to help them
J. R. R. Tolkien was supposedly grading papers when he
achieve a superior draft of the text. Lin-Manuel Miranda
came across a completely blank page and on it he wrote the
spent 6 years perfecting his Tony award winning hit musical
first random thing that came in to his mind: “In a hole in the
Hamilton!
ground there lived a hobbit.” This was the conception for his
novel The Hobbit. Who knows what will inspire us? Clearly in- What does it mean to workshop a play? Sometimes, new
dividuals can be inspired by a myriad of things - even a blank plays are produced on a smaller scale than ultimately in-
page! tended. The purpose of this is to provide the playwright
with an opportunity to see the piece in action and to judge
EXECUTION
audience response to the work. In these situations cos-
Execution follows conception, and the play is put down in
tumes, scenery, music, and so on may be left out, drasti-
written/typed form. This refers to the actual writing of the
cally reduced, or simplified in order to be more cost effec-
play itself, even as a rough draft. This can take a matter of
tive. Playwrights often make changes to the play based on
days or even years to accomplish. It isn’t necessary to write
the success or challenges of the workshop. These changes
the play “perfectly” but just to get the major story and plot
can include rewriting, rearranging, or cutting parts of the
points down on paper.
script to make it clearer.
REVISION
After the initial writing, the play goes through revision. This Staged readings can be used similarly, but with much less
frequently includes staged readings of the text and work- effort and expense. There are typically not costumes or
76
scenery, and the actors sit or stand and read their parts. V IDEO : H AMILTON , H IP -H OP , P OWER , & P LAYWRITING
This allows the playwright to hear the work being per-
formed, and helps bring it to life!
PRODUCTION
The final step is production. As mentioned earlier, plays only
appear in their finished form when they are performed. Plays
are not meant to only be read; they are meant to be seen
and heard aloud. While playwrights are frequently involved in
the first production, their plays will often go on to be pro-
duced hundreds or even thousands of times without their in-
volvement. This is why playwrights are considered both the You can watch playwright and composer Lin-
most central and peripheral collaborators in theatre; without Manuel Miranda (In the Heights, Hamilton) talk
about theatre and politics in this video
their text, the play could not be produced because the text is
at the center of every production.
V IDEO : L YNN N OTTAGE
F R O M T H E P L AY W R I G H T S
Want to know more? Lin-Manuel Miranda talks Hamilton, Hip-
Hop, Power, and Playwriting in this video and two-time Pulit-
zer Prize-winning playwright Lynn Nottage discusses her proc-
ess, politics, and the importance of empowering young
women in this video.
In this video two-time Pulitzer Prize-winning play-

wright Lynn Nottage discusses her process.
77
C H A P T E R 5, S E C T I O N 4 : C O N F L I C T
SECTION 4
Conflict
As mentioned in Chapter 3, conflict is a key

component of a successful play. Why do you
think this is?
There are five main forms of conflict. Can

you identify all five? Look on the next page
to see how you did and find examples of
each type.
78
TYPES OF CONFLICT These three are lumped together because often whether you
view the conflict as between person and God or person and
PERSON VS. PERSON
Fate depends on your view of God and fate.
Conflict between two individuals is considered person vs. per-
son conflict. It does not matter who the two people are, what Someone snowed in without enough food to last more than a
their relationship is, how well they know one another, or if few days is an example of person vs. nature.
they are from the same social class; you probably experience
PERSON VS. TECHNOLOGY
this kind of conflict on a daily basis!
Sometimes a conflict with technology can seem more frustrat-
A fight or disagreement between two roommates over who ing than any other form of conflict because it simply isn’t pos-
should wash the dishes or clean the bathroom is an example sible to reason with a piece of technology! These types of
of person vs. person conflict. conflicts are known as person vs. technology, and may dis-
courage some more than others, depending on how much
PERSON VS. SELF
you rely on technology in your everyday life. These days, we
When you engage in an internal battle, this kind of conflict is
all use technology more and more, so you might find this
known as person vs. self conflict. It can be over something
type of conflict is becoming more prevalent.
insignificant ( like whether you should eat another brownie) or
it can be over something of great importance. The more im- A student writing a term paper and the computer crashing
portant the issue is, the higher the stakes and the more inter- and loosing all of their information is an example of person
esting the conflict becomes. vs. technology conflict.
An individual struggling with whether they are going to cheat PERSON VS. SOCIETY
on an exam is an example of internal conflict, or person vs. When a person goes against what society thinks, how they be-
self. have, or what they expect, this creates conflict known as per-
son vs. society. While standing up to one person is difficult,
P E R S O N V S . N AT U R E / G O D /F AT E
standing up to a group of people can be even more challeng-
Greek playwrights frequently wrote about the conflict be-
ing.
tween man and the gods or between a person and their fate.
79
A person standing up for a friend who is being bullied by sev- I NTERACTIVE 5.2 C ONFLICT P AIRS M ATCHING
eral other people is an example of person vs. society conflict.
REFLECTION
Can you think of a personal example for each kind of con-
flict? You probably experience some of these types of conflict
more often than others. What is the difference between expe-
riencing conflict and observing conflict? Are there forms of
conflict you find more appealing than others? Why do you
think that is?
Use the interactive activity to review different types of con-

flict. Can you match the type of conflict to the picture that
represents it? See how many you can get right!
Use this interactive matching game to review the different

types of conflict. Match the type of conflict to the picture
that represents it.
80
C H A P T E R 5, S E C T I O N 5: A S A M P L E O F C O N T E M P O R A RY P L AY W R I G H T S
SECTION 5
A Sample of Con-
temporary Play-
wrights
There are thousands of playwrights all over
the world that are writing at any given time.
Let’s take a look at four American play-
wrights that are well-known for their work.
Dead Man’s Cell Phone, by Sarah Ruhl,

Arkansas State University.
81
Katori Hall
Katori Hall is an African-American playwright from Memphis,
Tennessee. She is best known for her play The Mountaintop,
which won the 2010 Olivier Award for Best New Play. The
Mountaintop is about a hotel maid who encounters Martin Lu-
ther King, Jr. on the eve of his assassination in the Lorraine
Motel. Katori Hall’s plays are primarily about issues facing
African-Americans, particularly women and those in the Mem-
phis area, as well. She addresses breaking down assumptions
about poverty in her video here.
P L AY S B Y K AT O R I H A L L I N C L U D E :
The Mountaintop
Hurt Village
Children of Killers
Saturday Night/Sunday Morning
Hoodoo Love
The Blood Quilt
82
P L AY S B Y S A R A H R U H L I N C L U D E :
In the Next Room (or, The Vibrator Play)

Dead Man’s Cell Phone
Eurydice
The Clean House
Dear Elizabeth
The Oldest Boy
Sarah Ruhl
Sarah Ruhl was born in Illinois and studied under playwright
Paula Vogel at Brown University. She is best known for her
play In the Next Room (or, The Vibrator Play), which was nomi-
nated for the Pulitzer Prize as well as a Tony Award. In this
video Sarah Ruhl discusses the humor in her plays.
83
Tony Kushner P L AY S B Y T O N Y K U S H N E R I N C L U D E :
Angels in America: A Gay Fantasia on National

Themes
Caroline or Change
A Bright Room Called Day
Homebody/Kabul
Slavs! Thinking About the Longstanding Problems of

Virtue and Happiness
Tony Kushner was born in Manhattan, New York, and raised

in Lake Charles, Louisiana. He is best known for his play An-
gels in America: A Gay Fantasia on National Themes, which
won him two Tony Awards, a Pulitzer Prize, and multiple other
awards. His plays tend to be epic in scope and address large,
sweeping issues like homosexuality, politics, religion, AIDS,
and homelessness, among others. In this episode of Epiph-
any, the Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright gives his thoughts
on how a writer should approach a topic.
84
C H A P T E R 5, S E C T I O N 6 : T H E D R A M AT U R G
SECTION 6
The Dramaturg
A dramaturg is a useful resource for a play-

wright, but also for directors, actors, design-
ers, and audience members! The task of a
dramaturg can vary, depending on the play
they are working on. Let’s look together at
some of the things a dramaturg might do.
Dramaturges help with season selection,

provide useful research, and create audi-
ence resources.
85
C H A P T E R 5, S E C T I O N 6: T H E D R A M AT U R G
him or her in to give a lesson or walk the playwright through

T H E D R A M AT U R G the steps.
Help with season selection C R E AT E R E S O U R C E S F O R A U D I E N C E M E M B E R S

Helping audience members prepare for seeing a production
Provide research for playwrights, directors, actors, or
designers and reflect on the production afterward can also be part of a
dramaturg’s job. This could include anything from providing
Create or provide resources for audience members
information about the playwright, the subject matter, or the
actors and designers, to creating interactive materials or dis-
HELP WITH SEASON SELECTION play boards in the theatre lobby.
Have you ever wondered how theatres decide what plays
F R O M A D R A M AT U R G
they are going to produce each year? There are many ways
In this video, Anne Cattaneo describes the role of the drama-
this can be determined! A dramaturg can help a theatre com-
turg and the many hats she wears. She likens her job to an ac-
pany find new plays, research their audience, develop a
quisitions editor in a publishing house and has developed an
theme, and understand the current social or political climate,
in-depth knowledge of language, culture, and theatre history
among other things. All of this can be useful when choosing a
through her work on various productions.
season.
REFLECTION
PROVIDE RESEARCH Have you ever been to a play where helpful information was
Playwrights, directors, actors and designers all rely heavily on
provided either before or after the production? Have you
research. Dramaturges can help them find resources and infor-
ever been to a play and you wished some more information
mation that might be very specialized or difficult to obtain.
was provided either before or after the production? How did
For example, if a playwright wanted to include scenes in a
this affect your experience?
play that involved the characters rolling cigars, the dramaturg
might find someone who knew how to roll cigars and bring
86
C H A P T E R 5, S E C T I O N 6: T H E D R A M AT U R G
V IDEO : T HE D RAMATURG
In this video, Anne Cattaneo describes the role of the drama-

turg and the many hats she wears.
87
CHAPTER FIVE

Playwrights are simultaneously the most central, and most pe-
“Wright” vs. “write”
ripheral collaborators in theatre. Most of the time the plays
they write will be produced time and time again without their The Playwright’s Tools
input! Once the script is written, it is turned over to the ac- “Dran”
tors, designers, and director, who bring it to life on stage. Credibility
While playwrights work in a variety of ways, they work within Intrigue

a similar structure, from conception to production. This initial Pertinence
work can seem solitary for such a collaborative art form, but Compression
remember, during the revision stage, playwrights take advan-
Stages of a Playwright’s Process
tage of actors and directors to help them iron out problem ar-
Conflict
eas in the script through readings and workshops. Since plays
aren’t seen in their final form until they are performed, a play- Katori Hall
wright can’t do his or her work all on their own! Tony Kushner
You can use this interactive matching game to review ideas Neil LaBute
and terms from chapter 5. Sarah Ruhl
Dramaturg
88
CHAPTER 5 REVIEW
CHAPTER 5
Review
Question 1 of 9
Plays only appear in their final form when they are
A. Published
B. Printed
C. Performed
D. Picked up by an agent
Check Answer
lxxxix
CHAPTER 6
Who is the Director?

SECTION 6
Introduction
A director guides all artistic aspects of a production, allowing
LEARNING OBJECTIVES each team member to do their job while bringing the ele-
ments together to reach a shared goal. It is the director’s con-
cept which provides the backbone for work done by actors
• Describe the functions of a director and his or her and designers throughout the production process.
role in mounting a production
Directing as we know it today is relatively new to theatre. Un-
• Explain casting considerations
til fairly recently, directors were often actors and/or play-
• Differentiate between a director’s function in
wrights who took on leadership roles. In ancient Greece at
preparation and production
the birth of Western theatre, plays fell under the leadership
• Identify why a director must be so familiar with the
of a didaskalos, meaning “teacher” or “instructor” in Greek.
play he or she is directing
The didaskalos led the actors and taught them the “proper”
• Express the historical role of the director way to do theatre, according to Aristotle’s guidelines in The
Poetics.
91
In Renaissance theatre, there were actor-managers (including What do you think a director should know or be familiar with?
William Shakespeare!) who led theatre troupes. They per- The following are beneficial to directors: Knowledge of Thea-
formed as well as ran things administratively. It was not until tre History, understanding how to research, reading a wide ar-
the 19th century when Realism was introduced that the role ray of plays, knowing what questions to ask designers, histori-
of the director as we know it today emerged. We will discuss cal and contemporary social and political awareness.
Realism more in Chapter 10, but its is important to under-
REACHING TO THE UNKNOWN
stand that the director as we know it is a relatively new idea.
In her book A Director Prepares: Seven Essays on Art and
Theatre, director Anne Bogart wrote, “It is not the director’s
“The kindest thing a director can do is look with open eyes
responsibility to produce results, but, rather, to create the cir-
at everything.”
cumstances in which something might happen. The results
~Alexander Payne
come about by themselves. With one hand firmly on the spe-
cifics and one hand reaching to the unknown, you start to
A DIRECTOR’S TRAINING work.”

Most directors don’t start out as directors, but begin in other
The director is not responsible for producing results; they
fields. Directors may begin their careers as actors, designers,
don’t need to design the costumes or build the sets or focus
or playwrights, among other things. Being a director requires
the lights or play a character. A directors job is to create an
a lot of skills and the ability to work well with others and be a
environment in which each person involved (actors, design-
good leader. Consider some of the qualities that define a
ers, technicians, etc.) can do their best work. How do you
good leader: listens, patient, team player, allows others to
think a director goes about accomplishing such a task? Trust
shine, well-spoken, prepared, trusting, hard working... the list
and communication are two key factors in a successful col-
goes on! Many of these cannot be taught in the classroom
laboration and necessary for setting up the kind of relation-
but are characteristics and individual must already posses or
ship Bogart describes.
acquire from experience.
92
REFLECTION
As you just read, prior to the 19th century, the director’s jobs
were frequently performed by other members of the creative
team - this could be the playwright or one of the actors, for
example. What problems do you see with this format? Do
you think it is important for the director to function separately
from these other roles? Why or why not?
“It is not the director’s responsibility to produce results,

but, rather, to create the circumstances in which some-
thing might happen. The results come about by them-
selves. With one hand firmly on the specifics and one hand
reaching to the unknown, you start to work.”
~Anne Bogart, director
93
C H A P T E R 6, S E C T I O N 2 : S C R I P T A N A LY S I S
SECTION 2
Script Analysis
The director must know the script better

than anyone else involved. They guide the
entire artistic process and need to be able to
successfully communicate their vision and
concept to the designers, actors, and every-
one else involved. Let’s look together at
some of the things a director should know
and consider.
A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Arkansas

State University, 2009.
94
P L AY D I R E C T I N G : A N A LY S I S , C O M M U N I C AT I O N , S T Y L E in verse or something more naturalistic? Does it make use of

A director must begin by reading the script. They read the various dialects or languages? How does this contribute to
script numerous times, answering questions and discovering the play? All of these are important questions the director
new challenges with each reading. Directors answer a series must consider.
of questions that guide their exploration, known as script
D R A M AT I C A C T I O N
analysis. Throughout the production process they return to
In Chapter 3 we discussed the climactic structure of many
the script again and again.
plays. Let’s take a moment to review.
Director and educator Dr. Francis Hodge, in his book Play Di-
Understanding this structure and how it relates to the play is
recting: Analysis, Communication, Style, describes the follow-
one aspect of script analysis a director must undertake. They
ing elements of script analysis: Given Circumstances, Dia-
should thoroughly understand each aspect of the play’s struc-
logue, Dramatic Action, Characters, Idea, Mood, Tempo,
ture and how they relate to one another.
Tone.
Exposition is background information we need to place
G I V E N C I R C U M S TA N C E S
things in context. What does the audience need to know
Given circumstances define the world of the play. They in-
about the world of the play, the relationships between charac-
clude things like time period, social and political climate and
ters, or the timeline of events? Understanding why the play-
customs, and location, as well as rules that govern the play
wright included this information and how it informs the rest
and its characters. The “5 Ws” are another way to look at it:
of the play helps the director guide the actors and produc-
Who, What, When, Where, and Why.
tion team throughout the process.
None of these must adhere to reality, but must be believable
Additionally, the director must consider the point of attack,
within the world of the play. The director should have a thor-
or the moment at which the main action of the plot begins.
ough understanding of these given circumstances.
Does the play begin immediately before an event occurs, as
DIALOGUE the event is occurring, or just after the event has occurred?
Determining the style of dialogue used in the play is a key
component in the director’s script analysis. Is the play written
95
The inciting incident is the event or decision that begins the duction. It is important to understand why a particular event
story’s problem. Understanding what occurred to create con- or point in the play is the moment of greatest tension.
flict and determining what kind of conflict it is (person vs. self,
As the conflict unravels falling action occurs and the play
etc.) helps the director understand why the story is being told
moves towards a resolution. Understanding what the resolu-
and how it is relevant to audiences today.
tion is and how it is achieved is an important component of
The director must be able to communicate the rising action script analysis. Did a character undergo some kind of change
of the play, or the building of conflict, to the actors. They that resulted in a resolution? If so, what was the change and
help them determine their motivations, objectives, and tac- what events led to it? If not, what other events could have re-
tics based on this information, among other things. We will sulted in a resolution?
discuss these aspects of an actor’s work in greater detail in
After the resolution, there is frequently some wrapping up of
Chapter 8.
events that occurs during the denouement. The director
Understanding the climax of the play, or the moment of great- must develop an understanding of the the significance of
est tension, helps the director define other aspects of the pro- these conversations, actions, etc. and how they impact the
rest of the play.
CHARACTERS
The director must have a clear grasp of each character. They
must understand their relationships, contribution to the play,
motivations, desires, and significance, among other things.
Understanding the characters allows the director to guide the
Resolution actors throughout the rehearsal process.
IDEA
As stated earlier in this chapter, it is the director’s concept
which provides the backbone for work done by actors and de-
signers throughout the production process. Understanding
96
the significance of the play and why one would choose to tell O B L I G AT O R Y S C E N E
a particular story is personal to each director, but ultimately is While Hodge doesn’t address this, in theatre there is a say-
informed by the script. Different directors will find different ing, “If you produce a gun on stage in the first act, you better
themes in the same script, therefore, their personal experi- use it in the second act.” As an audience member, if a gun ap-
ences and preferences inform their view of the script. pears on stage during the play, you expect that at some point
it will be fired. This is an example of an obligatory scene, or
M O O D /T O N E a scene the audience expects and desires. In William Shake-
Is the play lighthearted? Funny? Serious? Weighty? A combi-
speare’s Romeo and Juliet this might be the two lovers em-
nation of these? The mood and tone will have bearing on all
bracing, or their first kiss. Understanding the audience’s ex-
of the choices the director and production team make
pectations as determined by the script is an important aspect
throughout the course of the production process. Plays can
of a director’s analysis.
have more than one mood or tone and they may change
throughout the course of the play. Understanding when and REFLECTION
why they changes is crucial. Can you think of anything else a director might need to take
into consideration when preparing for a production? Why do
TEMPO you think it is important for the director to be so familiar with
A play’s tempo refers to the rate at which the play moves for-
the script structure, ideas, language, and characters? What
ward. This can be related to dialogue, action, or tone (dis-
will/could happen if he or she is not adequately familiar?
cussed above). Understanding the play’s tempo is important
because it informs many of the decisions a director will make. On the next page you can see an excerpt from a director’s
Tempo can be determined by action or dialogue. script. The ground plan (layout of the stage) has been copied
on to the left hand side of the page for blocking notes while
“The tempo is the suitcase. If the suitcase is too small, eve- the text appears on the right hand side of the page for addi-
rything is completely wrinkled. If the tempo is too fast, eve-
tional notes. Tap on each label to zoom in and learn more
rything becomes so scrambled you can't understand it.”
about a director’s rehearsal script.
~Daniel Barenboim
97
I NTERACTIVE 6.1 D IRECTOR ’ S S CRIPT A NALYSIS
Technical Cues
Stage Business
Blocking
Script Analysis
Stage Business
Tap on the various labels to zoom in and learn more about a director’s script analysis.
98
C H A P T E R 6, S E C T I O N 3: D I R E C T O R I A L F U N C T I O N S
SECTION 3
Directorial Functions
The director’s functions can be roughly di-

vided into TWO parts, preparation and pro-
duction. Preparation refers to what is done
to prepare for rehearsal and production, and
production refers to what happens once the
rehearsal process begins.
Anton in Show Business, Arkansas State

University, 2015.
99
D I R E C T O R I A L F U N C T I O N S : P R E PA R AT I O N Some people would argue 90% of a director’s job is casting.

While this isn’t true in terms of the time it takes, having the
P L AY S E L E C T I O N
right cast contributes greatly to a production’s success. Here
Many times directors are asked to help with play selection by
are some things a director must take in to consideration when
choosing or suggesting plays he or she would like to direct.
selecting a cast:
Why do you think this is important? In the last section you
read the director should know the script better than anyone
else; if the director is involved in helping to select the plays C A S T I N G C O N S I D E R AT I O N S
they will direct, it allows them to choose works they are inter-
Appropriateness
ested in or passionate about.
Talent
RESEARCH AND CONCEPT DEVELOPMENT
Directors establish a concept for each play which will drive
Experience
the choices they make, as well as those made by the actors
and designers involved. The concept stems from what the di- Growth Potential
rector views as the theme of the play - what the play is about
Relationship to the Rest of the Cast
at its core. This is what makes each production different!
If the director is not intimately familiar with the script, they

Appropriateness: Does the actor meet the physical require-
cannot communicate a clear and effective concept for the pro-
ments (age, gender, race, etc.)? During the audition did they
duction.
effectively capture the nature of the character and create the
CASTING desired impression?
Choosing who will play each role in the production can be dif-
ficult, and many times there are several people who could Talent: Is the actor capable of effectively and convincingly
pull off a particular role. Determining how actors work to- portraying the particular character on stage? Can they tell the
gether and selecting performers who support the concept is story?
important.
100
Experience: Do they have any relevant prior acting experi- I NTERACTIVE 6.2 C ASTING D IRECTORS
ence? If so, what and how much? This may or may not be
beneficial, depending on the play, the role, and the produc-
tion.
Growth Potential: In educational theatre this is especially im-

portant, but it applies to all casting. Is the actor willing to
grow and stretch physically and mentally? Will they challenge
themselves and take risks on stage?
Relationship to the Rest of the Cast: What kind of energy do

the actors have together? Will they work well as a team? In this video, casting director Tara Rubin talks about the
What kind of attitude does a particular actor bring to the ta- casting process, working with the director and creative
team.
ble. One negative actor can bring down an entire cast! Fi-
nally, do the actors compliment one another physically? For
example, in a family, does the mother appear older than the C O L L A B O R AT I N G W I T H D E S I G N E R S
daughter? Designers help bring a director’s concept to fruition through
visual aspects such as lighting, costume, and scenery. Guid-
Sometimes directors work with casting directors to cast a ing designers and allowing them to bring their creative gifts
show. In this video, casting director Tara Rubin talks about to the table is an important part of a director’s job. A good
the casting process, working with the director and creative director trusts the designers they are working with and en-
team. She discusses the importance of servicing the director’s courages them to flourish. This process begins in the prepara-
imagination and vision for the play as well as the role of col- tion stage, but carries in to the production stage of a direc-
laboration in the process. tors functions, as well.
101
DIRECTORIAL FUNCTIONS: PRODUCTION ments, the primary focus of the technical rehearsal is collabo-
rating with the designers, stage manager, and technicians
S TA G I N G
who will be running the show. Figuring out when cues should
( B L O C K I N G , S TA G E B U S I N E S S , S TA G E P I C T U R E S , F O C U S )
be executed, tweaking design elements, and solving prob-
Blocking, stage business, stage pictures, and focus are all as-
lems related to the set, costumes, lighting, and sound are the
pects of staging. Blocking refers to an actor’s entrances and
primary concerns.
exits, and how he/she moves around the stage. Stage busi-
ness concerns small actions performed by an actor, such as Once the show opens, the director’s work is done!
making coffee or feeding the cat. Creating stage pictures in-
dicates the ability to establish aesthetically pleasing images REFLECTION
A lot of people are engaged in putting on a production, and
that support the telling of the story. Focus alludes to the di-
there are many steps involved. The interactive image on the
rector’s skill at creating stage pictures with clear focus.
next page shows a number of people participating in techni-
ACTOR COACHING cal rehearsals. Tap on the various labels to learn more about
Working with actors is a key part of the director’s job. Direc- what is involved.
tors coach actors, helping them discover character motiva-
tions, objectives, tactics, etc. and encouraging them to ex-
plore and take risks throughout the rehearsal process.
C O L L A B O R AT I N G W I T H D E S I G N E R S
Collaboration with designers doesn’t end with the design
process. Throughout the rehearsal process and build period,
designers continue to communicate with directors as the de-
signs come to fruition.
TECHNICAL REHEARSALS
During technical rehearsals, the director’s focus shifts
slightly. While they are still considering performance ele-
102
I NTERACTIVE 6.3 T ECHNICAL R EHEARSAL
Actors
Costumes
Stage Manager
Light Board
Light Board Operator
Assistant Director
Tap on the various labels to zoom in and learn more about what’s involved in a technical rehearsal.
103
C H A P T E R 6, S E C T I O N 4: M E M B E R S O F T H E D I R E C T O R ’ S T E A M
SECTION 4
Members of the Di-

rector's Team
Director’s may guide the production, but

they don’t have to work alone! Often other
people are brought in to help the director
and provide expertise in different areas. Let’s
look at some of the individuals who might
be brought in as members of the director’s
team.
Choreographer Agnes de Mille
104
T H E S TA G E M A N A G E R them as well. You will read more about the choreographer in

A stage manager is integral to any production. They are re- Chapter 11.
sponsible for organizing and running rehearsal and preparing
the rehearsal space. The first to arrive and the last to leave, Choreographer Ameenah Kaplan discusses her work, her ap-
proach to choreography, and how she started working as a
they also coordinate costume fittings, record blocking and
choreographer in this video.
document what happens in rehearsal. Additionally, the stage
manager runs meetings and generates reports for design
meetings, production meetings, rehearsals, and perform-
ances. Once the show opens, the director’s job is done and
the show is fully in the stage managers hands; they run the
I NTERACTIVE 6.4 V IDEO : C HOREOGRAPHER
show, calling cues and keeping things running smoothly.
Good communication, organization, and leadership are essen-

tial to a stage manager. Additionally they must be able to
work well under pressure and remain calm. Many productions
also have assistant stage managers who work along side the
stage manager and help with their responsibilities.
THE CHOREOGRAPHER
A choreographer is often brought in to collaborate with a di-
rector when there is a lot of physical action or dance involved
in a production. They put together the combinations of
steps, formation, and movements that will be used and
teaches them to the cast. In this way, the choreographer is
like a director of movement. Musicals frequently have chore- Choreographer Ameenah Kaplan discusses her work in this
video.
ographers, but straight plays (non-musicals) make use of
105
“When I first began choreographing, I never thought of it

as choreography but as expressing feelings. Though every
piece is different, they are all trying to get at certain things
that are difficult to put into words. In the work, everything
belongs to everything else - the music, the set, the move-
ment and whatever is said.”
~Pina Bausch, performer, choreographer, teacher
THE MUSIC DIRECTOR

While directors need to know a little about a lot of things,
they don’t need to be experts at everything. Often, when a
play incorporates music, a music director will collaborate
with the director, coaching the performers vocally. They work
with actors, helping them learn the music and ensuring they
are using their voices properly. Sometimes the music director
also conducts the orchestra, but a separate person can also
be brought in for this purpose.
106
CHAPTER SIX
With so many people looking to you for guidance, a direc- Concept and Theme
tor’s task can seem daunting. However, while a director Casting
guides all aspects of a production, they must trust and rely on
Collaboration
all those involved to make the production a success.
Staging
Directors often begin in other areas of theatre, which can be Blocking
an asset, since it is important for them to have a wide range
Stage Business
of knowledge, from theatre history to an awareness of current
political social issues. The director must know the script bet- Stage Pictures
ter than anyone else and ultimately, their concept becomes Focus
the driving force for the production and is what makes each Actor Coaching
experience with a play unique!
Script Analysis/Elements
Choreographer
“There is no collaboration if you come to the table and say,
‘I have this great idea - and this is how you will assist me Music Director
in presenting it.’ Collaboration is saying, ‘I have certain po-
tent feelings about the work, but I don’t understand every- Qualities of a Good Director
thing.” Director’s Responsibilities
~Mark Lamos, director
107
CHAPTER 6 REVIEW
CHAPTER 6
Review
Question 1 of 9
True or False? Most directors train as directors and begin directing right away.
A. True
B. False
Check Answer
cviii
CHAPTER 7
Who are the Designers?

SECTION 1
Who are the Designers?

Do you consider yourself a designer? Design is about making
LEARNING OBJECTIVES choices in order to tell a story and support a director’s con-
cept for a production. When you choose one piece of art to
• Identify the designers’ goals
hang on your wall over another, you’ve made a design
• List the designer’s process choice. When you create mood and atmosphere by dimming
• Examine some of the many people it takes to the lights for a party, you’ve made a design choice. We all
execute a designer’s ideas (collaboration) make choices every day. Let’s take a look at how and why de-
• Differentiate between various types of theatre signers make their choices.
spaces
110
THE DESIGNERS choices choices based on lighting needs for their produc-
The major areas of design are costume design, lighting de- tions.
sign, scene design, sound design, and projection design.
Today, modern lighting fixtures and technology provide the
COSTUME DESIGN lighting designer with almost endless possibilities! They work
Costume design is the oldest form of theatrical design. Be-
with stage electricians who help them hang their plot (put the
fore there were fancy theatres or lighting equipment, actors
lights where they go), wire practicals (fixtures like lamps and
wore makeup and chose garments that provided information
chandeliers), and program the show (write light cues).
about their characters.
Responsible for the clothing characters wear, costume design-

G ALLERY 7.1 T ECHNICIANS AND C REW M EMBERS
ers often collaborate with makeup and hair designers to com-
plete their looks. They also work with a variety of people who
help bring their designs to life, such as milliners (who create
hats), cutters and drapers (who create the patterns), stitchers
(who sew the garments) and dyers (who dye the fabrics).
These are just a few of the people involved in realizing the
costume designer’s work.
LIGHTING DESIGN
Lighting design as we know it didn’t occur until theatres
moved to indoor spaces, however, that doesn’t mean ancient
theatre didn’t make use of lighting. Those putting on a play
might choose to being the play earlier in the morning if the
play began at sunrise, or start late in the afternoon so the
Angela Howell created this wig for the University of North
play would be ending as the sun set. There may not have Carolina, Greensboro’s production, The Country Wife.
been any conventional light fixtures, but they still made
111
SCENE DESIGN as difficult as building complex sound scapes with dozens - or

Scene designer’s are responsible for the scenery you see on even hundreds! - of different sounds.
stage. This can include backdrops, furniture, and floor treat-
ments, among other things. They often collaborate with a In a musical, sound designers must work with sound engi-
neers to live-mix the music and the singers during the per-
props master, or are also responsible for props. Props refers
formance. Musical often require a combination of live and
to those items the actors physically engage with, such as
pre-recorded sounds.
briefcases, swords, and coffee pots, to name a few.
PROJECTION DESIGN
In addition to collaborating with the props master, scene de-
The newest form of theatrical design is projection design. Pro-
signer’s also work with technical directors (who oversee the
jection designers are often responsible for acquiring all im-
scene shop), carpenters (who build the sets), and paint
ages used in a production, whether still or moving. These
charge (who paint the sets and drops). These are just a few of
might be stock images, or images they create through a vari-
the people involved in creating scenery for a production.
ety of mediums including photography and video.
SOUND DESIGN
While projection design is not used as widely as the other
Sound designers are involved in choosing music for use be-
forms of design, its popularity is growing. While today almost
fore, during, and after the production. They also find or cre-
everyone has access to camera and video recording devices,
ate sound effects (like a toilet flushing, or birds chirping)
incorporating projection in to a production is a challenging
needed for a production. Sometimes sound designers curate
task. Projection designers might work with videographers,
music for a production, while other times they compose it
photographers, or other artist to collect the images needed
themselves or collaborate with a composer to create just the
for a particular production.
right thing.
In addition to curating music and sound effects, sound de-

signers work with sound engineers to edit the sounds. This
could be as simple as creating a song that plays in a loop, or
112
C H A P T E R 7, S E C T I O N 2: T H E D E S I G N E R ’ S P R O C E S S
SECTION 2
The Designer's
Process
While all designers are working towards the

same goal, they each go about them in differ-
ent ways, using different materials and tools.
Still, there are some common practices that
designers engage in regardless of their de-
sign role or the production they are working
on. This is called the designer’s process. Let’s
look at each of the steps in this process to-
gether.
Designers start with brief sketches and

then work up to full-color drawings
called renderings.
113
STEP-BY-STEP This will not be the only meeting the designers have with the
director. As the process moves forward they will continue to
R E A D T H E P L AY
meet and discuss any new findings from the text or from their
When a designer begins to work on a particular play, what do
research.
you think is the first thing they must do? If you said read the
play, then you’re right! It seems too obvious at first, but the RESEARCH
first step to understanding the play and being able to make Once the designer has an understanding of the director’s vi-
wise choices is to read the play! Designers read the play sev- sion for the play, he or she begins to research vigorously. De-
eral times, in fact, before getting started. signers collect research from books, Internet resources, data-
bases, and museums, just to name a few sources.
The script is the foundation for all the work the designers do
and they will revisit it throughout the design process. While There are all kinds of research, but to simplify it, there is “writ-
this is the first step, it is not sufficient to read the play only ten” research, and “visual” research. Most designers will ex-
once and at the beginning of the journey. plore both areas, however, visual research is of the utmost im-
portance. Visual research refers to imagery; this can be in the
MEET WITH THE DIRECTOR
form of photographs, paintings, sculptures, or prints, for ex-
After reading the play, designers meet with the director so
ample. This kind of research is invaluable because it helps the
they can highlight aspects of the play that are important to
designer to communicate information to the director by show-
them, as well as define the play’s theme (think back to the di-
ing them what they’ve found. Saying something is “blue”
rector’s research and concept in Chapter 6). Understanding
isn’t nearly as informative as providing something that is ex-
what is significant to the director about the text ensures the
actly the color blue you are thinking about!
designers are all on the same page. In addition to theme, the
creative team will discuss the locations, characters, time pe- Research doesn’t end after this initial period, it continues
riod, language, and any particular challenges the script pre- throughout the production process. The more you meet with
sents. This is also a good time for the designers to ask any the rest of the creative team, the more research you may feel
questions they might have. inclined to do and as new challenges present themselves,
new research becomes necessary.
114
INITIAL DESIGN IDEAS have fabric swatches attached, indicating the fabrics that will
Next the designer develops and presents initial design ideas be used to build the garments.
to the director and the rest of the creative team. These fre-
quently take the form of research images, or quick sketches. These models and renderings are often presented to the cast
and crew who will be involved in the show to give them idea
At this point the director and designer have the opportunity
what the play will look like visually. Drawings done by the
to discuss the choices that have been made and adjust or
scene designer will be used in the scene shop to build and
make changes to the design if necessary. This is not usually
paint the sets, those done by the costume designer will be
done in one meeting; it is possible a designer will need to col-
used in the costume shop to build the costumes.
lect more research or present their ideas again before they
are finalized. Directors and designers typically go back and DESIGNS ARE REALIZED
forth, tweaking the designs until a consensus is reached as to As mentioned above, finalized designs in the form of draw-
what the final product will be. ings, renderings, or models, go to the shops, where they are
crafted and brought to life as the designs are realized. The re-
This is the designing portion of the designer’s process: re-
alized designs are the pieces that actually appear on stage.
search is processed and choices are made in order to tell a
For a set designer, this might be walls, windows, and furni-
story. These choices are founded on the text and the research
ture; for a costume designer it is the garments themselves; in
and these steps may be repeated several times before the de-
lighting, the realized design is hanging the lights and the fin-
signer and the rest of the team feel like they have reached
ished lighting cues, or looks.
the best decisions.
The realized designs are often the only part of the whole de-
FINAL DESIGNS EMERGE
signer’s process that are seen by the audience! Every step
When the director and designer reach an agreement, the fi-
along the way helps the designer to make the best choices in
nal designs emerge. These often take the form of full-color
order to tell a story. In Gallery 7.2 you can see some of the
drawings (known as renderings) or scaled models, and they
steps involved in realizing costume designs.
show exactly what the costumes, scenery, lighting, etc. will
look like on stage. Additionally, costume renderings typically
115
In the interactive image below, swipe from side to side to see

G ALLERY 7.2 R EALIZING C OSTUME D ESIGNS
a scene designers rendering of a set (finalized design) and
the actual set (realized design). Also, keep reading to see ex-
amples all of the steps in a designer’s process. See how re-
search inspired the design, and how it went from a drawing
to a realized design!
I NTERACTIVE 7.1 B EFORE AND A FTER
During a fitting, actors try on the costume pieces in the cos-

tume shop and the designer works with the shop manager
and cutter-draper to ensure things look and fit the way they
intended.
REFLECTION
What kinds of information do you think a designer is looking
for when they conduct research? Consider a scene designer
and a costume designer; would some aspects be the same?
What might they be? Can you think of other resources for re-
search besides those listed above?
116
1. R E A D T H E P L AY 2. M E E T W I T H T H E D I R E C T O R 3. RESEARCH
Concept: Written in 1665,

William Wycherley’s The
Country Wife satirizes the atti-
tudes and manners of upper
class society. Witty dialogue
and bawdy physical humor un-
derscore the theatrical nature
of the play, as well as the ri-
diculousness of its characters.
In this upper class society ap-
pearance is everything, truth
is a matter of perception, and
very few people are actually as
they appear to be.
117
4. I N I T I A L I D E A S 5. F I N A L I Z E D D E S I G N S 6. REALIZED DESIGNS
118
C H A P T E R 7, S E C T I O N 3: T H E D E S I G N E R ’ S G O A L S
SECTION 3
Telling the Story
Telling the story is the goal all other goals

center around for a designer. There are a
number of aspects that contribute to this. A
designer must consider how they will define
the world of the play, evoke mood and at-
mosphere, support or reinforce the style of
the production, support movement, and
help create focus.
The Reluctant Dragon, Arkansas State

University, 2014.
119
THE DESIGNER’S GOALS standing of location, but also how the characters feel about
the moment. Which designers do you think are most likely to
D E F I N I N G T H E W O R L D O F T H E P L AY
evoke mood and atmosphere?
Designers need to help the audience understand the play’s
location and time period, among other things. Where does Lighting and sound designers tend to have the most influ-
the play take place? What are the rules and expectations of ence on mood at atmosphere. Think about the mood you es-
that place? What is the time period? The designer must help tablish by turning off the overhead lights in your apartment
the audience member understand the world of the play by us- and turning on lamps or string lights instead. Adding music
ing sounds and images that provide clues to help the audi- adds to this effect; mellow music or soft jazz might make for a
ence answer these questions. relaxing evening by the fire, while techno sets the stage for a
party!
Costume designers can indicate a particular period in time by
making use of appropriate hairstyles and silhouettes. Poodle SUPPORTING THE STYLE OF THE PRODUCTION
skirts and saddle shoes are indicative of the 1950’s while big It is important that the choices a designer makes contribute
hair and bell bottoms suggest the 1970’s. Similarly, long to the style of the production as a whole. If the play is a trag-
pants and cardigans or scarves imply the location is some- edy, red polka dot fabric and bright yellow walls would under-
where cold or during a cold season of the year. All of this in- mine the seriousness of the story. Likewise, if the play is a
formation is helpful to the audience! comedy, dark colors and heavy fabrics can take away from
the light-heartedness of the situations and characters.
C R E AT I N G M O O D A N D AT M O S P H E R E
In addition to defining the world of the play, audience mem- F A C I L I TAT I N G M O V E M E N T
bers can better comprehend the “feel” of particular moments Supporting movement in a production is specific to each area
in the play with the assistance of design work. A scene taking of design. For a costume designer, this means actors have
place in an intimate, romantic restaurant, for example, might the ability to move as needed; if an actor is going to be re-
have violin music and soft blue lighting with a candle on the quired to run up a flight of steps for example, can he do it in
table. This information contributes to the audience’s under- the shoes the designer provided? The scene designer is con-
120
cerned with how actors and set pieces can move around the nature of live theatre, this is not possible. Designers use
stage appropriately; for example, is there room for actors to things like color, line, shape, and texture to create focus.
move between the couch and the dining room table? Are
For example, if everyone on stage is dressed in black except
there appropriate entrances and exits?
for one character who is dressed in white, where will your eye
In lighting, sound, and projection, movement can refer to naturally go? To the person who is different: the character in
one of two things. First, how the lights/sound/projections white, because they will stand out against all of the black.
shift from one moment to the next; this is called cueing. This gives that person focus in a particular scene, or moment
When the lights are on, and then they turn off, this requires a of the play.
light cue, creating movement of light on stage. Second, this
Scene designers also use levels to create focus. If one charac-
can refer to actual movement of the lights, sound, or projec-
ter is standing at the top of a flight of steps and all of the
tion on stage. If the projection is a still image, then it cannot
other characters are standing on the floor, where will you
create movement in this way, but if it is a video, then it has
look? The person at the top of the stairs takes focus from the
movement of its own. Lighting designers use follow-spots to
rest of the actors because he or she is separated in some
follow actors around the stage, and sound designers make
way. This is an example of using levels to create focus.
use of different speakers to create the effect that sound is
moving around the space. For example, you might hear a In addition to color and texture, lighting designers engage
barking dog behind you, then to your right, then down near intensity and direction to create focus. Having one actor
the stage, creating the effect that the dog was running and who is more brightly lit than the others is an easy way to give
barking. that person focus on stage.
C R E AT I N G F O C U S REFLECTION
Designers can also help tell the story by showing the audi- While designers have many goals, the primary goal is to tell a
ence what they should pay attention to. In film and television story. Each of the goals listed here ultimately helps the de-
the camera shows you exactly what it wants you to see and signer to do that. Designers use tools like color, texture,
draws your attention to important moments; because of the level, intensity, line, and direction to help them accomplish
their goals.
121
C H A P T E R 7, S E C T I O N 4: T Y P E S O F T H E AT R E S PA C E S
SECTION 4
Types of Theatre
Spaces
Designers are influenced by the type of thea-

tre space the play will take place in. In Chap-
ter 2 you read about the use of the word
theatre to indicate a space. There are several
kinds of theatre spaces and you are probably
familiar with at least some of them! Each
kind of space provides unique challenges
and benefits, and each requires designers,
actors, and directors to take different ap-
proaches. Let’s look at some of these to-
gether.
An arena stage has the audience seated

on all sides of the performance space. It
is sometimes also called theatre “in the
round.” 122
P R O S C E N I U M S TA G E and equipment can be stored. Often they have space over-

This is probably the kind of theatre you are most familiar with, head, as well, known as the fly loft, which permits set pieces
because it is similar to a movie theatre! Proscenium stages and backdrops to be stored overhead and brought in when
are probably the most easily recognizable and familiar form the time is right.
of theatre space. Characterized by a proscenium arch, all
Gallery 7.2 shows you several examples of proscenium style
audience members have a similar (though not identical) per-
theatres, including a birds-eye view illustrating the relation-
spective of the stage. Proscenium stages generally have
ship between the stage and the audience. This type of thea-
space backstage or in the wings, where set pieces, actors,
tre allows for grand sets and lighting if desired, but separates
the audience from the action, unlike other types of staging.
What do you think are some of the benefits to a proscenium

stage? What are some of the drawbacks?
T H R U S T S TA G E
Thrust stages are surrounded by audience on three sides, as
if the stage has been thrust into the audience! They are not
usually as large as proscenium stages, but can have a similar
proscenium arch upstage, or near the back of the stage, fur-
thest from the audience. Sometimes they have a fly loft and
wing space, too.
Consider how working on a thrust stage is different for design-

G ALLERY 7.3 P ROSCENIUM T HEATRE
ers than working on a proscenium stage. Which designers do
Birds-eye-view of a proscenium theatre space. Notice how you think are affected the least? Which designers do you
the audience is all watching from a similar perspective, as if think are affected the most? Many designers enjoy working in
they are looking through a picture frame.
thrust spaces because they tend to be smaller and more inti-
mate than proscenium stages. While this can be fun, it also
123
How to you think audience members are affected by a thrust

stage? What is different about their experiences? When you
see a play on a thrust stage, the audience becomes part of
the picture. The last image in Gallery 7.3 shows a production
photo from a play produced in a thrust-like configuration. No-
tice the chairs in the background and how close the actors
are to the audience! Do you think you would like to see a
play in this kind of space? Think about how it would affect
your experience.
What do you notice as key differences between the thrust

stage and proscenium stage?
G ALLERY 7.4 T HRUST S TAGE A R E N A S TA G E

While proscenium stages have audience on one side, and
Birds-eye-view of a thrust stage space. Notice audience is thrust stages have audience on three sides, Arena stages are
on three sides of the stage, and they all have very different
perspectives! characterized by audience on all sides. This style of theatre is
probably familiar to you - but not as theatre! Where have you
seen it before? Many sport arenas are built this ways. The
presents new challenges! Often, in thrust space, costumes, only way to get on to an arena stage is through the audience.
lighting, and sound take on more importance than scenery,
because it simply isn’t possible to house the same elaborates Arena stages are particularly challenging for scenic designers
sets as a proscenium stage. Large set pieces cannot live because in a scene change, every bit of furniture, etc. must
downstage of the proscenium arch because they will block come through the audience! Additionally, because there are
the view of the patrons on either side of the stage! no walls, designers are limited as to what they can put on
stage. This challenge forces the designer to come up with
creative ways of providing the actors and audience what they
124
need to tell and understand the story. Costumes and props In Gallery 7.4 you can see that even the lighting equipment is
become very important in these kinds of spaces because the visible to the audience because it is not masked by a prosce-
scenery may not be able to convey as much information nium arch.
about location, time period, etc., due to their limitations.
Which type of stage are you most familiar with? Which would
As with a thrust space, audience members are often very you most like to see a show in?
close to the stage and the actors. This creates an intimate en-
B L A C K B O X T H E AT R E
vironment that isn’t usually possible with a proscenium stage.
Black box theatres are flexible spaces; they can be arranged
in any of the configurations already described, as well as
many others. By moving all of the seating to one side of the
room, a proscenium stage is created. Place seats around
three sides of the room to create a thrust space. You could
also configure the black box in less traditional ways. For ex-
ample, if you wanted to set up the space like a runway with
audience members on two sides and a long performance
space between them, you could.
In an educational setting, black boxes are valuable tools be-

cause they allow students to work in a variety of ways. In-
stead of needing several theatre spaces, one space can be
repurposed over and over again. One of the drawbacks to
G ALLERY 7.5 A RENA S TAGE black box theatre is the time and energy spent in moving the
seating around. In addition to building the set and costumes,
Birds-eye-view of an arena stage space. Notice the audience
on all sides of the stage. the theatre must also be built!
125
F O U N D S PA C E S
A found space is exactly what it sounds like - a place that is
found and used as it is for a performance. A park, classroom,
library, or the steps of the Student Union are examples of
found spaces. Depending on the type of space, the intention
with which it is used, the time of day, and other considera-
tions, little may be done to alter or enhance the found space.
G ALLERY 7.6 B LACK B OX T HEATRE
Black box theatres can be configured in many different

ways, and are also known as “experimental theatres.” What
kind of space (that we’ve already discussed) is currently set
up in the photo here?
Most black box theatres are smaller spaces, so they lend

themselves to intimate production even when they are config-
G ALLERY 7.7 F OUND S PACE
ured as proscenium style stages. They also allow the creative
team to determine which stage type is best for the produc- These dancers perform outdoors in a found space. Some-
times things are added to the space to help with the per-
tion they are working on. Gallery 7.5 provides several exam-
formance; in this case, a dance floor.
ples of black boxes configured in a variety of ways.
126
However, often simple sets are incorporated in to found I NTERACTIVE 7.2 M ATCHING : T YPES OF T HEATRE S PACES
spaces along with lighting, if the play will be presented in the
evening. The first image in Gallery 7.6 shows the addition fo
a dance floor to a found space in order to provide a smooth
surface for the dancers.
Spaces are often chosen because of their location, relevance

to the play’s theme or concept, or amenities they provide
(steps, for example). Can you think of some places that would
make good found spaces for a theatrical production?
REFLECTION
Which of the spaces are you most familiar with? Why do you
think that is? Is there a particular space you think you’d enjoy Use this interactive matching game to test your knowl-
edge of theatre spaces.
seeing a play in? Why? Which spaces do you think actors en-
joy most? Designers? Directors?
Each type of space presents unique challenges and opportu-

nities. Some designers, directors, and actors prefer one type
of space to others, but many will not get to choose the style
theatre they work in unless they have access to a black box.
Use the interactive matching game to test your knowledge of

the theatre spaces and see what you’ve learned!
127
C H A P T E R 7, S E C T I O N 5 :S U M M A RY
CHAPTER SEVEN
A designer’s job centers around making choices that help tell The Designer’s Goals
a story. While different designers may do this in different Making Choices
ways, the process and the goals are the same. Using color,
The Designer’s Process
line, texture, level, intensity, shape, and many other elements
Importance of Technicians and Crew Members
of design, designers visually support a director’s approach to
a play and strive to make it clear to audiences. Proscenium Stage
Thrust Stage
Designers must work with the actors to create a cohesive de-
sign that helps the audience better understand the story. Arena Stage
They also work with a myriad of other people who help bring Black Box Theatre
their ideas to life, including technicians, crew members, and Found Space
other designers!
128
CHAPTER 7 REVIEW
CHAPTER 7
Review
Question 1 of 8
Which of the following designer’s goals do all of the other goals center around?
A. Evoking mood and atmosphere.
B. Supporting movement.
C. Creating focus.
D. Telling the story.
E. Defining the world of the play.
F. Reinforcing style.
Check Answer
cxxix
CHAPTER 8
Who is the Actor?
SECTION 8
Introduction
When you attend a play, you rarely get to interact with the
LEARNING OBJECTIVES person who painted the set, directed the show, or designed
the poster; you do however get a chance to interact with the
actors as they bring the characters to life before you! Actors
• Give a working definition of acting put themselves on the line every time they go on stage, mak-
• Identify the major elements of acting ing themselves vulnerable and pouring their hearts in to their
work. Many people only see the glamorous side of an actor’s
• Compare/contrast the parts of an actor’s routine
job, but acting is a difficult and challenging profession. What
• Describe the actor’s tools
goes in to preparing an audition? How do actors get roles?
• Identify qualities of a good actor What happens during the rehearsal process? Let’s take a look
at answers to these questions and more.
131
W H AT I S A C T I N G ?
Acting is the most public art form in theatre, and the most rec- KEY THINGS AN ACTOR MUST IDENTIFY:
ognized. Believe it or not, it is older than playwriting! Before
playwrights were writing plays, people were performing for Objective: What does the character WANT?
one another. Tactics: What does s/he DO to get it?
Many people consider Thespis to be the first actor. Thespis Obstacles: What is IN HIS/HER WAY?
was part of a Greek chorus until he stepped out of the chorus
and began a dialogue with them. World of the Play: What are the GIVEN CIRCUM-
STANCES?
The best definition of acting is “truthful action in imaginary
circumstances.”
APPROACHES TO ACTING
An actor’s approach to their craft can vary greatly from per-
“Acting is not about dressing up. Acting is about stripping son to person, and for one actor, from production to produc-
bare. The whole essence of learning lines is to forget them
so you can make them sound like you thought of them that tion. There are acting methods or theories that are based on
instance.” the work of various people, and those different methods are
~ Glenda Jackson, actress taught at different training programs. One school might
teach the work of Konstantin Stanislavsky, who you’ll learn
more about in Chapter 10. Another might teach the Michael
THE ELEMENTS OF ACTING
Actors use a set of guidelines to govern the work they do Chekhov approach, another could dive into the world of Uta
and ask themselves questions in order to make new discover- Hagen, or Stella Adler, Sanford Meisner, etc. Some training
ies about their characters. Understanding the character’s MO- programs teach several approaches.
TIVATION is an important part of creating believable charac- Often the actor’s approach largely depends on the world of
ters on stage. Here are four key things an actor must identify: play. Some actors prefer a more internal approach, where
objective, tactics, obstacles, and the world of the play. they examine the character’s psychology, what makes them
132
“tick,” etc. Some actors prefer a more external approach, fo- THE ACTOR’S ROUTINE
cusing on the way a character walks, a particular vocal quality, The actor’s routine consists of three predominate parts.
etc. Some actors might use either approach or both, depend-
AUDITION
ing on what show they are in. In order to get work, actors must audition. This can be a frus-
trating and time consuming task, especially because rejection
For instance, an actor might use more of an internal ap-
is often times more frequent than approval.
proach for a contemporary realism play, but might use a more
external approach for a Restoration comedy, which requires REHEARSALS
specific ways of moving, curtseying, using a fan, wearing a Once an actor receives a role he begins the rehearsal proc-
corset, etc. ess, which can last anywhere from 2 weeks to several weeks –
even months!
PERFORMANCE
Adding the audience is the final step! An audience changes
everything and brings life to the performance. Maintaining
the energy of the show beyond opening night is one of the
challenges actors face during performance.
Let’s learn more about each!
Tap on each of the pictures to learn more about the im-

portant acting teachers that have influenced contempo-
rary theatre training.
133
C H A P T E R 8, S E C T I O N 2 : T H E A U D I T I O N
SECTION 2
The Audition
You already know that in order to work, ac-

tors must audition. An audition is the pri-
mary way an actor gets jobs. It is a chance
to show the director how well they can fill a
particular role and what they can bring to
the character. Let’s look a little more in
depth at what happens goes in to an audi-
tion.
134
THE AUDITION PROCESS tion book will have selections from different genres, styles,
What happens during the audition process? Here are the and time periods. For instance, an actor would have classical
stages the actor typically goes through: monologues (Greek, Shakespeare, etc.), contemporary mono-
logues, musical theatre ballads, uptempo pop/rock songs,
FINDING AUDITIONS
An actor must constantly be looking for opportunities to audi- etc. They’d also have variety in terms of tone--dramatic, co-
tion. If they wait until their current production is over to start medic, narrative, etc.
auditioning, they could be without work for weeks, months,
Having a lot of audition material to choose from is helpful, be-
or even years! Sometimes actors find the auditions on their
cause it means the actor can spend time sharpening their
own, but professional actors usually have an agent and/or
pieces and honing their craft rather than searching through
manager that will help find appropriate auditions for them.
books and plays. If they are auditioning for Mercutio in Ro-
P R E PA R I N G T H E A U D I T I O N meo and Juliet, they can go to their book and choose a classi-
When an actor gets an audition for a specific project, they cal dramatic piece to polish up. Actors will typically have a
must prepare for that audition. They will read the script (if it’s number of audition pieces in their “back pocket,” meaning
available), and might choose a monologue with which to audi- that at any moment if someone asked for a monologue,
tion. Or they might be asked to read from the play. They’ll they’d have one completely memorized and ready to go on
find a great audition outfit and will polish their headshot and the spot.
resume.
In addition to preparing for specific projects, actors are con- “There's no enemy in the auditioning process. Everybody
stantly looking for new material and developing their skill sets wants you to be the right person when you walk in the
room. We're all just trying to make a soup here, and they're
to improve their marketability. Having a variety of audition trying to figure out the right ingredients for the soup.”
material available means you’re ready for any kind of audi-
~Michael Mosley, actor
tion. Actors often keep a file of audition material that they
can pull from at any moment--this is often referred as their
“book.” Sometimes it’s digital files, sometimes an actual note-
book with copies of monologues, sheet music, etc. An audi-
135
AUDITIONING A C C E P T I N G A R O L E /R E J E C T I O N :
During the audition, the actor will be given an opportunity to Unfortunately, actors are often met with more rejection than
present their prepared work, often a monologue and/or a acceptance. Being able to go out and repeat the process to-
song. They may be asked to do any of the following as well: morrow in spite of that rejection is part of an actor’s job.
• Cold Reading (a short scene from the play that the ac- Think back to Chapter 6, where we learned about what a di-
tor doesn’t get time to prepare in advance) rector is looking for when casting. There is a lot that is out of
the control of the actor - the director might be set on using
• Dance
someone who’s brunette and the actor is blond, there might
• Stage Combat be a textual reference to the character’s height and the actor
is too tall/short, etc. So the actor needs to control all the
• Improvisation Exercises
things they can, such as being pleasant, having a strong work
• Showcase a particular skill (juggling, acrobatics, etc.) ethic, and working on his/her craft to constantly improve.
• Other! REFLECTION
You may have been involved in a high school production, a
CALL BACKS ballet recital, or a talent show that required you to audition.
Frequently, directors ask to see certain actors again. They
How did auditioning make you feel? What was the outcome
might be asked to read from the script, sing, dance, or en-
and how did you respond? Maybe you’ve never auditioned
gage in improvisation, among other things. This is a chance
for anything before; what do you think would be the most dif-
for the director to see how various actors look together and
ficult aspect and how would you feel if you were successful?
determine their chemistry, as well as to decide between ac-
tors that stood out in the first audition. Cold readings are of-
ten part of call backs. Sometimes a director will ask actors to
read something they haven’t prepared or seen before. This
could be a monologue or scene with a partner.
136
C H A P T E R 8, S E C T I O N 3 : T H E R E H E A R S A L
SECTION 3
The Rehearsal
Congratulations! You’ve got the part, now
what? Once a role has been offered and ac-
cepted, the actor moves into the rehearsal
process. This portion of the preparation time
for a show is when the actor is memorizing
lines, learning blocking, and discovering
character. Actors figure out objectives, tac-
tics, obstacles, and given circumstances dur-
ing rehearsals.
Actors at Arkansas State University

work during a rehearsal for The Trojan
Women.
137
THE REHEARSAL PROCESS ten use shorthand such as “X DC” to mean “cross down cen-
As you just read, before a show opens, the director and ac- ter,” since it takes up far less room on a crowded script page.
tors spend time in rehearsal. There are several stages in this Stage Business refers to the small activities a character would
process and each one allows the actor to focus on different do, like making a drink, folding laundry, flipping through a
aspects of their work. Different directors work in different magazine, etc.
ways, so the order of this process shifts from show to show.
E X P L O R AT I O N
TABLE WORK/READ THROUGH Rehearsal is an exciting time for an actor! It is a chance to ex-
The cast will read through the script together, each performer plore, take risks, experiment, and research the character and
reading his/her part. This is also a chance for the director to world of the play. The kind of research an actor does de-
share his understanding of and vision for the production. pends on the show. For instance, an actor playing Hecuba in
Sometimes the designers will give a presentation where they Ellen McLaughlin’s adaptation of The Trojan Women would
show images and discuss their vision and design. Actors have likely research the Trojan War (what led up to it, what hap-
the opportunity to ask questions about the play, their role, pened during the war, the aftermath and specifically what
the director’s concept, etc. In professional situations, many ac- happened to Hecuba), historical portrayals of Hecuba, pro-
tors will come in with their part mostly or completely memo- duction history of McLaughlin’s adaptation, Greek Theatre
rized. This is important, since there are often only 2-3 weeks performance, etc. Rehearsal is also a wonderful time for the
of rehearsal. But the actor needs to be flexible and not come actor to figure out what makes their character “tick.” While
in with a pre-determined way of saying things! The director’s the actor will have already done a lot of work on their own be-
concept and guidance often change the actor’s approach to fore rehearsal starts regarding initial ideas about objectives
the role. and tactics, etc., this part of the rehearsal process is about
getting those ideas up on their feet, fine-tuning and polishing
B L O C K I N G & S TA G E B U S I N E S S
If you remember from Chapter 6, blocking refers to where those initial ideas with the guidance of the director. Initial
characters enter and exit and how they move around the ideas about objectives and tactics often change from when
stage. Actors will have script and pencil in hand, writing the actor first read the play.
down their blocking as the director goes through it. They of-
138
TECHNICAL REHEARSALS
I NTERACTIVE 8.1 A N A CTOR ’ S S CRIPT
This is when it all comes together! Actors begin wearing
their costumes for the first time and wait while designers and
technicians work out the technical details of the performance,
such as the timing of light and sound cues. They often have
to run one section of the play repeatedly, allowing the techni- Notes
Tactics
cal aspects to get synched up with the spoken lines. Finally
getting to wear costumes often provides a great boost to
character development in these last moments of rehearsal.
Moving in a corset, wearing a wig, walking in high heels, etc.
Highlighting
can all change the actor’s perspective on the character. See-
ing the lights and hearing the sound design for the first time Beat shift
also adds great mood and atmosphere and the actor can
more easily “drop” into character when the world of the play
is complete.
OPENING NIGHT
Adding the audience is the final piece of the puzzle and gives
the production life. Remember, plays only appear in their fin-
ished form when they are performed! Some shows only
run one or two nights, while others will run 6-8 shows
a week for years! Opening night is an exciting time
for anyone involved in the production as it is the cul-
mination of their labors. In Chapter 4 you read about the Tap on the various labels to zoom in and learn more
transaction that occurs between the actors and the audience; about how this actor has scored her script.
that is not present until opening night!
139
M A I N TA I N I N G E N E R G Y T H R O U G H O U T T H E R U N
Every night brings a different audience, and each deserves
the same excitement that exists on opening night. Actors
must find ways to maintain the enthusiasm and energy they
feel at the beginning of a production night after night. Going
back to the basics - objectives, tactics, obstacles, given cir-
cumstances - provides a road map for actors to stay on
course and remember what is important to that character and
why.
140
C H A P T E R 8, S E C T I O N 4: T H E A C T O R ’ S T O O L S
SECTION 4
The Actor's Tools
Violinists have violins, painters have brushs,

pianists have pianos...
What do actors have to work with? What are

their tools? Let’s take a look!
Acting students at Arkansas State Uni-

versity take Stage Combat to help them
in their craft.
141
THE ACTOR’S TOOLS portant so that the actor’s voice can be clearly heard and un-
The three tools an actor has to work with are mind, body, and derstood. Voice work also allows actors to make character
voice. choices.
MIND STYLE
Discipline is essential for an actor’s success and developing “Style” work in theatre generally means what the rules are for
this skill is an important part of their training. It is important that given world. How were people expected to carry them-
to constantly stretch the mind and imagination, asking ques- selves? What were the guidelines for decorum, use of acces-
tions and playing games. Being able to effectively manage sories, etc.? For example, Greek Theatre has different rules
stress is also key. Actors must exercise their emotional life for performance than contemporary realism. In Greek-style
and imagination to discover HOW to connect to imaginary cir- performance, large, expressive gestures and extended vow-
cumstances els are indicative of that style (related to the need to reach
large audiences in outdoor theatres). In Restoration Theatre,
BODY
How can we train our bodies? Can you think of physical skills there were specific ways of bowing and curtseying that actors
that might be useful to an actor? For example, dancing, acro- would need to learn. Contemporary realism is also a style, al-
batics, stage combat, juggling, horseback riding… Can you though we generally don’t think of it as “style” because the
think of others? Being able to effectively get rid of excess ten- rules of that world are those we currently ascribe to.
sion is a primary goal of movement work. Actors need to
Still confused about stye? Check out this video which illus-
know how to properly warm up and to create physical
trates the exaggerated vocal and physical movements that
choices for characters.
are part of the Greek theatre style. This scene comes from a
VOICE filmed version of William Wycherley’s The Country Wife. Note
How can we train our voices? Learning various dialects, devel- the use of body movement and varied vocal choices.
oping the ability to sing well, and being able to engage in
healthy yelling or screaming are examples of training the
voice. Can you think of other skills that might be useful? Like
with body/movement work, getting rid of excess tension is im-
142
V IDEO : G REEK T HEATRE V IDEO : R ESTORATION C OMEDY
Check out this video which illustrates the exaggerated vocal This scene comes from a filmed version of William Wycher-
and physical movements that are part of the Greek theatre ley’s The Country Wife. Note the use of body movement
style. and varied vocal choices.
143
C H A P T E R 8, S E C T I O N 5: Q U A L I T I E S O F A G O O D A C T O R
SECTION 5
Qualities of a
Good Actor
Often people mistakenly think that the life of

an actor is one of parties, red carpet events,
spending money, and sitting by the pool all
day. But working actors have to do just
that...WORK. Hard.
Back to front: Deven Parrish, Michaela

Maxwell, and Zac Passmore apply
makeup before a performance.
144
C H A P T E R 8, S E C T I O N 5: Q U A L I T I E S O F A G O O D A C T O R
The constant preparation, grueling audition process, engag- V IDEO : V IOLA D AVIS ON A CTING
ing rehearsals, and amount of energy required to maintain a
performance can seem overwhelming and daunting at times
– they are not for the faint of heart! Frequently we only see
the glamorous side of an actor’s life and forget about the
hard work that goes in to making a performance seem natural
and effortless.
So, what makes a “good” actor?
Good actors, smart actors, take care of themselves mentally,

emotionally, and physically. They discipline themselves and
work hard to acquire new skills, while improving those they
have. Successful actors are good LISTENERS, have good
TIME MANAGEMENT skills, are CONFIDENT, and WORK
WELL WITH OTHERS. These are just a few of the many quali-
Check out this video featuring multiple award-winning actor Viola
ties of a good actor. Are there other behaviors or traits you Davis as she speaks about collaboration, listening, and unex-
think would be helpful? pected circumstances.
Check out this video featuring multiple award-winning actor

Viola Davis as she speaks about collaboration, listening, and
unexpected circumstances.
145
CHAPTER EIGHT
The actor is often misunderstood and his life can be filled

with rejection, in spite of hard work and dedication. Being an Thespis
actor is a difficult and not always rewarding profession. There
Objective
is an adage within theatre that says, “If you can picture your-
Tactic
self doing something else and being happy, DO IT.” The life
an actor leads is too hard if you’re not 100% invested. While Obstacles
being an actor can be challenging, it can also be a satisfying World of the Play
and worthwhile endeavor. When the lights go up on opening Audition Process
night and the audience engages in the experience with you,
Call Back
you might just find it’s all be worth it!
Cold Reading
Blocking
Stage Business
The Actor’s Tools

Qualities of a Good Actor
146
I NTERACTIVE 8.2 C ROSSWORD P UZZLE
Review Chapter 8 terms and ideas with this interactive crossword puzzle!
147
CHAPTER 8 REVIEW
CHAPTER 8
Review
Question 1 of 9
True or false: Acting is older than playwriting.
A. True
B. False
Check Answer
cxlviii
Unit 3: What Are We
Watching?
C H A P T E R 9 : W H AT W A S ?
U NIT 3 I NTRODUCTION V IDEO
C H A P T E R 1 0: W H AT I S ?
C H A P T E R 1 1: W H AT I S A M U S I C A L ?
C H A P T E R 1 2: W H AT ’ S N E X T ?
m e!
y
Pla
cxlix
CHAPTER 9
What Was? Theatre of the Past

SECTION 9
Introduction
Storytelling is a universally human activity; we use it to teach
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
life lessons and history, preserve memories, and entertain one
• Identify the four distinct periods in theatre’s history another. The first time a hunter returned to his tribe and told
as described in this text and place them in the story of how he killed the antelope, theatre was born. As
chronological order we discussed in Chapter 2, Theatre requires two essential ele-
• Describe the basic similarities and differences of ments, a performer (the storyteller) and an audience (some-
theatre during each of these four distinct periods one to listen to the story). As groups of humans formed socie-
• Examine one playwright from each of the four ties, we formed storytelling.
periods and samples of their work
Theatre has been around as long as people! In addition to
• Look at the role of the Church in theatre throughout
storytelling, ritual and ceremony are part of theatre’s history.
history
People have engaged in rituals and ceremonies for thou-
sands of years. Frequently these involved masks or makeup,
special clothing (costumes), special or significant locations
151
(sets), music or chanting, and movement, or dance. All of

these contribute to theatre as we recognize it today!
A ritual (from the word “rite”) is a series of actions done in

the same order in accordance with social customs or religious
law. Rituals are often repeated on a regular basis; making tea
is a ritual in some cultures.
A ceremony is a formal act (sometimes even a ritual) that is

part of a social or religious occasion. A wedding and a
graduation are both ceremonies. Ceremonies are often re-
peated at irregular intervals. As mentioned earlier, most, if
not all, dramatic forms have roots in ritual and ceremony.
REFLECTION
Think about the ways in which rituals and ceremonies are like
theatre. Consider a wedding; it involves an audience (wit-
nesses), costumes, a script, lighting, sound, set (decorations),
and often a director of sorts (wedding planner). Can you think
of other ways a wedding is similar to a theatrical production?
152
C H A P T E R 9, S E C T I O N 2: A N C I E N T G R E E K T H E AT R E
SECTION 2
Ancient Greek
Theatre
Beginning in the 5th century B.C.E., a festi-
val honoring Dionysus, the Greek god of the
harvest and wine, was held each spring. This
festival was called City Dionysia. Every mem-
ber of society joined in the city-wide celebra-
tion which lasted five days and included
many plays as part of the festivities.
Theatre of Dionysus in Athens, Greece.
153
to the best playwrights. Satyr plays were vulgar, bawdy plays

that often made fun of Greek institutions and followed the
tragic form. Only one satyr play surveys in its entirety, The Cy-
clops; all other scripts were lost. We get the modern word
“satire” from satyr.
“The word theatre comes from the Greeks. It means the

seeing place. It is the place people come to see the truth
about life and the social situation.”
~Stella Adler, actress
G R E E K P L AY S
In the 5th century, Greek plays were comprised of one leader
and a chorus of 50 men. The role of the chorus was to com-
ment on the action of the play, provide background informa-
Above: Statue of Dionysus tion, and express the emotional state of the characters,
among other things. As time passed, the number of chorus
CITY DIONYSIA
members diminished, and several “leaders” emerged. As this
City Dionysia was held in the spring and lasted at least five
happened, theatre as we know it today began to be estab-
days. As part of the festival people sang choral odes, hymns
lished! In spite of these leaders, Greek plays continued to be
called dithyrambs, and people danced to honor Dionysus.
written in verse, reflecting the song-like nature of the dithy-
Dithyrambs soon became a literary form and were eventually
ramb. You will find an excerpt from Sophocles Oedipus Rex
dramatized in to plays.
on the next page. Notice the way it is formatted like a poem
At City Dionysia, each playwright presented three tragedies or a song.
and one comedy, called a satyr play, and awards were given
154
EXCERPT FROM OEDIPUS REX, BY SOPHOCLES

We call against the pallid face of this God-hated God
Read the excerpt and then watch the video that accompanies The springing heel of Artemis in the hunting sandal shod,
The tousle-headed Maenads, blown torch and drunken sound,
it. This video clip from the 1967 Oedipus Rex movie, is the
The stately Lysian king himself with golden fillet crowned,
same as the text below. This will give you an opportunity to And in his hands the golden bow and the stretched golden
compare how the text looks and sounds. Remember, plays string,
are meant to be seen and heard, not read! You can read And Bacchus’ wine-ensanguined face that all the Maenads
sing
more about the author, Sophocles on the next page.
V IDEO : O EDIPUS R EX
The Chorus enter
What message comes to famous Thebes from the Golden
House?
What message of disaster from that sweet-throated Zeus?
What monstrous thing our fathers saw do the seasons bring?
Or what that no man ever saw, what new monstrous thing?
Trembling in every limb I raise my loud importunate cry,
And in a sacred terror wait the Delian God’s reply.
Apollo chase the God of Death that leads no shouting men,
Bears no rattling shield and yet consumes this form with pain.
Famine takes what the plague spares, and all the crops are
lost;
No new life fills the empty place—ghost flits after ghost
To that God-trodden western shore, as flit benighted birds.
Sorrow speaks to sorrow, but no comfort finds in words.
Hurry him from the land of Thebes with a fair wind behind
This video clip from the 1967 Oedipus Rex movie (directed
Out on to that formless deep where not a man can find
by Sir Tyrone Guthrie) is the same as the text to the left.
Hold for an anchor-fluke, for all is world-enfolding sea;
Master of the thunder-cloud, set the lightning free,
And add the thunder-stone to that and fling them on his head,
For death is all the fashion now, till even Death be dead.
155
P L AY W R I G H T : S O P H O C L E S 4 9 6- 4 06 B . C. E.
Sophocles was an actor before he became a playwright. He
wrote over 120 plays, winning 1st place at City Dionysia eight-
een times, never finishing lower than 2nd.
Early Greek plays consisted of a chorus comprised of twelve

members and two individuals who interacted with one an-
other as well as with the chorus, to tell the story. Sophocles
introduced a third actor in to this formula, which heightened
conflict within the play. He also increased the size of the cho-
rus from twelve to fifteen. Of his works only seven tragedies
remain, including Oedipus Rex and Antigone. Only parts of
his satyr plays remain. You can read an excerpt from is play,
Oedipus Rex, on the previous page.
REFLECTION
Western theatre as we recognize it today grew out of the
theatre traditions of ancient Greece. The Greeks performed
three tragedies and one comedy. Why the disparity? Do you
think tragedy is a higher form of comedy?
In the interactive image on the next page, review ideas about

ancient Greek theatre by matching them correctly. Do you re-
member what a satyr play is? Check it out here!
Above: Statue of Sophocles
156
I NTERACTIVE 9.1 G REEK T HEATRE M ATCHING
Use this interactive matching game to review terms and ideas about ancient Greek theatre.
157
C H A P T E R 9, S E C T I O N 3: A N C I E N T R O M A N T H E AT R E
SECTION 3
Ancient Roman
Theatre
The Romans admired the Greeks and bor-

rowed heavily from their culture. Fashion, ar-
chitecture, and even Greek gods were
adapted and taken on by the Romans, so it
is no surprise they also borrowed heavily
from Greek theatre.
Mosaic depicting a Roman theatrical

troupe preparing for a performance.
158
C O P Y C AT S ! REFLECTION
Many of the popular Greek plays were rewritten by Roman What is “Popular Entertainment”? What parallels exist be-
playwrights and adapted to suit Roman culture. While vio- tween popular entertainment of the past and now? Do you
lence happened off-stage in Greek plays, the Romans reveled think modern audiences have a desire to see action, violence,
in spectacle and deaths were always shown on stage in the death presented on stage? Some argue that television, rock
Roman adaptations. concerts, video games and films are much like Roman cul-
ture. Is it true?
The most common association with Roman entertainment is
probably gladiators. Gladiatorial events took place in the
same venues, and sometimes even on the same day, as theat-
rical events. Quite violent, all of this was part of popular enter-
tainment. As you read in Chapter 2, Roman coliseums were
shared spaces for sporting events and theatrical productions,
so it is no surprise they were anxious to include violence and
death on stage, as well.
P L AY W R I G H T : P L A U T U S 2 54 - 1 84 B . C. E.
As a playwright, Plautus was wildly popular. He integrated
song and dance in to Roman comedic plays and his subject
matter was largely romance. He wrote nearly 130 plays, 20 of
which survived intact, including Menaechmi, which was
adapted by Shakespeare, among others.
Look on the next page to read an excerpt from one of

Plautus’ plays and see how it compares to other play styles in
this chapter!
159
EXCERPT FROM AULUARIA, BY PLAUTUS EUCLIO
EUCLIO Keep still and go inside. (advances on her)
It is surprising Providence wouldn't make a King Philip or Dar- STAPHYLA

ius of me for your benefit, you viper, you! (threateningly) I
(hurrying out of reach) I'm still,sir, I'm going!
want those cobwebs watched! I'm poor, poor; I admit it, I put
up with it; I take what the gods give me. In with you, bolt the EUCLIO
door. I shall be back soon. No outsider is to be let in, mind
Mind you lock the door, both bolts. I'll soon be back.
you. And in case anyone should be looking for a light, see
you put the fire out so no one will have any reason to come (Exit Staphyla into house)
to you for it. Mark my words, if that fire stays alive, I'll extin-
It's agony having to leave the house, downright agony. Oh
guish you instantly. And the water-- if anyone asks for water,
my God, how I do hate to go! But I have my reasons. The di-
tell him it's all run out. As for a knife, or an axe, or a pestle, or
rector of our ward gave notice he was going to make a pre-
a mortar,-- things the neighbours are all the time wanting to
sent of two shillings a man; and the minute I let it pass with-
borrow-- tell 'em burglars got in and stole the whole lot. I
out putting in my claim, they'd all be suspecting that I had
won't have a living soul let into my house while I'm gone--
gold at home, I'm sure they would. No, it doesn't look natural
there! Yes, and what's more, listen here, if Dame Fortune her-
for a poor man to think so little of even a tiny bit of money as
self comes along, don't you let her in.
no to go ask for his two shillings. Why,even now, hard as I try
STAPHYLA to keep every one from finding out, it seems as if ever one
knew: it seems as if every one has a heartier way of saying
Goodness me, she won't get in: she'll see to that herself, I
good day than they used to. Up they come, and stop, and
fancy. Why, she never comes to our house at all, no matter
shake hands, and keep asking me how I'm feeling, and how
how near she is.
I'm getting on, and what I'm doing. Well, I must get along to
where I'm bound; and then I'll come back home just as fast as
I possibly can.
160
C H A P T E R 9, S E C T I O N 4 : M E D I E VA L T H E AT R E
SECTION 4
Medieval Theatre
Near the end of the 5th century the Roman

Empire fell and Europe was invaded by bar-
barians and broken into tiny feudal states.
This period is known as the Medieval Pe-
riod, or The Dark Ages. This refers to the
time between the Classical Era of the
Greeks, and the Renaissance.
Nineteenth-century engraving of a per-

formance from the Chester mystery play
cycle.
161
guilds would each take a parable from the Bible that corre-
M E D I E VA L T H E AT R E sponded with their craft and present it within the cycle; for ex-
ample, the Boatwrights would do Noah’s Ark, and the Bakers
Fall of the Roman Empire
would do The Lords Supper. Each play was very short and of-
Rise of Christianity ten moved from place to place on a pageant wagon. You
Use of Liturgical Dramas can see examples of pageant wagons in Gallery 9.1. Some of
Cycle Plays Emerge these cycles lasted days. The cycle plays built community, pro-
vided a break in routine, and reinforced the social hierarchy
of the time.
RISE OF THE CHURCH
During this period religion flourished and the rise in Christian-
G ALLERY 9.1 P AGEANT W AGONS
ity led to a decline in theatre. Eventually the Church banned
theatre altogether and for hundreds of years no theatre was
practiced in Europe, although other popular entertainments
continued to flourish, such as juggling, mime, and singing.
At this time most of the population was illiterate and the

Church began using liturgical dramas as a way to teach peo-
ple Bible stories and to reinforce the hierarchy of the Church.
Soon, liturgical dramas became very popular and people out-
side the Church began to write and perform them as well.
They often had large casts, costumes, and even simple sets.
All of these people were amateurs and did these plays for fun
and to bring glory to God. Guilds traveled from stop to stop on Pageant wagons, pre-
senting their part of the play.
C Y C L E P L AY S
Cycle plays were developed from the tradition of liturgical
drama, telling the entire story of the Bible. Individual trade
162
P L AY W R I G H T : A N O N Y M O U S E X C E R P T F R O M T H E S E C O N D S H E P H E R D ’ S P L AY , B Y
Unlike plays written during the Classical Period, plays written ANONYMOUS
during the Dark Ages were intended to glorify God, not man,
MAK
so a playwright’s name was typically not attached to a text.
The Church used theatre to teach people stories from the Bi- Then I'd be in the way if you wanted to whisper together.
ble and to reinforce the hierarchy of the Church. We do not (He lies down nearby, but not in the middle of the pack)
know the authorship of any of the surviving medieval plays
we have access to. Manus tutus commendo Pontio Pilato. Christ's cross save me!
Read an excerpt from The Second Shepherd’s Play, an exam- (He gets up as the others fall asleep.)
ple of a cycle play, and see how it compares to other play Now it's time for a man whose plate is cold
styles in this chapter! You can also watch a trailer for a produc- To stalk secretly as he can into a fold
tion of The Second Shepherd’s Play at the end of the chapter. And nimbly to plan, nor be too bold,
REFLECTION Or he'll be sorry when all is told

Why do you think the church suppressed theatre for so long? At the ending.
The church used theatre to teach; is theatre still used to teach
(Shepherds snore)
today? What do we learn from it?
Lord! but they sleep hard--you can all hear!
Theatre changed drastically during the Medieval Period from
I was never a shepherd, but now I'll learn.
the theatre of ancient Greece and Rome. The rise of the
If the flock is scared, I'll sneak up on one.
Church facilitated this change. As you read in Chapter 1, art
Here, come here! (He catches one.)
holds a mirror up to life; here we can see a prime example of
Now things are starting to look good.
that!
A fat sheep, I dare say! with a good fleece, I'll bet!
When I can I'll repay, but this sheep I'll borrow.
(He takes the sheep home.)
163
Hey, Jill, are you up? Give us some light. JILL
JILL It would be a shame to be hanged for this.
Who's making all that racket this late at night? I can't get my MAK
housework done with all these interruptions!
I've gotten out of tighter situations.
MAK
JILL
Good wife, open quick--don't you see what I bring?
But you know what they say: "If the pot keeps going to the
water, eventually it will come back broken."
JILL MAK
Open the door yourself. (sees sheep) Oh, it's you, sweet- Oh, just come help me. Let's slay it so we can eat. I'm
heart! starved.
MAK JILL
Sure, let me stand here all night... What if they show up and hear it bleating before we kill it?
JILL MAK
By your naked neck, you'll probably hang for this! Then I'm in big trouble. Go lock the gate.
MAK JILL
Get outta here! I'm worthy of my meat--in a pinch I can get Yes, but Mak, if they come in the back--
more than men who work all day.
MAK
I had some good luck today!
Then I'm really in trouble.
164
JILL
I have an idea, since you can't think of anything. Let's hide

him here until they leave, in the cradle!
Leave me alone, And I'll lie in bed and groan.
MAK
Get ready! And I'll say you've just had a baby boy tonight.
JILL
This is my lucky day! This is a good disguise.

A woman's advice saves the day once again.
You go back to the field in case anyone notices you're miss-
ing.
MAK
I'll get back before they wake up.
(He sneaks back to the field)

Still sleep all this crew,
And I'll sneak in too,
As if I never knew
Who lifted their sheep. (Lies down and snores)
165
C H A P T E R 9, S E C T I O N 5: R E N A I S S A N C E T H E AT R E
SECTION 5
Renaissance Theatre
Renaissance is the French word for “re-

birth.” For hundreds of years Europeans had
been living in the shadow of cultures that
had better technology, larger cities, more so-
phisticated government, and architecture
they could not reproduce. As Greek and Ro-
man writings were translated and made their
Sir John Gilbert's 1849 painting: The

Plays of William Shakespeare, contain-
ing scenes and characters from several
of William Shakespeare's plays.
166
way through Europe, the people of the time did everything in the Church itself like in Medieval theatre, Renaissance theatre
their power to recapture the glory of those fallen empires. existed independently, and those who participated were paid
Writings on virtually every subject were studied and applied in some manner for their time and talent. Because it was not
to current practices. Architecture, poetry, playwriting, civil en- associated with a particular season or celebration it was year-
gineering were all greatly impacted. It was a rebirth of the round.
Classical Era.
All over Europe, there was an explosion of playwriting and
theatrical performance. New theatres were being built, profes-
R E N A I S S A N C E T H E AT R E sional actors, playwrights, and producers were putting on
shows (translations of Greek and Roman plays as well as
Focused on the Individual
many, many new works). During this period, perhaps the
Secular most famous playwright ever emerged in England: William
Professional Shakespeare.
P L AY W R I G H T : W I L L I A M S H A K E S P E A R E
In addition to writing 37 plays, Shakespeare was an actor, a
Theatre that emerged during this period was very different
manager of an acting troupe, and owned a theatre. His plays
from the theatre that came before it. While liturgical dramas
were most commonly performed at the Globe Theatre on
and cycle plays were intended to honor and glorify God,
the south bank of the Thames, in London.
plays written during the Renaissance focused more on the in-
dividual and his or her experiences. This reflected popular Shakespeare wrote about mortality and love, among other
concepts of the time, as a renewed interest in Greek and things. His plays include the following, among others.
Latin ideas emerged and the focus shifted away from the
Church. • Romeo and Juliet
• Othello
Renaissance theatre was also very different because it was
• A Midsummer Night’s Dream
both secular and professional, for the first time. Instead of
centering around a religious ceremony like City Dionysa, or • Much Ado About Nothing
167
• Hamlet
• Macbeth
• King Lear
• The Tempest
• As You Like It
• The Merchant of Venice
• The Taming of the Shrew
Look on the next page to read an excerpt from one of Shake-

speare’s plays and see how it compares to other play styles in
this chapter! You can also watch an excerpt from the same
play, presented at Shakespeare’s Globe, London, in 2013 at
the end of the chapter.
REFLECTION
What Shakespeare plays have you seen or read? How many
of his plays can you name? Why are Shakespeare’s plays still
performed? In Chapter 5 you read about the importance of
pertinence in a play; many people believe Shakespeare’s
plays have endured because they address many issues of per-
sonal and social impact that still have great pertinence for us,
even today.
168
EXCERPT FROM MACBETH, MACBETH

BY WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE
I have almost forgot the taste of fears;
SCENE V. Dunsinane. Within the castle.
The time has been, my senses would have cool'd
Enter MACBETH, SEYTON, and Soldiers, with drum and col-
To hear a night-shriek; and my fell of hair
ours
Would at a dismal treatise rouse and stir
MACBETH
As life were in't: I have supp'd full with horrors;
Hang out our banners on the outward walls;
Direness, familiar to my slaughterous thoughts
The cry is still 'They come:' our castle's strength
Cannot once start me.
Will laugh a siege to scorn: here let them lie
Re-enter SEYTON
Till famine and the ague eat them up:
Wherefore was that cry?
Were they not forced with those that should be ours,
SEYTON
We might have met them dareful, beard to beard,
The queen, my lord, is dead.
And beat them backward home.
MACBETH
A cry of women within
She should have died hereafter;
What is that noise?
There would have been a time for such a word.
SEYTON
To-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow,
It is the cry of women, my good lord.
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day
Exit
169
To the last syllable of recorded time,

V IDEO : M ACBETH
And all our yesterdays have lighted fools
The way to dusty death. Out, out, brief candle!
Life's but a walking shadow, a poor player
That struts and frets his hour upon the stage
And then is heard no more: it is a tale
Told by an idiot, full of sound and fury,
Signifying nothing.
This video is from a production of Macbeth at Shakespeare’s

From a production of Macbeth at Shakespeare’s Globe, Lon-
Globe, London, June 2013. The text is the same as to the left.
don, June 2013
170
CHAPTER NINE
Ritual and Storytelling

BRIEF TIMELINE Greek Theatre
Greek Theatre City Dionysia
Roman Theatre Dithyramb
Medieval Theatre Satyr Play
Renaissance Theatre Sophocles
Roman Theatre
Plautus
Theatre has been around as long as people! Through storytel-
Medieval Theatre
ling, ritual, and ceremony, theatre as we know it today devel-
oped. Western theatre has its origins in ancient Greek thea- Dark Ages
tre, and this brief history show us how theatre reacts to what Liturgical Dramas
has come before. Understanding what was is important be-
Cycle Plays
cause it helps us understand what is.
Anonymous Playwrights
Renaissance Theatre
Classical Era
“Rebirth”
Shakespeare
171
CHAPTER 9 REVIEW
CHAPTER 9
Review
Question 1 of 11
True or False? Different periods in theatre history typically develop in isolation; they are not in
reaction to what came before.
A. True
B. False
Check Answer
clxxii
CHAPTER 10
What Is?
SECTION 1
Introduction
After the Renaissance, theatre continued in much the same
O B J E C T I V E S /A C T I V I T I E S / D I S C U S S I O N , E T C . vein for hundreds of years. While it changed somewhat with
the times, plays were still written in verse, the characters were
• Explore how theatre has changed in the last 150
still drawn from the same social groups, and the subject mat-
years
ter of the plays remained similar.
• Explain Realism as it pertains to theatre
In the late 18th century, playwrights began exploring other
• Distinguish between Realism and Non-Realism, or
Anti-Realism modes of storytelling on stage. This shocked audiences, both
thrilling and repulsing them. There were riots demanding
• List types of theatre that are described as Non-
Realism these new styles be abandoned for the old and there was an
explosion of creativity as artists were inspired to do new
• Discover the role of diversity in contemporary
theatre things on stage.
174
C H A P T E R 10, S E C T I O N 2 : R E A L I S M
SECTION 2
Realism
Realism can be defined as the set of prac-

tices and conventions developed with the
aim of presenting material with a greater like-
ness to everyday life. Events in the mid- to
late-1800s started theatre on a trajectory to-
wards realism.
Nice People Dancing to Good Country

Music, Arkansas State University.
175
CHANGING IDEALS for extended periods of time, if that’s what would have “natu-
The 1859 publication of Charles Darwin’s seminal work On rally” occurred in those circumstances.
the Origin of Species created shockwaves through every area
of society. Biblical ideas that had been believed for centuries So why did Realism cause such a ruckus? In addition to ex-
ploring a new style of storytelling, the subject matter of plays
were now questioned: humans weren’t formed in God’s im-
themselves also shifted. Playwrights wrote about taboo sub-
age, as, but instead evolved through millions of years; the uni-
ject matter such as sexual double standards, religious hypoc-
verse wasn’t formed in seven days, etc.
risy, disease, and unhappy home lives. They often called for
Scientific, technological, industrial, and medical advances social change were frequently morally ambiguous. Addition-
also profoundly affected the way people saw themselves and ally, theatre saw the emergence of more complex characters,
their world. Improvements to the microscope allowed people rather than many of the stock, two-dimensional characters of
to see things formerly invisible to the naked eye, assembly a lot of style work.
lines started to take humans out of the picture regarding
manufacturing, and Sigmund Freud’s founding of psycho-
analysis had society questioning what it had assumed was
fixed and unchanging. Widespread wars, violent skirmishes,
increased globalism, and colonialism also rocked the way hu-
mans saw their place in the world.
Realism developed during the late 19th century with the aim
of presenting material with a greater likeness to everyday life,
spurred by the societal changes that led to the secular human-
ism movement. Naturalism, sometimes known as “slice of
life” theatre, is a more extreme version of Realism. In some
P L AY W R I G H T : H E N R I K I B S E N
naturalistic productions, artists were so committed to the
Considered the “father of realism,” Henrik Ibsen published
“fourth wall” that actors might face away from the audience
his first play in 1850. He wrote 25 plays, including A Doll’s
176
House and An Enemy of the People. He did not resolve his tivities that exercise the actor’s emotional and sensory recall,
plays in ways that supported accepted ideas; rather, his plays focus and concentration, and tapping into their own life expe-
suggested those ideas were the cause of the problems. Ibsen riences in order to connect to the imaginary circumstances of
did away with non-realistic devices such as soliloquies and the play.
asides and created characters who grew logically from their
His work is the basis for nearly all modern acting teachers,
environments..
many of which have used his teachings as the foundation for
M O S C O W A R T T H E AT R E their acting methodology.
Founded by Konstantin Stanislavsky and Vladimir Danchenko
in 1898 as a venue for the new style of theatre being devel-
oped (Realism), the Moscow Art Theatre was highly influen-
tial in the theatre world. It grew in renown after staging sev-
eral works by playwright Anton Chekov, including The Sea-
gull, which was such a huge success, that the seagull became
the theatre’s logo. Still in operation today, it now functions as
a school, the Moscow Art Theatre Studio, and a performance
venue.
As you remember from Chapter 8, Konstantin Stanislavsky

P L AY W R I G H T : A N T O N C H E K H O V
was a Russian actor, director, and manager of The Moscow
Anton Chekhov was a Russian physician, playwright, and
Art Theatre. Stanislavsky saw theatre as a laboratory of sorts--
author of short stories who was involved with the Moscow Art
a place where he could experiment with what he felt theatre
Theatre, which produced many of his plays, premiering sev-
could be, as opposed to what it had been. One of the fore-
eral. His plays concentrated less on action and more on
most theatre practitioners of all time, Stanislavsky developed
mood and the inner life of his characters. Chekhov’s plays in-
a system for actors to produce believable emotion in perform-
clude The Seagull, Uncle Vanya, The Cherry Orchard, and
ance (truthful action in imaginary circumstances). This level of
Three Sisters. Throughout his career he continued to work as
commitment and credibility in acting is achieved through ac-
177
a physician, saying, “Medicine is my lawful wife and literature

is my mistress.”
F R O M R E A L I S M T O N O N -R E A L I S M
Realism continues to be the primary form of theatre in con-
temporary society. It made its way to the United States via
The Group Theatre (founding members included Harold Clur-
man, Lee Strasberg, Cheryl Crawford, Sanford Meisner, and
Stella Adler). Realism produced iconic and influential play-
wrights such as Tennessee Williams, Arthur Miller, Lorraine
Hansberry, Neil Simon, Wendy Wasserstein, and more.
REFLECTION
After hundreds of years in which theatre remained virtually un-
changed, Realism created a drastic shift that changed theatre
forever. Have you ever seen a realistic play? Do you feel that
the subject matter and style of realistic plays is more interest-
ing than what came before? Why do you think Realism
caused such a fuss?
Look at some of the events mentioned in the first part of this

section: the world was changing. Realism is another example
of how art mirrors life, as you read in Chapter 1. Can you
think of any other significant events that may have contrib-
The Russian actor and director Konstantin Stanislavsky with
uted to the advent of realism? his wife Maria Lilina as Ferdinand and Louise in Friedrich
Schiller's tragedy Love and Intrigue, performed in 1889 by
The Society of Art and Literature.
178
C H A P T E R 10, S E C T I O N 3: N O N - R E A L I S M
SECTION 3
Non-Realism
Most art movements progress rather linearly,

with one movement growing out of the previ-
ous, but both Realism and Non-Realism pro-
gressed at the same time. This section ex-
plores how Non-Realism branched off from
Realism. Shortly after in the introduction of
Realism, Non-Realism appeared on the
scene. Non-realistic art was not limited to
theatre, but occurred in virtually every art
form. You will probably recognize many of
Waiting for Godot, Theatre Royal Hay-

market, 2009.
179
the names of various styles of non-realistic theatre from musi- EXPRESSIONISM

cal or painting styles that occurred along-side the theatrical Growing from Symbolism, Expressionism explored the distor-
styles. These movements were simultaneous and related. tion of reality to express inner life. It had a dreamlike quality,
They also spread quickly across the globe, being practiced in and characters were given titles rather than names. Character-
Europe and America. ized by an episodic structure, events not causally related and
they were often very political in nature. Expressionist plays
These modes of art were a reaction to realism. Many artists were primarily concerned with how some something made
thought that much more could be expressed and communi- you feel. Examples include Eugene O’Neill’s The Hairy Ape,
cated through the use of symbols, emotion, mood, atmos- and Elmer Rice’s The Adding Machine.
phere, song, and surrealism. They were not interested in a lit-
eral representation or interpretation of life. As far as non-
“Man screams from the depths of his soul; the whole era
realists were concerned, realistic life was boring and unin- becomes a single, piercing shriek. Art also screams, into
spired. the deep darkness, screams for help, screams for the spirit.
This is Expressionism.”
“Do not fear death so much but rather the inadequate life.” - Hermann Bahr
- Bertolt Brecht
FUTURISM
Beginning in 1909, Filippo Marinetti lead a movement known
as Futurism, which glorified the machine age and was a pro-
AN ERA OF “ISMS” ponent of war and industrialization. He believed the new age
required a new art form and it was intended to assault the
SYMBOLISM audience. Velimir Khlebnikov’s Zangezi: A Supersaga in
Symbolism used symbols, metaphor, songs, and poetry to re-
Twenty Planes is an example of Futurism.
veal one’s inner life. It abandoned traditional plot and action
in favor of atmosphere, mode, and lyrical expression. Many DADAISM
“Realists” experimented with Symbolism. Examples include Dadaism originated in 1916 and was based on the work of
Alfred Jarry’s Ubu Roi and Oscar Wilde’s Salome. Tristan Tzara. While the movement did not last, it was highly
180
influential. An attack on traditional art, Dadaism attempted to were often stylized with non sequiturs, existentialism, nihil-
confuse and antagonize the audience. It’s intent was to hold a ism, repetition, horrific situations, and meaningless action. Ex-
mirror up to a senseless world. Examples include Tzara’s The amples include Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot and End-
Gas Heart and Handkerchief of Clouds. game.
SURREALISM
“One day, is that not enough for you, one day he went
Developing out of Dadaism in 1924, Surrealism attempted to
dumb, one day I went blind, one day we'll go deaf, one day
recreate the works of the subconscious mind - mixing reason we were born, one day we shall die, the same day, the
with fantasy. It was often very sexual, violent, and/or gro- same second, is that not enough for you? They give birth
astride of a grave, the light gleams an instant, then it's
tesque. Examples include Frederick García Lorca’s The Public night once more..”
and Play Without a Title.
~Samuel Beckett, Waiting for Godot
ABSURDISM
Absurdism, sometimes called Theatre of the Absurd, was a
product of the existentialist movement and the mind of
E P I C T H E AT R E
French Algerian philosopher and writer Albert Camus. Camus Bertolt Brecht introduced the principle known as Verfrem-
published his essay The Myth of Sisyphus, in which Sisyphus dungseffekt, or “alienation effect” to theatre during the first
is condemned forever to roll a rock up to the top of a moun- part of the 20th century. Theatre employing this principle is
tain only to have it roll back down. The cyclical nature of the known as Theatre of Alienation, or Epic Theatre. Brecht
story and the futility of the action became the basis for the wrote, “It is most important that one of the main features of
Absurdists. The aftermath of World War II provided the social the ordinary theatre should be excluded from [epic theatre]:
environment that stimulated absurdist views and allowed for the engendering of illusion.”
their popular development, especially in the devastated coun-
In other words, the audience must be constantly aware that
try of France. Absurdism is defined as “man’s futile search for
what they are watching is not real; there should be no illu-
meaning, unity, and clarity in the face of an unintelligible
sion. The intention is to ensure the audience does not en-
world devoid of God and eternal truths or values.” The plays
181
gage emotionally with the material but to encourage them to Most of the non-realism styles were pervasive across all art
engage intellectually with it, instead. By engaging intellectu- forms, not just theatre. In the interactive activity below, match
ally with the material the audience is forced to examine the non-realistic theatre styles with paintings that share the same
issue presented and make a choice as to what action they qualities and interests. Can you remember them all?
would or should take. Examples of Brecht’s work include
Mother Courage and her Children and The Caucasian Chalk
Circle.
A N E R A O F “I S M S ”
Symbolism I NTERACTIVE 10.1 N ON -R EALISM P AIRS M ATCHING
Expressionism
Futurism
Dadaism
Surrealism
Absurdism
Epic Theatre
REFLECTION
Most of the non-realism styles were pervasive through all
Have you seen a non-realist play or movie? How did the art forms, not just theatre. Use this widget to match the
mode of storytelling affect you? What are more interested in painting to the non-realism style.
realism or non-realism?
182
C H A P T E R 10, S E C T I O N 4 : T H E AT R E O F D I V E R S I T Y
SECTION 4
Theatre of Diver-
sity
For hundreds of years, theatre was consid-

ered a “good ole’ boys’” club; with only a
handful of exceptions, all plays were written,
produced and performed by heterosexual,
white men. Today, dramatists of every ethnic-
ity, social status, sexual orientation, gender,
and ideology have a voice. This diversity pro-
Clockwise, from top L: David Henry

Hwang, Yasmina Reza, Harvey Fier-
stein, and Danai Gurira
183
C H A P T E R 10, S E C T I O N 4 : T H E AT R E O F D I V E R S I T Y
vides audiences and artists exposure to ideas, social struc- roles were written for twelve men. Today this play is often per-
tures, and ideologies that have never been seen on stage be- formed with all women, or a combination of both men and
fore. women, in spite of the title. In 2015, the Wilma Theatre in
Philadelphia produced Shakespeare’s Hamlet and cast British-
Like many things, at first this was met with resistance, but
African actress Zainab Jah in the title role.
soon these diverse voices became major players in American
Theatre, bringing home Tony awards, Pulitzer Prizes, and hav- There are also numerous theatre companies and organiza-
ing enormous box office success. tions that are dedicated to representing previously underrep-
resented groups through their productions. There are theatre
As you just read, the people writing, producing and creating
companies for various ethnic and cultural groups, theatres for
theatre are a diverse group, but theatre has diversified in
deaf audiences, theatres for people with physical disabilities,
other ways, as well. One way is through colorblind casting.
and more. Recent revivals of the musicals Big River and
Colorblind casting refers to the idea of casting the right per-
Spring Awakening had both deaf and hearing actors playing
son for the role regardless of their race or ethnicity. Casting
lead roles, and both productions were heralded by critics.
an African-American woman as Hero in Much Ado About
Nothing when the actor playing her father, Leonato, is cauca- Diversity in theatre is further explored in Chapter 12.
sian would be an example of this. The hit musical Hamilton
REFLECTION
goes beyond even colorblind casting and deliberately casts
Is diversity in theatre important to you? Why or why not?
actors of color in roles such as George Washington, John Ad-
What do you think could be done to improve diversity in thea-
ams, Alexander Hamilton, etc.
tre? While diversity is improving, it’s still far from perfect. In
Gender-blind casting is similar in that the best person for the Chapter 12 you’ll have a chance to read about a few groups
role is cast regardless of gender. While this is not always possi- who are particularly interested in diversifying theatre and how
ble or advisable, this is one way casts are being diversified they’re doing it!
and frequently it has no bearing on the story itself. The play
Twelve Angry Men is about twelve jurors in the 1950’s partici-
pating in a murder case. As the title might indicate, these
184
C H A P T E R 10, S E C T I O N 5 : S U M M A RY
CHAPTER TEN
Following the Renaissance theatre remained virtually un-

changed for hundreds of years. Near the end of the 19th cen- Realism
tury, in reaction to the heightened style, verse, and limited
Henrik Ibsen
subject matter of the past, Realism was born. Realism did
Anton Chekov
away with theatrical convention and sought to imitate life as
closely as possible. Konstantin Stanislavsky
Non-Realism or Anti-Realism
Non-realism quickly emerged in response to Realism, as Non-
realist believed Realism was less artistically satisfying as well Symbolism
as inadequate to communicate the complexities of inner life. Expressionism

Non-realism included Symbolism, Expressionism, Dadaism Futurism
and Futurism, among other things and was not interested in a
Dadaism
literal interpretation or representation of life.
Surrealism
As you can see theatre is constantly developing in response Absurdism
to what has come before, as well as what is currently happen-
Samuel Beckett
ing. This overview of theatre history helps us understand how
Theatre of Alienation/ Epic Theatre
current theatre trends developed and what they were re-
sponding to, as well! Bertolt Brecht
185
CHAPTER 10 REVIEW
CHAPTER TEN
Chapter 10 Review
Use the quiz below to assess your understanding and retention of the chapter. You may take it as many times as you like,
so feel free to review the chapter at any time and reassess your comprehension.
Question 1 of 9
Theatre of Alienation is also called:
A. Absurdism
B. Dadaism
C. Epic Theatre
D. Realism
Check Answer
clxxxvi
CHAPTER 11
What Is a Musical?
SECTION 1
Introduction
Musical Theatre is theatre that includes music, songs, and of-
LEARNING OBJECTIVES ten dance. It’s technically non-realism but it did not develop
in rebellion against realism, like other anti-realism forms often
• Identify musical theatre as an American art form.
did. Strongly influenced by European forms, musical theatre
• Discover some of the predecessors to musical is considered a truly American art form, and is a huge part of
theatre as we know it today.
contemporary theatre.
• Name several significant musicals and their
contribution to musical theatre.
“I come from musical theater, and a lot of musical theater
• Explain the role of the director-choreographer.
is about accepting fantasy. I think it is more about just be-
• Restate trends identified in contemporary musical ing open and accepting.”
theatre.
~ Amy Adams, actor
188
C H A P T E R 11, S E C T I O N 2: H I S T O RY O F M U S I C A L T H E AT R E
SECTION 2
History of Musical
Theatre
As we saw in Chapter 10, theatre responds

to what came before it and what is happen-
ing around it. Similarly, musical theatre grew
from a variety of entertainments that pro-
ceeded it. Vaudeville, Extravaganzas, Min-
strel Shows, Burlesque Shows, Operas and
Operettas all contributed to the emergence
of musical theatre as we know it today.
Poster from The Black Crook.
189
merstein II and music by Jerome Kern. It was the first “book”

P R E D E C E S S O R S T O M U S I C A L T H E AT R E musical - a musical in which the story and the music were of a
serious nature and told a complete story. Major songs in-
Vaudeville
cluded “Old Man River” and “Can’t Help Lovin’ Dat Man.”
Extravaganzas
OKLAHOMA!
Minstrel Shows
Oklahoma first premiered in 1943, directed by Rouben Mam-
Burlesque Shows malian, with choreography by Agnes de Mille, book and lyrics
Operas by Oscar Hammerstein II, and music by Richard Rodgers. It
Operettas was the first show to fully integrate dance into storytelling
and is credited with beginning of the “Golden Age” of Musi-
cal Theatre. Major songs include “Oh, What a Beautiful
Let’s look at some of the musicals from the last 100 years that Mornin’,” “Surry with the Fringe on Top,” and “Oklahoma!”
impacted musical theatre and what they contributed to the
W E S T S I D E S T O RY
art form. West Side Story first premiered in 1957, with music by Leon-
THE BLACK CROOK ard Bernstein, lyrics by Stephen Sondheim, and book by Ar-
The Black Crook first opened in 1866, with book by Charles thur Laurents. It was a masterpiece in which the book (script),
M. Barrass, and American playwright. Most of the music is lyrics, music, and dance were all fully integrated in to the
adapted, with the exception of a few pieces written by story. Additionally, it introduced new, dangerous subject mat-
George Bickwell with lyrics by Theodore Kennick. This produc- ter (rape, murder) to the musical theatre stage, and was Ste-
tion is the reason America can claim musical theatre as an phen Sondheim’s first Broadway musical. Major songs include
original American art form. “Maria”, “America,” and “Gee, Officer Krupke.”
S H O W B O AT
Showboat first premiered in 1927. It was produced by
Florenz Ziegfeld and featured books and lyrics by Oscar Ham-
190
HAIR H A M I LT O N
Hair first premiered in 1967, featuring music by Galt MacDer- Hamilton first premiered in 2015 with music, lyrics and book
mot, with books and lyrics by James Rado and Gerome by Lin-Manuel Miranda. Among other awards, it was nomi-
Ragni. Considered the first “rock” musical, it contained ta- nated for a record-setting 16 Tony Awards, winning 11, includ-
boo subject matter including frank sexual content, full frontal ing Best Musical. The portrayal of Alexander Hamilton, Tho-
nudity, and drug references. Major songs include “Aquarius,” mas Jefferson, George Washington, and other Caucasian his-
“Good Morning Starshine,” and “Hair.” torical figures by African American and Hispanic actors marks
this musical as incredibly bold and diverse. Additionally, Mi-
SWEENEY TODD
randa’s use of rap and hip-hop music was groundbreaking as
Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street first pre-
well. Major songs include: “Alexander Hamilton”, “My Shot”,
miered in 1979 featuring music and lyrics by Stephen Sond-
and “You’ll Be Back.”
heim and book by Hugh Wheeler. Considered a horror/thriller
musical, it was based on a play by Christopher Bond. Many
consider this to be Stephen Sondheim’s masterpiece and it SIGNIFICANT MUSICALS
addressed subject matter such as serial killings, cannibalism,
and revenge. Major songs include: “A Little Priest,” “The Bal- The Black Crook
lad of Sweeney Todd,” and “The Worst Pies in London.” Showboat
Oklahoma!
BEAUTY AND THE BEAST
Beauty and the Beast first premiered in 1994 featuring music West Side Story
by Alan Mencken, book by Linda Wolverton, and lyrics by Hair
Howard Ashman and Tim Rice. The first Disney movie to be
Sweeney Todd
adapted to the Broadway stage, it is widely thought to have
Beauty and the Beast
saved Broadway from its decline. Since, a number of Disney
movies have been adapted to the stage, with more to come! Hamilton
Major songs include: “Beauty and the Beast,” “Be Our
Guest,” and “Gaston.”
191
C H A P T E R 11, S E C T I O N 3 : C H O R E O G R A P H E R S
SECTION 3
Choreographers
Prior to and during the Golden Age of Musi-

cal Theatre the director and choreographer
were typically two distinct positions. The
1960’s and 70’s saw the rise of the
choreographer-director, one person who
fulfilled both rolls at once. Shows directed
by these artist have an incredibly strong
dance component, and often feature dance
as a storytelling device. Dancers who were
past their performance “prime” often turned
to directing and choreographing.
192
Gower Champion
( 191 9 - 19 80)
Champion was an American actor, director, choreographer,

and dancer. During the 1930’s and 1940’s he worked on
Broadway as a solo dancer and choreographer and in 1948
began directing, as well.
In 1964 he directed and choreographed Hello, Dolly!, which

ran almost seven years and was one of Broadway’s most suc-
cessful productions at the time. He’s also known for Bye Bye
Birdie and 42nd Street.
V IDEO : G OWER C HAMPION
A clip from the 1953 film version of Give a Girl a Break.

Three different dancers (including Debbie Reynolds and
Champion’s wife, Marge) demonstrate three different styles
of Champion’s work.
(This video is from the 1953 film Give a Girl a Break.

193
Jerome Robbins
( 191 8 - 19 98)
Jerome Robbins was a Jewish-American choreographer, di-

rector, dancer, and producer who worked in a myriad of art
forms including ballet, stage, film, and television.
In 1944 he conceived and choreographed On the Town. Insist-

ing the chorus reflect the racial diversity of a New York City
crowd, On the Town broke the color bar on Broadway for the
first time. He’s perhaps best known for West Side Story, and
also received accolades for Fiddler on the Roof.
V IDEO : J EROME R OBBINS
A clip from the 1961 film version of West Side Story.

Robbins’s choreography was quite groundbreaking
for its time.
(This video is the prologue of West Side Story, from the 1961 film.)
194
Bob Fosse
( 192 7 - 19 87)
Bob Fosse was an American dancer, choreographer, director,

screenwriter, film director and actor. He was nominated for
eleven Tony awards for choreography, winning eight, three
more than anyone else in history, including Gower Champion,
who won five.
An innovative choreographer, Fosse’s distinct style has influ-

enced dancers and choreographers, including Michael Jack-
son and Beyoncé. He’s best known for Chicago, Cabaret, Pip-
pin, and The Pajama Game.
V IDEO : B OB F OSSE
A clip adapted from Pippin, as seen in the revue Fosse.
(This video is from the revue of Fosse’s work, called Fosse.
195
Susan Stroman
( 195 4 - P R E S E N T )
Susan Stroman is an American director, choreographer, and

dancer. She has won five Tony Awards, four for choreography,
and one for directing The Producers. Her work also includes
Contact, Young Frankenstein, and Big Fish.
In 2004 Stroman became the first woman to choreograph a

full-length ballet for New York City Ballet.
V IDEO : S USAN S TROMAN
A medley of songs from The Producers as performed at

the 2001 Tony Awards.
(This video shows a medley of songs from The Producers at the 2001 Tony Awards.)
196
Andy
Blankenbuehler
( 197 0 - P R E S E N T )
Like many choreographers, Andy Blankenbuehler started as a

performer in such shows as Guys and Dolls and Fosse. He
first gained traction when he won the Tony for his choreogra-
phy for In The Heights, Lin-Manuel Miranda’s first Broadway
show. He was nominated for Tonys for 9 to 5 and Bring It On,
and won again for Hamilton, his second collaboration with Mi-
randa.
V IDEO : A NDY B LANKENBUEHLER
The cast of Hamilton performs “Yorktown” at the

2016 Tony Awards.
(This video shows the cast of Hamilton performing “Yorktown”

at the 2016 Tony Awards.)
197
Bill T. Jones
( 195 2 - P R E S E N T )
Bill T. Jones has a long and distinguished career as a dancer

and choreographer. He’s worked with the Alvin Ailey Ameri-
can Dance Theater, Boston Ballet, and many other profes-
sional companies. In musical theatre, he won Tony awards for
Fela! (which he also co-created and directed), and the
ground-breaking Spring Awakening. He won a MacArthur
“Genius” Award in 1994 and a National Medal of Arts in
2014.
(This video features a medley from Spring Awakening as performed

at the 2007 Tony Awards.)
198
C H A P T E R 11, S E C T I O N 4: A N A M E R I C A N A R T F O R M ?
SECTION 4
An American Art-
form?
As discussed earlier, Musical Theatre is con-

sidered an American art form; it was born
here and its epicenter remains on Broadway,
in New York City. While most musicals are
written by Americans, there was a short time
during the 1970’s and 1980’s, when Europe-
ans dominated the Broadway stage.
Young Cosette sweeping; French illustra-

tor Émile Bayard created this sketch for
the first edition of the book Les Miser-
ables, by Victor Hugo.
199
C H A P T E R 11, S E C T I O N 4: A N A M E R I C A N A R T F O R M ?
ANDREW LLOYD WEBBER A L A I N B O U B L I L A N D C L A U D E -M I C H E L S C H Ö N B E R G

Probably the best known British composer, Andrew Lloyd Other well known non-American composers induce the team
Webber had a string of hits on Broadway, some of which are of Alain Boublil (Tunisia) and Claude-Michel Schönberg
still there today! Webber wrote 13 musicals and won several (France), who are responsible for Les Misérables, and Miss Sai-
awards, including seven Tonys, three Grammys, and an Acad- gon. In 2012 Les Misérables was made in to a film featuring
emy Award. You are probably familiar with at least one of his Hugh Jackman, Russell Crowe, and Anne Hathaway, bringing
songs, several of which have been widely recorded, even if the classic tale to many audiences who might never have ex-
you are not familiar with any of this musicals. Some of his perienced it otherwise. Miss Saigon premiered in London’s
most popular songs include Memory (from Cats), Don’t Cry West End in 1989 (where it ran for ten years) and on Broad-
for Me, Argentina (from Evita), and The Music of the Night way in 1991 (also ran for ten years).
(from The Phantom of the Opera).
O T H E R N O N -A M E R I C A N S O F N O T E
Elton John: The British pop star famous for such hits as “Tiny
ANDREW LLOYD WEBBER MUSICALS Dancer,” “I’m Still Standing,” and “Candle in the Wind” also
wrote the music for the musicals Aida, The Lion King, Billy El-
The Phantom of the Opera liot, Lestat, and The Devil Wears Prada.
Cats
Sting: The singer-songwriter wrote the 2014 musical The Last
Evita
Ship, based on his childhood in England. Hailed by critics but
Jesus Christ Superstar not commercially successful, the show closed after only a few
Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat months.
Sunset Boulevard Bono and The Edge: The U2 musicians wrote the music for
Love Never Dies the ill-fated 2010 musical Spider-Man: Turn Off The Dark. Mul-
The Woman in White tiple delays, changes in casting, and injuries ended the tumul-
tuous run early.
200
C H A P T E R 11, S E C T I O N 5: C O N T E M P O R A RY M U S I C A L S
SECTION 5
Contemporary Musicals
Musicals written today are all over the map

in terms of style, content, type of music, etc..
Still, a few characteristics seem to be com-
mon, even among this diverse group. Let’s
look at some of the trends we do see hap-
pening on Broadway today.
The PrivateBank Theatre in Chicago,

home to Hamilton.
201
starring Tom Cruise and Julianna Hough. In 1999 Mamma

C O N T E M P O R A RY M U S I C A L T H E AT R E T R E N D S Mia! opened, based on the music of ABBA. It includes songs
like “Dancing Queen,” in addition to the 1975 chart-topping
Based on previous source material
hit for which the musical was named, “Mamma Mia.” In 2005
“Jukebox” Musicals Jersey Boys made its Broadway debut based on the 1960’s
Use of big name celebrities music of Frankie Valli and The Four Seasons. Songs include
Rock n’ Roll Sound “Big Girls Don’t Cry,” “Can’t Take My Eyes Off You,” and
“Who Loves You.” Other jukebox musicals include Movin’
Satire
Out (Billy Joel), The Boy From Oz (Peter Allen), All Shook Up
Spectacle
(Elvis Presley), Beautiful (Carole King), On Your Feet! (Gloria
Estefan), Fela! (Fela Kuti), and Motown: The Musical.
P R E V I O U S S O U R C E M AT E R I A L BIG NAME CELEBRITIES

Many musicals emerging today are based on previous In addition to the kind of musicals being written, the use of
source material, mainly movies, or popular books. Examples big name celebrities to draw audiences is a trend we are see-
of these kinds of musicals include nearly all of Disney’s musi- ing on Broadway today. In 1998 Hugh Jackman played the
cals (The Lion King, Mary Poppins, Beauty and the Beast, leading role in Oklahoma! at the Royal National Theatre in
Aladdin, The Little Mermaid) as well as The Wedding Singer, London’s West End. Then, in 2001 The Producers opened on
Big Fish, Catch Me if You Can, Rocky, Shrek, Waitress, and Sis- Broadway starring Nathan Lane and Matthew Broderick.
ter Act, and many others. Harry Potter star Daniel Radcliffe played the leading role in
How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying during
“J U K E B O X M U S I C A L S ”
2011, and Jane Krakowski from 30 Rock and The Unbreak-
“Jukebox” Musicals are also very popular and are created
able Kimmy Schmidt was on stage in 2016 playing the role of
from collections of previously-recorded popular songs. The
Ilona in She Loves Me. Other celebrities seen on Broadway
2005 musical Rock of Ages is built around classic rock songs
recently include Bette Midler (Hello, Dolly!), George Takei (Al-
from the 1980’s and features songs from artists like Journey,
legiance), Jennifer Hudson (The Color Purple), Sara Bareilles
Bon Jovi, and Pat Bentar. In 2012 it was adapted into a film
202
(Waitress, for which she also wrote the music and lyrics), Josh tinues to serve as a vehicle for commentary on society, poli-
Groban (Natasha, Pierre and the Great Comet of 1812), tics, religion, and more.
Sherri Shepherd and Keke Palmer (Cinderella), Nick Jonas
Huge spectacle is another trend in contemporary musical
(How To Succeed in Business Without Really Trying), Ricky
theatre, with big, elaborate productions like Wicked, which
Martin (Evita), and Ben Platt (Dear Evan Hansen).
opened in 2003, and Legally Blonde, which opened in 2007.
The celebrity appearances are certainly appealing to audi- Chitty Chitty Bang Bang, based on the Disney movie, fea-
ences, but it can create problems as well. The stars’ salary de- tures a flying car, and Disney’s Aladdin has a flying carpet on
mands can drive up ticket prices, and there’s often a lot of stage that seems to defy physics! Charlie and the Chocolate
turnover. Factory, Shrek the Musical, and countless other feature daz-
zling costumes, electrifying light displays, and scenery that
R O C K N ’ R O L L S O U N D , S AT I R E , & S P E C TA C L E
works like magic.
Although not new, a rock n’ roll sound is prevalent in 21st
century musicals like Spring Awakening, which opened on REFLECTION
Broadway in 2006 and was written by 1990’s pop star Ducan Have you ever seen a musical? What show was it? What did
Sheik ((“I Am Barely Breathing”). Rock group Green Day you find entertaining about it? Many people who’ve never
wrote a musical called American Idiot, featuring a blistering seen a straight play have seen a musical. What is it about mu-
rock score, and as seen in the previous section, Sting, Elton sical theatre that appeals to audiences?
John, and members of U2 have also written shows. Award-
Many movies from Beauty and the Beast to Catch Me if you
winning Next To Normal also used rock music, and there are
Can and Mean Girls have been made in to musicals. Why do
strong rock tones in Dear Evan Hansen, Bloody Bloody An-
you think there are so many musicals based on movies right
drew Jackson, Memphis, Taboo, High Fidelity, Repo, Toxic
now? What does this say about the current state of musical
Avenger, Heathers, and School of Rock.
theatre? The future of it?
Satire is also common and can be seen in musicals like The
Book of Mormon, Avenue Q, Urinetown, and Altar Boyz. Just
as in the beginning of theatre in ancient Greece, theatre con-
203
SECTION 6
Musical Theatre plays a huge role in contemporary theatre, Extravaganzas, Vaudeville, Minstrel Shows
and is truly an American art form. Evolving from several prior Operas/Operettas
art forms, including Vaudeville and Burlesque shows, it was
Burlesque Shows
not a reaction to Realism, even though it is considered antire-
Musical Theatre as an American art
alism. Currently musical theatre is in a phase that is closely
linked to pop culture through movies, music, and popular per- Showboat
formers. Where do you think musical theatre might be Oklahoma!
headed next? West Side Story
Hair
Chicago
Sweeney Todd
Choreographer-Directors
Europeans on Broadway
Characteristics of 21st Century Musical Theatre
Stephen Sondheim
Bob Fosse
204
CHAPTER 11 REVIEW
CHAPTER ELEVEN
Chapter 11 Review
Use the quiz below to assess your understanding and retention of the chapter. You may take it as many times as you like,
so feel free to review the chapter at any time and reassess your comprehension.
Question 1 of 9
What was the first musical to use choreography to help tell the story?
A. Show Boat
B. Oklahoma!
C. Hair
D. Hamilton
Check Answer
ccv
CHAPTER 12
What’s Next?
SECTION 1
Introduction
Today human beings are increasingly connecting through digi-
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
tal media rather than face to face. How will (is) this affect(ing)
• Identify financial challenges facing theatre today the role of the Arts in our society? Does it change the bene-
fits and functions of art? In this chapter we will be reflecting
• Identify cultural challenges facing theatre today
on where theatre is headed and considering why and how it
• Offer suggestions for addressing those challenges
might change.
• Suggest ways to attract a theatre audience
• Recognize why it’s difficult to draw conclusions about

theatre today
207
C H A P T E R 12, S E C T I O N 2: C H A L L E N G E S F A C I N G T H E AT R E
SECTION 2
Challenges Facing
Theatre
Chapter 1 discussed the question, “What is

Art?” and the benefits and functions of art.
• Art holds a mirror up to life
• Art educates
• Art serves to connect people
But what is the role of art in a world where

human beings are increasingly connecting to
each other through digital media rather than
208
face-to-face? What is the role of theatre in particular? Is thea- C U LT U R A L

tre relevant in today’s society? Why or why not, and if so, There are also cultural challenges facing theatre. In general,
how? there are fewer theatre-goers across the country. Theatre is in
competition with multiple other types of media--television,
There are many challenges facing theatre today. Let’s ex- films, streaming video services, satellite radio, smart phones
plore further. and tablets, etc. Consider how many movies you’ve seen
FINANCIAL verses how many plays; even if you love going to live theatre,
Across the United States, funding for arts programs is being it’s likely you’ve still seen more movies than plays.
cut. In times of economic hardship, school systems often cut
While theatre use to be an exciting social event, audiences
programming that is deemed “optional” and divert funds to
now have so many social obligations and outlets they would
traditional subjects like reading, math, and science.
often rather stay home and watch Netflix in their pajamas. Ad-
Additionally, theatre companies are experiencing decreased ditionally, it no longer serves the same religious purposes it
budgets due to lack of donations from patrons as well as de- did during the Classical and Medieval periods.
creased ticket sales. To further complicate the financial situa-
Due to the financial challenge of arts funding being cut in
tion, the costs of producing theatre (sets, costumes, lights,
schools, young people are not exposed to theatre in the
sound, computers, etc.) have increased.
same way as in previous generations. This makes it difficult to
How do theatres balance increasing costs with the declining cultivate a theatre audience since it is not something they
budgets in an attempt to engage audiences? Theatre must value growing up. All of these challenges lead to the ques-
think outside the box and find creative solutions for production, “Is theatre a dying art?”
tion. Sometimes this means smaller casts, or an emphasis on
REFLECTION
one aspect of design (scenery gets all of the money and cos- You read in Chapter 1 that the fact theatre is LIVE is some-
tumes are simple). thing that sets it apart from television and film. As movies
and other digital medias become more entwined with our so-
ciety, how do they impact this key component of theatre?
209
How can theatre rise to meet the challenges facing them to-
day? In particular, what can theatre do to “compete” with
film and television?
210
C H A P T E R 12, S E C T I O N 3: A T T R A C T I N G A N A U D I E N C E
SECTION 3
Attracting an Audi-
ence
Section 2 discussed the challenges facing

theatre today, including fewer theatre-goers.
So what can theatre companies do to attract
audience members? How can they get peo-
ple through the doors and then keep them
coming back?
211
SOCIAL MEDIA TWEETING

Some theatres, rather than shunning digital media, have cho- A popular social media approach that many theatres have
sen to embrace it and employ the ever-growing arena of so- taken is setting aside certain areas of the theatre to serve as
cial media marketing strategies. Utilizing platforms such as “tweet seats.” They are typically seats towards the back of
Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, SnapChat, and others, theatres the theatre so that lighted screens won’t interfere with other
are reaching out to audience bases that they hadn’t been audience members’ experiences. Much like people will live-
able to tap into previously. tweet while they watch the Superbowl, the Grammies, the Os-
cars, etc., people in tweet seats are encouraged to live-tweet
It’s nearly impossible to find a theatre today that doesn’t have
while they watch the play. They give a play-by-play (pun in-
accounts with all the major social media platforms. Compa-
tended) account of the show as it’s happening. The San Fran-
nies can advertise upcoming shows, promote season tickets,
cisco Opera even sometimes offers free tickets to their final
post information about auditions or special events, etc. Many
preview to patrons who are willing to live-tweet while they
theatres will take short videos of rehearsals, photo shoots, ac-
watch.
tors putting on makeup, etc. as a way to get the audience in-
terested in what’s going on. Most audience members don’t Tweet seats essentially offer free publicity for the theatre and
get a chance to see “behind the scenes,” and social media is the show. Rather than fighting the often-losing battle of try-
a great way to bring them there. ing to keep patrons off their phones, tweet seats can harness
that tendency to constantly be on one’s phone and turn it
Here are links to some popular regional theatre’s social media
into a way to get people interested in the show.
pages:
However, the flip side to that argument is that theatre offers a
Arena Stage (Washington, D.C.) on Facebook
way for people to escape the pressures of everyday life, to
Steppenwolf Theatre (Chicago, IL) on Twitter “unplug” for a couple of hours and enjoy the unique, commu-
nal experience. Many theatres don’t want to encourage pa-
Alliance Theatre (Atlanta, GA) on Instagram
trons to have their attention half on their phone and half on
Springboard Theater Company (Chicago, IL) on Snapchat the play.
212
C O L L A B O R AT I O N population makeup can affect their decisions, too. For exam-

Some theatre are finding ways to partner with various organi- ple, in a college town plays about young people or by con-
zations and companies in order to offset production costs temporary playwrights may be received better than classics.
and reach a wider audience. Many university theatre depart-
In educational theatre this is a difficult line to walk: providing
ments partner with local high schools, providing free mati-
patrons with material they are interested in seeing while still
nees during the school day which allows teachers to bring
providing excellent learning opportunities to their students.
their classes. These universities often provide the schools
Additionally, if part of art’s job is to educate us it suggests w
with materials to use in the classroom both before and after
should not be afraid to challenge audiences by presenting
seeing the play. Relationships like these can foster a life-long
theatre that is outside of their comfort zone.
love of theatre in students.
S P E C I A L F E AT U R E S
Collaborating with other theatre, dance, music, or arts pro-
In order to attract audiences, theatres sometimes offer spe-
grams is also a great way to build an audience and encour-
cial events. This might be as simple as finding fun things for
age a love of art in patrons. Sometimes theatres might col-
patrons to do in the lobby before and after the show. For ex-
laborate with an organization relevant to a particular produc-
ample, when A-State Theatre presented Zombie Prom, in
tion. For example, if producing a play about the law, a thea-
2017, they set up a prom-themed photo booth. Audience
tre could work with a law firm or class. These partnerships are
members were encouraged to dress up and take photos and
valuable to both sides and have the potential to bring addi-
then post them on social media #AStateTheatre. While this is
tional depth to a production.
connected to social media, the idea was to provide a unique
P L AY S E L E C T I O N experience for audience members that would get them even
Theatres must take their audiences into consideration more more excited about seeing the production.
than ever before if they want to sell tickets. As you read in
Or it might come in the form of a talk back with the actors, di-
Chapter 5, plays must be pertinent to their audiences. Produc-
rector, designers, and other production members. Inviting pa-
tions that do well in middle American may not be the same
trons to stay and meet the cast and giving them an opportu-
as those taking place in the west or deep south. While re-
nity to ask questions about the process of creating the play
gions may play a role in deciding a theatre’s season, the
213
they just watched can create a unique and special experience

for many theatre-goers.
DISCOUNTS
Of course theatres are offering discounts designed to keep
audiences coming back! Often patrons can receive discounts
for purchasing tickets to multiple productions or buying seats
for a group. Sometimes tickets include a coupon on the back
offering a discount or promotion at a local eatery or bou-
tique, too.
Tim Bohn and Claire Abernathy attend A-State Thea-

tre’s production, Zombie Prom.
214
C H A P T E R 12, S E C T I O N 4: D R A W I N G C O N C L U S I O N S
SECTION 4
Drawing
Conclusions?
Looking back at theatre throughout history
it’s easy to summarize entire time periods
and artistic movements because they are
completed. Greek Theatre, Renaissance
Theatre, Romantic Theatre: these have all
come and gone.
Cirque du Soleil
215
T R E N D S I N C O N T E M P O R A R Y T H E AT R E African-American Shakespeare Company: Based in San

That’s not the case with contemporary theatre, however. It is Francisco, this company’s mission is to “open the realm of
difficult to draw conclusions about contemporary theatre be- classic theatre to a diverse audience; and provide an opportu-
cause we are still in the movement itself. We are right in the nity and place for actors of color to hone their skills and tal-
middle of it, so it’s difficult to look at it with a clear perspec- ent in mastering some of the world’s greatest classical roles.”.
tive.
V IDEO : T HE T HEATRE O FFENSIVE
Still, we can see some general patterns and trends that seem
to be indicative and representative of contemporary theatre.
DIVERSITY
As seen in Chapter 10, theatre has a history of being gener-
ally dominated by straight, white males (as playwrights, direc-
tors, producers, designers, subjects of plays, etc.). But in con-
temporary theatre there continues to be strong movement to-
wards the greater inclusion of women, people of color, mem-
bers of the LGBTQ+ community, artists with disabilities, etc.
There are now theatre companies whose missions are to cre-

ate theatre by, for, and about previously underrepresented
groups. Here are just a handful:
A trailer from the documentary The Year We Thought About
Love. Watch it here..
Babes With Blades: A Chicago-based theatre with the mis-
sion statement: “Babes With Blades Theatre Company uses The Theatre Offensive: Mission is “to present the diversity of
stage combat to place women and their stories center lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender lives in art so bold it
stage.” breaks through personal isolation, challenges the status quo,
and builds thriving communities.” The Boston-based theatre
216
company has active programs for LGBTQIA youth, and the that follow a particular actor using GPS technology, just to
documentary film The Year We Thought About Love focuses name a few. Check out this video illustrating the integration
on the True Colors youth troupe creating a play about love. of traditional Greek periaktoi and video technology.
See the trailer here.
Drafting (drawing plans) for designing and building sets used
USE OF TECHNOLOGY to be done completely by hand with the use of a scale ruler.
Advances in machinery and technology have influenced thea- Now computer-aided design, or CAD, is the standard. The
tre since the beginning. Periaktoi in ancient Greece (3-sided use of technology can make many of these tasks easier and
columns that could be rotated to form different pictures) more time efficient for the modern designer.
evolved and fully-realized set design took off when theatre
Use of machinery, mechanical engineering, and motorized en-
moved indoors. Indoor theatre also meant artificial light (in-
gines have made it possible for theatres to produce extrava-
stead of sunlight), and candles evolved into gas lamps and
gant special effects on stage. For example, a flying car, in
then to the electric lightbulb. Today we see L.E.D. (light-
Chitty Chitty Bang Bang, and a chimney sweep who tap
emitting diode) theatrical lighting, moving lights, and lights
dances up the proscenium arch in Mary Poppins, just to name
V IDEO : M ODERN P ERIAKTOI a few.
EDGY, RAW, CONTROVERSIAL CONTENT

In general, contemporary theatre (as with television, film, pop
music, etc.) has become more liberal with what is considered
“appropriate” regarding content. But throughout time, the
rules of decorum have fluctuated.
Ancient Greek audiences considered it “unseemly” to wit-

ness violence carried out on stage. Any violence in the shows
happened offstage, and a character would come in to tell the
Check out this video illustrating the integration of tradi-
tional Greek periaktoi and video technology. rest of the group (and the audience) about what happened.
217
As you read in Chapter 9 however, in ancient Rome violence term avant-garde theatre. These productions are theatrical in
was celebrated onstage, influenced by gladiator culture. nature but don’t use traditional scripts. Not quite theatre,
Shifts in acceptable subject matter have always been present. dance, circus, or rock n’ roll, these companies are creating in-
novative and exciting work.
In contemporary theatre, audiences witness a great deal of
highly sexualized content, extreme violence, and language Examples of experimental theatre include productions by The
that would be considered vulgar by many. Additionally many Blue Man Group, Cirque du Soleil, and De La Guarda. Watch
things that were previously considered taboo, such as having this video to see how De La Guarda uses aerial athetics, live
LGBTQ characters, are now more widely accepted. This is music, percussion, and intense audience participation to cre-
due in part to increasing diversity among theatre creators and ate a spectacular, one-of-a-kind experience.
patrons.
V IDEO : D E L A G UARDA
P E R F O R M A N C E A R T , E X P E R I E N T I A L T H E AT R E , A N D O N E -
PERSON SHOWS
A variety of performance types deviating from the more stan-
dard styles and structure of theatre are also commonplace in
contemporary theatre.
PERFORMANCE ART
Khan Academy defines performance art as “differ[ing] from
traditional theater in its rejection of a clear narrative, use of
random or chance-based structures, and direct appeal to the
audience.” (source).
E X P E R I M E N TA L T H E AT R E
Experimental theatre includes performance and production Watch this video to see how De La Guarda uses aerial athet-
styles that don’t neatly fit into established norms. The term ics, live music, percussion, and intense audience participation
to create a spectacular, one-of-a-kind experience.
experimental theatre is often used interchangeably with the
218
ONE-PERSON SHOWS
One-person shows are also more common in contemporary
theatre than in previous periods. More than just stand-up
comedy, these performances are a tour-de-force. Actor and
writer John Leguizamo has created several one-person shows
chronicling his life as a Hispanic man growing up in the
United States.
REFLECTION
It is difficult to draw conclusions about contemporary theatre
because are wrapped up in the middle of it right now. Still,
we can see some trends emerging that give us clues about
what people might say about contemporary theatre in a hun-
dred years.
If it’s true that art mirrors life, what aspects of modern life do
you think theatre is reflecting? Do you think it reflects posi-
tively on our society? Why or why not?
T R E N D S I N C O N T E M P O R A RY T H E AT R E
Diversity
Use of Technology
Edgy, Raw, Controversial Content
219
220
221
SECTION 5
Summary KEY IDEAS
While the increased globalization and digitization of society

can build bridges and connect people across the world, it Financial challenges facing theatre
also creates some challenges for theatre. Decreased funding
Cultural challenges facing theatre
and decreased exposure force theatre companies to be in-
Impact of digital media on theatre
creasingly creative and diligent in their attempts to attract
audiences and market their shows. Finding ways to assert Ways theatre can attract an audience
their relevance, especially in light of competition with its Ways theatre can stay relevant
more easily-accessible and easily-affordable cousins, film and
television, is important for theatres around the world
It is difficult to draw conclusions about theatre today because

we are still in the middle of the current artistic era. but we can
see many trends emerging. We have seen how theatre re-
sponds to what comes before it and mirrors life, as well; what
this means for contemporary theatre is yet to be seen!
222
CHAPTER 12 REVIEW
C H A P T E R 12
Review
Question 1 of 3
Which of the following is NOT an example of how modern and contemporary theatre are considered "theatre of
diversity"?
A. Women have more of a voice
B. People of color have more of a voice
C. Members of the LGBTQ community have more of a voice
D. White men have more of a voice
Check Answer
ccxxiii
Conclusions
Theatre as we know it today developed over thousands of years, changing and adapting to the societies and cultures who sought to incorpo-
rate it into their lives. In the Dark Ages it was banned by the Church completely, yet rose to thrive again in the works of playwrights like Shake-
speare and Marlowe. In the 19th century the introduction of Realism caused the shape of theatre to shift again, setting off a chain reaction of
“isms” in response to its ideals. It is difficult to be objective about theatre today or exactly where it is going; we can only speculate on what
is to come. As theatre seeks to attract a modern audience, what will it become? You’ll have to go to find out!
ccxxiv
Special Thanks
The authors wish to thank the following people and organizations,

without whose help this book could not have been created:
Our families and friends
The theatre programs at Arkansas State University, the University of

North Carolina at Greensboro, the University of North Carolina at
Chapel Hill Department, the University of Wisconsin at Parkside, and
Samford University
Dr. Lynita Cooksey, Dr. Gina Hogue, Dr. Jill Simons, Dr. Cherisse
Jones-Branch, Mr. Eric Coleman, and Ms. Tiffany Mosley and
Arkansas State University’s Faculty Center and Digital Press.
ccxxv
Absurdism
A style of non-realistic theatre sometimes called Theatre of the Absurd; a product of

the existentialist movement and Albert Camus; the cyclical nature of Camus’s The
Myth of Sisyphus and the futility of the action became the basis for the Absurdists; af-
termath of World War II provided the social environment that stimulated absurdist
views; defined as “man’s futile search for meaning, unity, and clarity in the face of an
unintelligible world devoid of God and eternal truths or values;” plays often stylized
with non sequiturs, existentialism, nihilism, repetition, horrific situations, and meaning-
less action; examples include Samuel Beckett’s Waiting for Godot and Endgame.
Related Glossary Terms

Drag related terms here
Index Find Term
Chapter 10 - Non-Realism
Action
Action is at the heart of every play; playwrights work with two tools--Action (what char-
acters DO), and Dialogue (what characters SAY); the Greek word dran (from which we
get “drama”) means “to do,” indicating that a play is something that is DONE,
rooted in action

Index Find Term
Chapter 5 - The Playwright's Tools

Actor-managers
In Renaissance theatre, actor-managers took on the duties of what modern-day direc-

tors do. They were typically actors in a troupe who also helped cast and stage the
shows. William Shakespeare was an actor-manager.

Renaissance, William Shakespeare
Index Find Term
Chapter 6 - Introduction
Amphitheatres
The earliest theatrical structures, dating back to ancient Greece; for the natural acous-
tics and line of sight, theatres were built into hillsides with the playing space (orches-
tra) at the bottom and the audience sitting in the theatron (“seeing place”); the style
of structure is still in use today

Index Find Term

Antagonist
The opposing force to the protagonist. Typically another person, but can be the pro-
tagonist him/herself, nature, fate, etc.

Protagonist
Index Find Term

Anton Chekhov
A Russian playwright whose major works include The Cherry Orchard, The Three Sis-
ters, Uncle Vanya, and The Seagull. His works were produced primarily at the Moscow
Art Theatre, which still uses a seagull in its logo.

Index Find Term
Chapter 10 - Realism
Appropriateness
When looking at casting, appropriateness refers to how well a prospective actor “fits”
within the world of the play as imagined by the director. For instance, Hermia in A
Midsummer Nights’s Dream is referred to as being small and having dark hair. A 6’ tall
blonde woman is not as appropriate for that role as, say, a 5’ tall brunette.

Index Find Term

Arena
This type of theatre space has the audience seated on all sides of the stage. It allows
for a great deal of intimacy with the audience, but limits set and prop design because
of sight lines.

Index Find Term
Chapter 7 - Types of Theatre Spaces

Artistic quality
When a person is viewing a show, one of the critic’s considerations is the artistic qual-
ity. How well were the designs executed? How well did the actors perform? How well
did the director use blocking and pacing? Just because someone doesn’t like the
style of a particular show doesn’t mean it’s not good.

Index Find Term
Chapter 4 - The Critic's Concerns

Audition
The primary way actors get work. Actors may use monologues, songs, cold readings,
movement exercises, etc. to show a director that they are the best candidate for a
given role.

Index Find Term
The first of many Disney animated musicals to be translated to the stage. Kicked off
the “Disneyfication” of Broadway, wherein Times Square and the theatre district were
cleaned up and made family-friendly to be more welcoming to tourists coming to see
theatre.

Index Find Term
Chapter 11 - History of Musical Theatre

Benefits and functions of art
Art plays several roles in our society:
Art holds a mirror up to life: Art reflects us and our society.
Art educates: Art can teach us something about our world.
Art connects people: Art brings people together as part of a unique community and
allows us to bridge our differences.

Index Find Term
Chapter 12 - Challenges Facing Theatre

Bertolt Brecht
A German playwright and director who championed the Theatre of Alienation (also
known as Epic Theatre) movement. He believed strongly that theatre should be used
to not only comment on society, but also spur people to action to change things in
their community. For this to happen, Brecht thought that there needed to be emo-
tional distance for the audience, so his style of theatre sought to always remind the
audience that they were watching a show.

Index Find Term
Blocking
A director sets blocking to tell the actors where and when to move on stage (where
the enter and exit, when they cross to the sofa and sit down, etc.).

Index Find Term
Chapter 6 - Directorial Functions

Bob Fosse
An important director-choreographer whose unique style (rounded shoulders, isolated

body movements, use of hats, etc.) has had a continued and profound impact on
popular culture. He directed and choreographed iconic shows such as Chicago, Caba-
ret, and Pippin.

Index Find Term
Chapter 11 - Choreographers
Bono
An Irish rock musician who helped write the music for the Broadway adaptation of Spi-
derman: Turn Off the Dark, directed by Julie Taymor. Bono is one of many European
artists who show that while musical theatre may have started in America, it is not an
exclusively American artform.

Index Find Term
Chapter 11 - An American Artform?

CAD
An acronym for “computer-aided design.” CAD programs help scenic and lighting de-
signers create and work on their designs on the computer, allowing for increased flexi-
bility with making changes.

Computer-aided design
Index Find Term

Casting
This function of a director involves watching actors audition and finding the best per-
son for each role. Directors are looking for appropriateness, talent, growth potential,
experience, and relationship to the rest of the cast,

Index Find Term

Catharsis
In ancient Greek theatre, the protagonist of a classical tragedy must experience suffer-
ing as a result of a tragic flaw (hamartia) such as pride (hubris), and achieve recogni-
tion through that suffering. The self-recognition results in a purging of emotion, called
catharsis. Often, the audience experiences catharsis along with the protagonist (why
we cry at sad movies, etc.)

Index Find Term
Chapter 3 - Classifying Plays

Ceremony
A formal act (sometimes even a ritual) that is part of a social or religious occasion. A
wedding and a graduation are both ceremonies. Ceremonies are often repeated at ir-
regular intervals. As mentioned earlier, most, if not all, dramatic forms have roots in
ritual and ceremony.

Index Find Term
Character
A figure in a play or musical who undertakes the events of the plot. Most characters
are human, but can be animals, objects of nature, concepts and ideas, etc.

Index Find Term
Chapter 3 - Aristotle's The Poetics

Choreographer
An artist who collaborates with the director on shows that involve movement. Chore-
ographers work on dance, staged violence, complex blocking, etc.

Index Find Term
Chapter 6 - Members of the Director's Team

Choreographer-director
A choreographer-director is exactly what it sounds like--someone who both choreo-

graphs and directs a show. Some musicals have dance that is so closely integrated
into the action that to have a separate choreographer isn’t efficient. Bob Fosse, Jer-
ome Robbins, Michael Kidd, and Susan Stroman are all well-known choreographer-
directors.

Index Find Term
Chorus
This term originates from ancient Greece. Before Thespis stepped out with a spoken
line, Greek Theatre was exclusively chanted or sung. The chorus, originally numbering
50 people but later lowered to 15 and then to 12, sang songs in honor of Dionysus.

Index Find Term
Chapter 9 - Ancient Greece

City Dionysia
A n annual theatre festival in ancient Greece. Playwrights competed to have their

work performed in honor of Dionysus. Playwrights submitted three tragedies and one
satyr play for the competition.

Index Find Term

Climactic structure
The most common type of dramatic structure. It involves the basic elements of a be-
ginning, middle, and end. The elements of climactic structure include exposition, an
inciting incident, rising action, climax, falling action, denouement and resolution.

Index Find Term
Chapter 3 - Dramatic Structure

Climax
In climactic structure, the point of maximum tension. Something must “give”. Rising
action builds to it, and falling action comes after it.

Index Find Term

Cold Reading
When an actor auditions, they might be asked to read an excerpt from a script with-
out having any significant time to prepare it. The actor hasn’t had time to warm up
into the reading, hence a “cold” reading.

Index Find Term
Chapter 8 - The Audition

Collaboration
Theatre by its very nature is collaborative. Its structure and format rely on the play-
wright, director, designers, actors, and other people to make a production happen.
Collaboration is exciting and inspiring, but it can also be challenging because it in-
volves many people’s ideas, perspectives, and personalities.

Index Find Term

Color
One tool that designers utilize to help tell the story. A lighting designer can use soft
blue light to be romantic, while a harsh red light might be scary, etc. A costume de-
signer can dress an outlandish character in neon pink, and a more subdued character
in a muted brown. A set designer could use bright primary colors to emphasize a
show’s cartoonish quality.

Index Find Term

Colorblind casting
A practice where a director casts actor in roles where the actor’s race, ethnicity, and/or
skin color doesn’t matter.

Index Find Term
Chapter 10 - Theatre of Diversity

Comedy
One of the two main genres of theatre, along with tragedy. In ancient Greece, classi-
cal comedy was not held in as high esteem as tragedy but contemporary comedy is
artistically appreciated more than in the ancient past.

Index Find Term

Commercial Headshot
A commercial headshot is used to market an actor for advertising work. It will show
more of the actor’s body, have more casual clothing, and show a big, toothy smile. It
will make the actor look like more of an average citizen, since that’s who the target
audience is for commercials.

Index Find Term

Commercial theatre
A model of organization wherein producers invest money into a production and then
receive a portion of the profits. Broadway theatres are all commercial theatres, as are
nearly all national tours and many dinner theatres and summer stock theatres. Com-
mercial theatre can offer significant rewards (think of Wicked), while it also involves sig-
nificant risk and potential loss (think of Taboo, where Rosie O’Donnell lost $10 million
of her own money when the show closed early).

Index Find Term
Chapter 4 - Types of Theatre Organizations

Community theatre
A model of theatre organization wherein a handful of permanent staff are on salary,

but the vast majority of work is done by volunteers from the community. The people
involved are there because they love the work.

Index Find Term

Components of drama
Aristotle’s work The Poetics breaks down the elements of theatre into six components
of drama. In order of what he saw as most important to least, they are: plot, character,
theme, diction, melody/music, and spectacle. We still use these components to dis-
cuss theatre.

Index Find Term

Compression
One of the qualities of a good play is when the playwright knows how to effectively
condense the story into a length that works for live theatre. Knowing how to econo-
mize action is a great skill.

Index Find Term

Computer-aided design
See CAD.

CAD
Index Find Term

Concept
Directors establish a concept for each play which will drive the choices they make, as
well as those made by the actors and designers involved. The concept stems from
what the director views as the theme of the play - what the play is about at its core.

Index Find Term
Conception
Regarding the stages of playwriting, conception is where/how the playwright comes

up with their idea. It could stem from personal experience, tell the story of a historical
person or event, be inspired by a work of art, etc.

Index Find Term
Chapter 5 - The Playwright’s Process

Conflict
The heart of good theatre! Audiences want to see characters struggling to overcome
adversity. If there is nothing that the characters are fighting for, it’s harder for the audi-
ence to invest in the journey. Conflict is typically referred to in terms of the protago-
nist versus an element. For instance: Person vs. Themself, Person vs. Person, Person
vs. God/Fate/Nature, Person vs. Technology, and Person vs. Society.

Index Find Term

Convention
Not part of Aristotle’s original Poetics, this component of drama refers to the “short-
hand” between the playwright and the audience. For example, when the lights go out
at the end of a conversation, the audience knows that the scene is over and not that
there has been a power outage. When the lights come back up, we know it’s a new
scene.

Index Find Term

Credibility
The quality of a good play that refers to the audience’s ability to believe in the consis-
tency of the world of the play. It doesn’t necessarily mean that everything has to be
realistic; just consistent within that world.

Index Find Term

Critic
A person who has background and training in responding to theatrical productions.

Index Find Term
Chapter 4 - The Critic

Cueing
How the lights/sound/projections shift from one moment to the next is called cueing.
When the lights are on, and then they turn off, this requires a light cue, creating move-
ment of light on stage. This can also refer to actual movement of the lights, sound, or
projection on stage. If the projection is a still image, then it cannot create movement
in this way, but if it is a video, then it has movement of its own. Lighting designers use
follow-spots to follow actors around the stage, and sound designers make use of dif-
ferent speakers to create the effect that sound is moving around the space.

Index Find Term
Chapter 7 - Telling the Story

Curtain call
At the end of a show, some directors will stage a curtain call. This is where the actors
come back out on stage to bow and give thanks to the audience and crew. The audi-
ence likewise reciprocates with applause.

Index Find Term
Cycle plays
In Medieval Theatre, cycle plays developed out of liturgical drama. The cycle plays,
which chronicled the entire Christian Bible, built community, provided a break in rou-
tine, and reinforced the social hierarchy of the time.

Index Find Term
Chapter 9 - Medieval Theatre

Dadaism
An attack on traditional art, Dadaism attempted to confuse and antagonize the audi-
ence. It’s intent was to hold a mirror up to a senseless world. Examples include Tzara’s
The Gas Heart and Handkerchief of Clouds.

Index Find Term
Denouement
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cididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua. Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud ex-
ercitation ullamco laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.

Index Find Term

Dialogue

Index Find Term

Diction

Index Find Term

Didaskalos

Index Find Term
Direction

Index Find Term

Dithyrambs

Index Find Term

Dramatic criticism

Index Find Term
Chapter 4 - The Critic

Dramatic Structure

Index Find Term

Dramaturg

Index Find Term
Chapter 5 - The Dramaturg

Dran

Index Find Term
Duration

Index Find Term

Educational theatre

Index Find Term

Elton John

Index Find Term

Entertainment value

Index Find Term

Entretenir

Index Find Term

Epic Theatre

Index Find Term
Episodic structure

Index Find Term

Execution

Index Find Term

Experience

Index Find Term

Exposition

Index Find Term

Expressionism

Index Find Term
Falling action

Index Find Term
Chapter 6 - Script Analysis

Falling Action

Index Find Term

Festival of Dionysus

Index Find Term

Focus

Index Find Term

Found space

Index Find Term

Futurism

Index Find Term
Gender-blind casting

Index Find Term
Chapter 10 - Theatre of Diversity

Genre

Index Find Term

Given circumstances

Index Find Term
Chapter 8 - The Rehearsal

GIVEN CIRCUMSTANCES

Index Find Term
Golden Age

Index Find Term

Group Theatre

Index Find Term
Growth Potential

Index Find Term

Hair

Index Find Term

Hamilton

Index Find Term

Henrik Ibsen

Index Find Term

House announcement

Index Find Term
House manager

Index Find Term
Inciting incident

Index Find Term

Intensity

Index Find Term

Intermission

Index Find Term
Intrigue

Index Find Term

Intrinsic

Index Find Term
Chapter 1 - The Importance of Art

Jerome Robbins

Index Find Term
Katori Hall

Index Find Term
Chapter 5 - A Sample of Contemporary Playwrights

Konstantin Stanislavsky

Index Find Term
L.E.D

Index Find Term

Levels

Index Find Term

Line

Index Find Term

Liturgical dramas

Index Find Term

Mansions

Index Find Term

Medieval

Index Find Term

Michael Chekhov

Index Find Term
Models

Index Find Term
Chapter 7 - The Designer's Process

Monologue

Index Find Term
Chapter 8 - The Audition

Mood

Index Find Term

Moscow Art Theatre

Index Find Term
Music

Index Find Term

Music director

Index Find Term
Chapter 6 - Members of the Director's Team

Musical Theatre

Index Find Term
Naturalism

Index Find Term
Neil LaBute

Index Find Term

Non-for-profit

Index Find Term

Non-Realism

Index Find Term
Not-for-profit theatre

Index Find Term

Objective

Index Find Term
Objectives

Index Find Term

Obligatory scene

Index Find Term

Obstacles

Index Find Term
Oklahoma

Index Find Term

Pageant wagon

Index Find Term

Pageant wagons

Index Find Term

Performance

Index Find Term
Periaktoi

Index Find Term

Personal impact

Index Find Term

Pertinence

Index Find Term

Peter Brook

Index Find Term

Play

Index Find Term
Plot

Index Find Term

Point of attack

Index Find Term

Preparation

Index Find Term

Production

Index Find Term

Proscenium

Index Find Term

Proscenium arch

Index Find Term

Protagonist

Antagonist
Index Find Term

Realism

Index Find Term
Rehearsal

Index Find Term
Chapter 8 - The Rehearsal

Relationship to the Rest of the Cast

Index Find Term

Renaissance

Actor-managers
Index Find Term

Renderings

Index Find Term

Research

Index Find Term

Resolution

Index Find Term

Revision

Index Find Term

Rising action

Index Find Term

Rising Action

Index Find Term

Ritual

Index Find Term
Samuel Taylor Coleridge

Index Find Term

Sanford Meisner

Index Find Term
Sarah Ruhl

Index Find Term

Satyr play

Index Find Term

Script analysis

Index Find Term

Secular

Index Find Term
Chapter 9 - Renaissance Theatre

Shape

Index Find Term

Showboat

Index Find Term

Spectacle

Index Find Term

Stage business

Index Find Term

Stage pictures

Index Find Term

Staged readings

Index Find Term

Standing ovation

Index Find Term
Stella Adler

Index Find Term
Sting

Index Find Term

Subjective

Index Find Term
Chapter 1 - The Subjectivity of Art

Surrealism

Index Find Term
Susan Stroman

Index Find Term
Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street

Index Find Term

Symbolism

Index Find Term
Tactics

Index Find Term

Talent

Index Find Term

Technical rehearsals

Index Find Term

Tempo

Index Find Term

Texture

Index Find Term

The Black Crook

Index Find Term

The Edge

Index Find Term

The Empty Space

Index Find Term

The Poetics

Index Find Term

The Second Shepherd’s Play

Index Find Term

Theatre for Youth

Index Find Term

Theatre of Alienation

Index Find Term
Theatron

Index Find Term
Theme

Index Find Term

Thespis

Index Find Term
Thrust

Index Find Term

Tone

Index Find Term

Tony Kushner

Index Find Term

Tragedy

Index Find Term

Tragic flaw

Index Find Term

Tweet seats

Index Find Term
Chapter 12 - Attracting an Audience

Uta Hagen

Index Find Term
Verse

Index Find Term

West Side Story

Index Find Term

William Shakespeare

Actor-managers
Index Find Term
Chapter 9 - Renaissance Theatre

Willing suspension of disbelief

Index Find Term

Workshopping

Index Find Term

World of the Play

Index Find Term
Wright

Index Find Term

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Why

• Interpret works of fine arts or literature.

Tap to play, discover, reveal... Pinch closed to close chapter/image.

Tap to here play a video! Videos

Words in bold are glossary terms.

• The methods and skills used for painting, sculpting, draw-

What does it take to make someone an artist? Is it important

able purpose related to the day-to-day struggle to survive of

THE BENEFITS AND FUNCTIONS OF ART

“I found I could say things with color and shapes that I

Alain de Botton suggests in the video that art “helps us ap-

ART CONNECTS PEOPLE

“One person’s trash is another person’s treas-

Would you pay $1.5 million for the piece

When you are considering a piece of art (be it a composition,

Summary KEY WORDS & PHRASES

Art is an important part of a society’s culture. It brings a com- Art

“The point of theatre is transformation: to make an ex-

~Lee Hall, playwright

A. Art holds a mirror up to life.

C. Art serves to connect people.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • Explain the importance of the live element of theatre

• Compare and Contrast theatre with other forms of

• Appraise the difference between “theatre” and

• Define “theatron” and “dran”

• Differentiate between the main uses of the word

I NTERACTIVE 2.1 P ARTS OF A G REEK T HEATRE

room. But theatre requires interaction between the director,

I NTERACTIVE 2.2 O RGANIZATIONAL C HART

Artistic Director Managing Director

THE AUDIENCE AND ITSELF

Theatre and Other

A Rock n’ Roll Concert. Note the theatri-

T H E AT R E V S . T E L E V I S I O N A N D F I L M are in a theatre space where they are in the same room as

Summary KEY WORDS & PHRASES

Division of Labor in theatre

Similarly, theatre shares many things in common with sports

A. A director and an actor

B. A set and costumes

C. A place to perform and a place to watch

D. An actor and a written script

LEARNING OBJECTIVES • Explain “willing suspension of disbelief” and its role

• Engage in activity for enjoyment and recreation

• Take part in (a sport).

• Represent (a character) in a theatrical performance

• Perform on (a musical instrument).

• Activity engaged in for enjoyment and recreation,

• The conducting of an athletic match or contest.

• A dramatic work for the stage or to be broadcast.

“Genre expectations can kill creativity. If

D U R AT I O N intermission or not will depend on how many plays are being

TRAGEDY ences needed a break after watching so many tragedies! We

Have you ever experienced catharsis while watching a movie,

Aristotle was a philosopher in ancient

Bust of Aristotle. Marble, Roman copy

ARISTOTLE’S POETICS THEME

ple of this text in Chapter 9. Today, music also refers to the

we accept that they other characters on stage could not hear

pend our disbelief! “Well, I would have liked Zootopia, but