Unit-3

Part-A
BASIC DEFINITIONS
Magnetic dipoles
An arrangement of two magnetic poles of equal and opposite strengths separated by a
finite distance is called a magnetic dipole. Two poles of a magnetic dipole or a magnet are
of equal strength and opposite nature. The line joining the poles of
the magnet is called the magnetic axis.

Magnetic dipole moment

The magnetic moment defined as the product of its strength (m) and distance
between the two poles (2l) is called the magnetic moment

Magnetic field
The magnetic effects are generally exhibited at two ends of a bar magnet.
these two ends are called magnetic poles. that is the north and South poles. it
is found that the magnetic poles always in pair and cannot be isolated the
space around a bar magnet where it is influence is experienced is known as the
magnetic field
Magnetic induction or magnetic flux density(B)
It is defined as the number of magnetic lines of force passing
perpendicularly through one unit area due to both applied
field and magnetization field is called magnetic induction or
magnetic flux density
it is noted with B = μ × H Tesls
here B is magnetic induction
μ is permeability
H is magnetic field intensity
Magnetic field intensity or magnetic field strength (H)
It is defined as the force experienced by one unit of a north
pole placed at a point in the field
𝐵
it is noted with H= ampere/m
μ
here H is magnetic field intensity
B is magnetic induction
μ is permeability

Permeability (μ)
The Permeability is defined as the ratio between magnetic
induction and magnetic field intensity at a given point in that
medium is called permeability
𝐵
it is noted with μ = Henry /m
H
 here μ is permeability
H is magnetic field intensity
B is magnetic induction,
Relative permeability
it is defined as the ratio permeability of medium and
permeability of free space is called relative permeability
𝛍
it is noted with μr = No units
𝛍𝟎

here μr is relative permeability

μ is permeability of medium
𝛍𝟎 is permeability of free space

The intensity of magnetization (M)

It is defined as the magnetic substance place in the magnetic
field, it gets some magnetic dipole moment therefore the
magnetic dipole moment for 1 unit volume is call intensity of
magnetization
𝑝
it is noted with M= ampere/m
v
here M is intensity of magnetization
p is Magnetic dipoles moment
v is unit volume of material
Magnetic susceptibility (𝑥 )
It is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetization and
the magnetic field intensity is called magnetic susceptibility
𝑀
it is noted with 𝑥 = No unit
H
here 𝑥 is magnetic susceptibility, M is intensity of
magnetization, H is Magnetic field intensity
Relation between B, H, and M
The good magnetic materials should have high permeability
and high susceptibility
When a magnetic substance of permeability placed in a
magnetic field then the magnetic flux density is
B=μ×H
here flux density has two components one is flux due to
applied field and another one is due to magnetization
therefore, resultant flux is some of these two.
the flux density only due to apply field is μ0 H
similarly due to the magnetization is μ0 M
so, the resultant flux density is B = (μ0 H+ μ0 M)
B = μ0(H+ M) ------1
We know that B = μ × H------------2
Eqe-2 in 1 μ × H = μ0(H+ M)
 𝛍 𝐇+𝐌
=
𝛍𝟎 𝐇

𝛍 𝟏+𝐌
=
𝛍𝟎 𝐇

𝑀
since = 𝑥
H
𝛍
= μr
𝛍𝟎

Therefore μr = (1+ 𝑥)
Origin of the magnetic moment (Bohr magneton)
The magnetic moment contributed by a single atom is known
as Bohr magneto. mathematically it can be represented as
𝑒ℎ
μ B=.
4π𝑚
Except Día magnetic materials in all magnetic materials of
atoms possess a permanent magnetic moment even though
the absence of external field, because of the spin motion of
the electron and spin motion of nucleus.
we know that electrons are moving around the nucleus in
elliptical orbits so electron Orbit can be considered as a close
current loop.
if I is a current passing through the closed current loop and A
is the area of the close current loop then the magnetic
moment due to this close the current loop is given by
 μ = I × A ---------(1)

A is πr2 ---------(2)

because the loop is considered as circle

If T is the time taken by electron for the completion of one

Revolution, then the current is flowing through the closed
𝐞
loop is I = -----------------(3)
𝐓

e is charge of electron
T is time taken for one Revolution
eqe 2 and 3 in 1 and we get

𝐞
Therefore μ = × πr2---------(4)
𝐓
𝟐π 𝟐π
we know that angular velocity ω= Then T = -----------(5)
T ω
eqe 5 in 4 we get
 𝐞
μ= 𝟐π × πr2
ω

e rν ω
= -----(6)
2
we know that the angular momentum associated with

moving particle

Therefore L=mvr

here m is mass of the electron

v is linear velocity = r ω

r is radius of loop

Therefore = r2
L m ω-----(7)

compare eqe 6 and 7 and we get

𝑒 𝑙ℎ ℎ
μ=. ×L since L =𝑙 ℏ = since ℏ=2π
2𝑚 2π
𝑒 𝑙ℎ
μ=. ×
2𝑚 2π
𝑒ℎ
μ=. × 𝑙------(8)
4π𝑚

if 𝑙=0 μ=0
 𝑒ℎ
the quality of represent a small unit of magnetic
4 π𝑚
moment, this is called Bhor magnetic moment
𝑒ℎ
μ=. = 9.27×10-34 ampere/m2
4π𝑚

Electron spin motion

Besides the orbital motion of an electron, are it rotates about
its own axis. magnetic moment associated with a spinning of
the electron is called spin magnetic moment. and the
electronic spin dipole moment is given by
𝑒
μ= - ( 2𝑚) S and S = √. S(s+1)
where S is the spin angular momentum and is define as the
ratio of the magnetic dipole moment of an electron due to its
spin motion and the spin angular momentum

μ= 9.4×10-24 ampere/m2
Nuclear spin motion
The atomic nucleus processes intrinsic Spin is called nuclear spin and
hence a magnetic moment is associated with this. As the electron
magnetic moment is expressed in the unit of Bohr magnetism. the
nuclear magnetic moment is expressed in the unit of nuclear
magneton μn
𝑒ℎ
μn=4π𝑀=5.05×10-24 ampere/m2
where 𝑀 mass of the proton
Classification of magnetic materials
Based on magnetic dipole moment the magnetic materials classified
under two categories
1.zero magnetic materials
2.permanent magnetic material
zero magnetic materials are Diamagnetic materials
the permanent magnetic material is again classified into four
categories
1.Para magnetic material
2.Ferromagnetic material
3.Anti-ferromagnetic material
4.Ferrimagnetic material(ferrites)
Diamagnetic materials
if in material the arrangement of orbits and the orientation is such
that the vector sum of magnetic moment is zero then the material is
known as diamagnetic material.
the diamagnetic materials do not possess a permanent magnetic
moment, when the material is placed in an external magnetic field
the orbits of the electrons undergo a processional motion, this is
called Larmor’s motion.

Spin alignment of diamagnetic materials

Properties of diamagnetic materials

Diamagnetic materials cannot be magnetized
The lines of force do not pass through the specimen
The magnetic susceptibility is negative
Diamagnetic materials, not effect by temperature
Relative permeability is less than 1
Examples -bismuth, zine, gold, silver, copper, diamond, and water
Paramagnetic material
If in material the arrangement of orbits and orientation is such that
the vector sum of magnetic moment is non zero this type of material
for call paramagnetic materials.
the paramagnetic materials whose molecules possess a net
permanent magnetic moment even in the absence of an external
magnetic field this magnetic moment is randomly oriented and
hence the net magnetization of the material is zero. when a field is
applied to the material that magnetic dipoles is aligned in the
direction of the external field so that it becomes easily magnetized

Spin alignment of paramagnetic materials

Properties of paramagnetic materials
Paramagnetic materials possess a permanent dipole moment
susceptibility is positive and small
𝐶
The susceptibility is inversely proportional to the temperature χ=
T
The Spin magnetic moment are randomly oriented
The presence of the magnetic field, magnetic lines of force are
attracted towards the center of the material
The relative permeability is greater than one but small
Examples -aluminum, Platinum

Ferro magnetic material

If in material the arrangement of orbits so orientation is such that
the atoms have a hole possess a large number of magnetic moments,
this type of material are called ferro magnetic materials
When a ferromagnetic substance placed in the external magnetic
field, they easily magnetized the spin magnetic moments of atoms
become align parallel to one other even in the absence of an external
magnetic field and possess magnetization this is called spontaneous
magnetization

Spin alignment of ferromagnetic materials

Properties of ferro magnetic materials
The ferromagnetic material can be easily magnetized
The magnetic susceptibility is positive and depends upon
𝐶
temperature χ=
T−TC
When the temperature of the material is greater than its curie
temperatures then it's converted into paramagnetic material
The relative permeability also very high
These materials exhibit a hysteresis curve that is B -H curve the
alignment of the atoms is parallel to other in the same direction
Examples are iron Cobalt Nickel

Anti-Ferro magnetic material

This is the property of a substance whose spin movement of
neighboring atoms are oriented in anti-parallel order that is the
alternative atoms have spin moment parallel to each other, one
substrate is spontaneously magnetized in one direction and the
other in the opposite direction, if no external field is applied the net
magnetization of antiferromagnetic material will be zero because of
anti-parallel spin magnetic moments, and applied external magnetic
field they possess magnetization

Spin alignment of anti-ferromagnetic materials

Properties of anti-ferro magnetic materials
The anti-ferromagnetic material can be easily magnetized
The magnetic susceptibility is positive and depends upon
𝐶
temperature χ=
T+TN

The spin alignment is the anti-parallel manner

the relative permeability is greater than 1
the temperature at which the anti-ferromagnetic materials is
converted into paramagnetic material is known as Neels
temperatures
examples Cr2O3, MnF2 Mno, Mns

Ferrimagnetic material(ferrites)
This kind of materials is similar to ferromagnetic materials, the
magnetic moments of these materials are unequal spin moment the
neighboring atoms in ferric differ in the magnitude of magnetic
moments and their directions also, thus that net magnetization of
ferric has non zero values but small they possess a small value of
magnetization
 Spin alignment of anti-ferromagnetic materials
Properties of Ferrimagnetic material
The Ferrimagnetic material can be easily magnetized
The magnetic susceptibility is positive and depends upon
𝐶
temperature χ=
T±TN

The relative permeability is small

The spin alignments systematic but in anti-parallel manner
Examples Nickel ferrite, and Cobalt ferrite

Weiss domains theory

The phenomenon of magnetic domain was first explained by Weiss,
according to him ferromagnetic materials are divided into a large
number of small regions is called domains.
The magnetic dipoles in a domain are aligned parallel to each other
in the same direction the magnetic dipole is different in different
directions. when the magnetic substance is placed in an external
magnetic field then there may be two independent processes that
contribute to the total magnetization of substance
The first one is when a small magnetic field is applied to the domains
which are oriented to the field direction and it is the expands of
other domain which are not in field directions this gives only small
magnetization

The strong field is applied to a domain and oriented in the field

direction by rotation of their dipoles the resulting magnetization is
large, if their strength of the magnetic field is increased the specimen
gets fully magnetizations the difference between these two effects is
simultaneously shown in above figure
When a small magnetic field is applied across the specimen the
domain is an expand and give small magnetization but the
displacement of boundaries is reversible within the regions as the
external field is increased as a large number of domains grow
favorable in the direction of the external field and also increase
magnetization but its displacement is invisible the specimen at this
moment is completely magnetized
HYSTERESIS CURVE (B-H CURVE)
A great deal of information can be learned about the magnetic
properties of a materials by studying its hysteresis loop is in below
figure.

This hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced

magnetic flux density that is magnetic induction((B) and the
magnetizing force that is magnetic field intensity(H), It is often
referred to as the B-H curve
The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic flux(B) of ferro
magnetic materials while the magnetic field intensity (H) is changed.
let us consider a magnetic substance is placed in an external
magnetic field the substance is slowly magnetizing by magnetic field
intensity. the intensity of magnetization is found to increase along
with O to A and decreasing H slowly B also decrease but does not
follow an original path when H is zero B has not zero, the location of
B is called retentivity
When the field is applied in reverse direction decreased along B C till
It's become zero at C. the value of H which has to be applied to the
Magnetic material in the reverse direction the magnetization is zero
the location of C is called Coercivity
Based on the hysteresis loop area the magnetic materials are
classified under two types Soft magnetic materials and Hard magnetic
materials and from the hysteresis loop a number of primary
magnetic properties of a material can be determined
Retentivity -The property of the magnetic material to retain
magnetism even in the absence of the magnetizing field is known as
retentivity
Residual Magnetism or Residual flux
The magnetic flux density that remains in a material when the
magnetizing force is zero. Not that residual magnetism and
retentivity are the same when the material has been magnetized to
the saturation point. However, the level of residual magnetism may
be lower than the retentivity value when the magnetizing force did
not reach the saturation point
Coercivity- The magnetizing field (H) needed to demagnetize the
magnetic material completely is known as its coercivity

Difference between soft and hard magnetic materials

Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic materials
Have small hysteresis loop Have large hysteresis loop
Have large values of Permeability and Have small values of Permeability
Susceptibility and Susceptibility
The domain wall moment is easier The domain wall moment is difficult
Coercivity and Retentivity is small Coercivity and Retentivity is large
Can be easily magnetized and the Cannot be easily magnetized and the
demagnetized demagnetized
Magneto-static energy is small Magneto-static energy is large
Eddy current loss is more due to high Eddy current loss is less due to low
resistivity resistivity
Used to make electromagnets Used to make permanent magnets
Exp: Iron -silicon-alloys ferrous- Exp: Iron Nickel -aluminum alloys
nickel- alloys copper Nickel -iron alloys
Applications of Eddy Current
1.Implemented in trains those have eddy current brakes
2.Used to offer damping torque in PMMC devices
3.Utilized in electrical devices such as induction type energy meters
4.These are employed to know damages in the metal sections.
5.Simple high frequency eddy current testers have been used for
to detect toe cracks.
6. Automated eddy current test systems have been developed for
inspecting tube,
bar and wire at speeds up to 3 m/s
Problems-1
A magnetic field of 1800 amp/m produces a magnetic flux of 3 ×10-5 W/ m2 in
an iron bar of cross-sectional area 0.2 cm2, calculate permeability
𝐵
Formula μ =
H

Problems-2

Find the relative permeability of a ferromagnetic material field

strength to 220 amp/m produces a magnetization 300 m/ in it
𝑀
Formula μr = (1+ 𝒙) ------- 𝒙 =
𝐇

Problems-3
A magnetic material has a magnetization of 3000 amp /m flux
density of 0.005w/m2 calculate the magnetic force and the
relative permeability of material

𝐵
Formula H= -1
𝐮𝟎
𝑀
Formula μr = (1+ 𝒙) ------- 𝒙 =
𝐇

Problems-4
A paramagnetic material has a magnetic field intensity of 104
amperes. If the susceptibility of materials at room temperature is
3.7 ×10-3 . calculate the magnetization and flux density of metals

𝑀
Formula 𝒙 = M= 𝒙 𝐇
𝐇

Formula B= 𝛍𝟎 (M+ H)