MSTE Module Notes and Formulas

Construction Methods

The Earthmoving Process

Earthmoving is the process of moving soil or rock from one location to another and processing it so
that it meets construction requirements of location, elevation, density, moisture content, and so on.
Activities involved in this process include excavating, loading, hauling, placing (dumping and
spreading), compacting, grading, and finishing. Efficient management of the earthmoving process
requires accurate estimating of work quantities and job conditions, proper selection of equipment,
and competent job management.
Production of Earthmoving Equipment
The basic relationship for estimating the production of all earthmoving equipment is as follows:

Production = Volume per cycle * Cycles per hour

The term volume per cycle should represent the average volume of material moved per equipment
cycle. Thus the nominal capacity of the excavator or haul unit must be modified by an appropriate fill
factor based on the type of material and equipment involved. The term cycles per hour must include
any appropriate efficiency factors, so that it represents the number of cycles actually achieved (or
expected to be achieved) per hour. In addition to this basic production relationship, specific
procedures for estimating the production of major types of earthmoving equipment are presented in
the chapters that follow.

The cost per unit of production may be calculated as follows:

𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒑𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓

𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒑𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓

There are two principal approaches to estimating job efficiency in determining the number of cycles
per hour to be used in Equation 1. One method is to use the number of effective working minutes per
hour to calculate the number of cycles achieved per hour. This is equivalent to using an efficiency
factor equal to the number of working minutes per hour divided by 60. The other approach is to
multiply the number of theoretical cycles per 60-min hour by a numerical efficiency factor. A table of
efficiency factors based on a

Table 1. Job efficiency factors for earthmoving operations (From TM 5-331B, U.S. Department of the
Army)

Prepared by: Engr. Matthew

 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

General Soil Characteristics

Several terms relating to a soil’s behavior in the construction environment should be understood.
Trafficability is the ability of a soil to support the weight of vehicles under repeated traffic. In
construction, trafficability controls the amount and type of traffic that can use unimproved access
roads, as well as the operation of earthmoving equipment within the construction area.
Trafficability is usually expressed qualitatively, although devices are available for quantitative
measurement. Trafficability is primarily a function of soil type and moisture conditions. Drainage,
stabilization of haul routes, or the use of low-ground-pressure construction equipment may be
required when poor trafficability conditions exist. Soil drainage characteristics are important to
trafficability and affect the ease with which soils may be dried out. Loadability is a measure of the
difficulty in excavating and loading a soil. Loose granular soils are highly loadable, whereas compacted
cohesive soils and rock have low loadability.

Unit soil weight is normally expressed in pounds per cubic yard or kilograms per cubic meter. Unit
weight depends on soil type, moisture content, and degree of compaction. For a specific soil, there is
a relationship between the soil’s unit weight and its bearing capacity. Thus soil unit weight is
commonly used as a measure of compaction. Soil unit weight is also a factor in determining the
capacity of a haul unit. In their natural state, all soils contain some moisture.

The moisture content of a soil is expressed as a percentage that represents the weight of water in the
soil divided by the dry weight of the soil:

𝑴𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 − 𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

𝑴𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 (%) = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕

Example: A soil sample weighed 54.4 kg in the natural state and 45.3 kg after drying, the weight of
water in the sample would be 9.1 kg and the soil moisture content would be 20%. Using Equation 3,
this is calculated as follows:

:Solution:
𝟓𝟒. 𝟒 − 𝟒𝟓. 𝟑
𝑴𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕 (%) = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎%
𝟒𝟓. 𝟑

Soil Conditions

There are three principal conditions or states in which earth moving material may exist: bank, loose,
and compacted. The meanings of these terms are as follows:

1. Bank: Material in its natural state before disturbance. Often referred to as “in-place” or “in
situ.” A unit volume is identified as a bank cubic yard (BCY) or a bank cubic meter (BCM).
2. Loose: Material that has been excavated or loaded. A unit volume is identified as a loose cubic
yard (LCY) or loose cubic meter (LCM).
3. Compacted: Material after compaction. A unit volume is identified as a compacted cubic yard
(CCY):

Swell

A soil increases in volume when it is excavated because the soil grains are loosened during
excavation and air fills the void spaces created. As a result, a unit volume of soil in the bank
condition will occupy more than one unit volume after excavation. This phenomenon is called
swell. Swell may be calculated as follows:

Prepared by: Engr. Matthew

 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕\𝒃𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝑺𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍 (%) = ( − 𝟏𝟎𝟎) 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 \𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒓

Example: Find the swell of a soil that weighs 2800 lb/cu yd (1661 kg/m3) in its natural state
and 2000 lb/cu yd (1186 kg/m3) after excavation.

Solution:

𝟐𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝑺𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍 (%) = ( − 𝟏) 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒𝟎%
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟏
𝑺𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍 (%) = ( − 𝟏) 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟒𝟎%
𝟏𝟏𝟖𝟔

Shrinkage

When a soil is compacted, some of the air is forced out of the soil’s void spaces. As a result, the
soil will occupy less volume than it did under either the bank or loose conditions. This
phenomenon, which is the reverse of the swell phenomenon, is called shrinkage. The value of
shrinkage may be determined as follows:

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕\ 𝒃𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

𝑺𝒉𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 (%) = (𝟏 − ) 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕/ 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

Soil volume change caused by excavation and compaction is illustrated in Figure 2. Note that
both swell and shrinkage are calculated from the bank (or natural) condition.

Example: Find the shrinkage of a soil that weighs 2800 lb/cu yd (1661 kg/m3) in its natural
state and 3500 lb/cu yd (2077 kg/m3) after compaction.
Solution:
𝟐𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝑺𝒉𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 (%) = (𝟏 − ) 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎%
𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟎

𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟏
𝑺𝒉𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 (%) = (𝟏 − ) 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟐𝟎%
𝟐𝟎𝟕𝟕

Loose volume is multiplied by the load factor to obtain bank volume.

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 /𝒍𝒐𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 /𝒃𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

𝟏
𝒐𝒓 𝑳𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝟏 + 𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍

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 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

A factor used for the conversion of bank volume to compacted volume is sometimes referred
to as a shrinkage factor. The shrinkage factor may be calculated by use of Equation. Bank
volume may be multiplied by the shrinkage factor to obtain compacted volume or compacted
volume may be divided by the shrinkage factor to obtain bank volume.

𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 /𝒃𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆

𝑺𝒉𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 =
𝑾𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆
𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅

𝒐𝒓 𝑺𝒉𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = 𝟏 − 𝑺𝒉𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆

Example: A soil weighs 1960 lb/LCY (1163 kg/LCM), 2800 lb/BCY (1661 kg/BCM), and 3500
lb/CCY (2077 kg/CCM). (a) Find the load factor and shrinkage factor for the soil. (b) How
many bank cubic yards (BCY) or meters (BCM) and compacted cubic yards (CCY) or meters
(CCM) are contained in 1 million loose cubic yards (593,300 LCM) of this soil?

Solution:

𝟏𝟗𝟔𝟎 𝟐𝟖𝟎𝟎
𝒂𝟏. 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎 𝒂𝟑. 𝑺𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒏𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎
𝟐𝟖𝟎𝟎 𝟑𝟓𝟎𝟎

𝟏𝟏𝟔𝟑 𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟏
𝒂𝟐. 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎 𝒂𝟒. 𝑺𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒏𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎
𝟏𝟔𝟔𝟏 𝟐𝟎𝟕𝟕

𝒃𝟏. 𝑩𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝟏, 𝟎𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎 = 𝟕𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐁𝐂𝐘

𝒃𝟐. 𝑩𝒂𝒏𝒌 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝟓𝟗𝟑, 𝟑𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎 = 𝟕𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐁𝐂𝐘

𝒃𝟑. 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝟕𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 = 𝟓𝟔𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝐂𝐂𝐘

𝒃𝟒. 𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝟒𝟏𝟓, 𝟑𝟏𝟎 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 = 𝟑𝟑𝟐, 𝟐𝟒𝟖𝐂𝐂𝐌

Typical values of unit weight, swell, shrinkage, load factor, and shrinkage factor for some
common earthmoving materials are given in Table 5.

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 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

Triangular Spoil Bank

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒙 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

𝟏
𝟒𝑽 𝟐
𝑩 𝒙 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝑹
𝑩=( ) 𝑯=
𝑳 𝒙 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝑹 𝟐

Where B = base width (ft or m)

H = pile height (ft or m)
L = pile length (ft or m)
R = angle of repose (degree)
V = pile volume (cu ft or m^3)

Conical Spoil Pile

𝟏
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝒙 𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒙 𝑯𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 Where D is the diameter of the pile base (ft or m).
𝟑

𝟏
𝟕. 𝟔𝟒𝑽 𝟐 𝑫
𝑫=( ) 𝑯= 𝒙 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝑹
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝑹 𝟐

Example: Find the base width and height of a triangular spoil bank containing 76.5 BCM if
the pile length 9.14 m, the soil’s angle of repose is 37°, and its swell is 25%.

Solution:

𝑳𝒐𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟗𝟓. 𝟔 𝒎𝟑

𝟏
𝟒 𝒙 𝟗𝟓. 𝟔 𝟐
𝑩=( ) = 𝟕. 𝟒𝟓 𝒎
𝟗. 𝟏𝟒 𝒙 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟑𝟕°

𝟕. 𝟒𝟓
𝑯= 𝒙 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟑𝟕° = 𝟐. 𝟖𝟎 𝒎
𝟐

Example: Find the base diameter and height of a conical spoil pile that will contain 76.5 BCM
of excavation if the soil’s angle of repose is 32° and its swell is 12%.

Solution:

𝑳𝒐𝒐𝒔𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟏𝟐 = 𝟖𝟓. 𝟕 𝒎𝟑

𝟏
𝟕. 𝟔𝟒 𝒙 𝟖𝟓. 𝟕 𝟐
𝑫=( ) = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟔 𝒎
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟑𝟐°

𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟔
𝑯= 𝒙 𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝟑𝟐° = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟕 𝒎
𝟐

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 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

Trench Excavations

The volume of excavation required for a trench can be calculated as the product of the trench
cross-sectional area and the linear distance along the trench line (Equation 15).
For rectangular trench sections where the trench depth and width are relatively constant,
trench volume can be found as simply the product of trench width, depth, and length. When
trench sides are sloped and vary in width and/or depth, cross sections should be taken at
frequent linear intervals and the volumes between locations computed. These volumes are
then added to find total trench volume.

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝑪𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 𝒙 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉

Example: Find the volume (bank measure) of excavation required for a trench 30.92 m wide,
1.83 m deep, and 152 m long. Assume that the trench sides will be approximately vertical.

Solution:

𝑪𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟐 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟖𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟖 𝒎𝟐

𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟖 𝐱 𝟏𝟓𝟐 = 𝟐𝟓𝟓 𝐁𝐂𝐌

Excavation Production

In order to estimate the production of an excavator using the Production = Volume per
cycle Cycles per hour equation, it is necessary to know the volume of material actually
contained in one bucket load. The methods by which excavator bucket and dozer blade capacity
are rated are given in

Table 1. Plate line capacity is the bucket volume contained within the bucket when following
the outline of the bucket sides. Struck capacity is the bucket capacity when the load is struck
off flush with the bucket sides. Water line capacity assumes a level of material flush with the
lowest edge of the bucket (i.e., the material level corresponds to the water level that would
result if the bucket were filled with water). Heaped volume is the maximum volume that can
be placed in the bucket without spillage based on a specified angle of repose for the material
in the bucket. Since bucket ratings for the cable shovel, dragline, and cable backhoe are based
on struck volume, it is often assumed that the heaping of the buckets will compensate for the
swell of the soil. That is, a 5-cu-yd bucket would be assumed to actually hold 5 bank cu yd of
material. A better estimate of the volume of material in one bucket load will be obtained if the
nominal bucket volume is multiplied by a bucket fill factor or bucket efficiency factor.

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 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

Suggested values of bucket fill factor for common soils are given in Table 2. The most accurate
estimate of bucket load is obtained by multiplying the heaped bucket volume (loose measure)
by the bucket fill factor. If desired, the bucket load may be converted to bank volume by
multiplying its loose volume by the soil’s load factor.

Example: Estimate the actual bucket load in bank cubic meters for a loader bucket whose
heaped capacity is 3.82 m^3. The soil’s bucket fill factor is 0.90 and its load factor is 0.80.

Solution:

𝑩𝒖𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟐 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟒 𝐋𝐂𝐌

𝑩𝒖𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 = 𝟑. 𝟒𝟒 𝐋𝐂𝐌 𝐱 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟓 𝐁𝐂𝐌

Production Estimating

No production tables have been prepared for the hydraulic excavator. However, production
may be estimated by using Equation 1 together with Tables 3 and 4, which have been prepared
from manufacturers’ data.

𝑳𝑪𝒀 𝒐𝒓 𝑳𝑪𝑴
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 ( )=𝑪𝒙𝑺𝒙𝑽𝒙𝑩𝒙𝑬
𝒉

Where C = cycles/h (Table 3)

S = swing-depth factor (Table 4)
V = heaped bucket volume (LCY or LCM)
B = bucket fill factor (Table 2)
E = job efficiency

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 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

In trenching work, a fall-in factor should be applied to excavator production to account for the
work required to clean out material that falls back into the trench from the trench walls.
Normal excavator production should be multi plied by the appropriate value from Table 5 to
obtain the effective trench production.

Example: Find the expected production in loose cubic meters LCM) per hour of a small
hydraulic excavator. Heaped bucket capacity is 0.57 m^3. The material is sand and gravel with
a bucket fill factor of 0.95. Job efficiency is 50 min/h. Average depth of cut is 14 ft (4.3 m).
Maximum depth of cut is 6.1 m and average swing is 90.

Solution:

𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 - See table 3

𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 =
𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒔

𝑺𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 - See table 4

𝑩𝒖𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕 𝑳𝑪𝑴

𝑩𝒖𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕 𝑭𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓
𝟓𝟎
𝑱𝒐𝒃 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑
𝟔𝟎
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟓𝟕 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑
𝑳𝑪𝑴
= 𝟏𝟏𝟑
𝒉

Example: Find the expected production in loose cubic meters (LCM) per hour of a2.3-m^3
hydraulic shovel equipped with a front-dump bucket. The material is common earth with a
bucket fill factor of 1.0. The average angle of swing is 75° and job efficiency is 0.80.

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 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

Solution:

𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔 = 𝐦𝐢𝐧 - See table 6
𝟏𝟔𝟎
𝑺𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑭𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓 - See table 6

𝑩𝒖𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝟐. 𝟑 𝐋𝐂𝐌 𝟑

𝑩𝒖𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕 𝒇𝒊𝒍𝒍 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = 𝟏. 𝟎

𝑱𝒐𝒃 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎
𝐋𝐂𝐌
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏𝟓𝟎 𝐱 𝟏. 𝟎𝟓 𝐱 𝟐. 𝟑 𝐱 𝟏. 𝟎 𝐱 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 = 𝟐𝟗𝟎
𝐡𝐫

Dragline

The dragline is a very versatile machine that has the longest reach for digging and dumping of
any member of the crane shovel family. It can dig from above machine level to significant depths
in soft to medium-hard material. The components of a dragline are shown in Figure 10.
Bucket teeth and weight produce digging action as the drag cable pulls the bucket across the ground
surface. Digging is also controlled by the position at which the drag chain is attached to the bucket
(Figure 11). The higher the point of attachment, the greater the angle at which the bucket enters
the soil. During hoisting and swinging, material is retained in the bucket by tension on the dump
cable. When tension on the drag cable is released, tension is removed from the dump cable,
allowing the bucket to dump. Buckets are available in a wide range of sizes and weights, solid and
perforated. Also available are arch less buckets which eliminate the front cross-member connecting
the bucket sides to provide easier flow of material into and out of the bucket.

Example: Determine the expected dragline production in loose cubic meters (LCM) per hour
based on the following information:

Solution:
𝐦𝐢𝐧
𝑫𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒛𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟑 𝐦𝟑 𝑱𝒐𝒃 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 = 𝟓𝟎
𝐡𝐫
𝑺𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎°
𝑺𝒐𝒊𝒍 𝑺𝒘𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝑶𝑷 = 𝟐𝟓%
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒖𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟒 𝐦
𝑴𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒍 = 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐨𝐧 𝐞𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐡

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 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

𝐁𝐂𝐌
𝑰𝒅𝒆𝒂𝒍 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝟏𝟕𝟔 - See table 7
𝐡

𝑶𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒖𝒕 = 𝟑. 𝟎 𝐦 - See table 8

𝟐. 𝟒
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 / 𝑶𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 = 𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟖𝟎%
𝟑. 𝟎

𝑺𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒅𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒉 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎- See table 9

𝟓𝟎
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒆𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒚 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑
𝟔𝟎

𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = 𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓

𝑳𝑪𝑴
𝑬𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏𝟕𝟔 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟑 𝒙 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟏𝟔𝟓
𝒉

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 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

When the crane shovel is equipped with a crane boom and clamshell bucket, it becomes an
excavator known as a clamshell. The clamshell is capable of excavating to great depths but lacks
the positive digging action and precise lateral control of the shovel and backhoe. Clamshells are
commonly used for excavating vertical shafts and footings,

Example: Estimate the production in loose cubic meters per hour for a medium-weight
clamshell excavating loose earth. Heaped bucket capacity is 0.75 m^3. The soil is common
earth with a bucket fill factor of 0.95. Estimated cycle time is 40 s. Job efficiency is estimated
at 50 min/h.

Solution:
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟓𝟎 𝑳𝑪𝑴
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓 𝒙 = 𝟓𝟑
𝟒𝟎 𝟔𝟎 𝒉𝒓

Loading and Hauling

In calculating the time required for a haul unit to make one complete cycle, it is customary to
break the cycle down into fixed and variable components.

𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝑭𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 + 𝑽𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆

Fixed time represents those components of cycle time other than travel time. It includes spot
time (moving the unit into position to begin loading), load time, maneuver time, and dump time.
Fixed time can usually be closely estimated for a particular type of operation.

Variable time represents the travel time required for a unit to haul material to the unloading
site and return. As you would expect, travel time will depend on the vehicle’s weight and power,
the condition of the haul road, the grades encountered, and the altitude above sea level. This
section presents methods for calculating a vehicle’s resistance to movement, its maximum speed,
and its travel time. Methods for estimating fixed times are given.

Rolling Resistance

To determine the maximum speed of a vehicle in a specific situation, it is necessary to determine

the total resistance to movement of the vehicle. The resistance that a vehicle encounters in
traveling over a surface is made up of two components, rolling resistance and grade resistance.

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 + 𝑹𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

Resistance may be expressed in either pounds per ton of vehicle weight (kilograms per metric ton)
or in pounds (kilograms). To avoid confusion, the term resistance factor will be used in this
chapter to denote resistance in lb/ton (kg/t).Rolling resistance is primarily due to tire flexing and
penetration of the travel surface. The rolling resistance factor for a rubber-tired vehicle equipped
with conventional tires moving over a hard, smooth, level surface has been found to be about 40
lb/ton of vehicle weight (20 kg/t). For vehicles equipped with radial tires, the rolling resistance
factor may be as low as 30 lb/ton (15 kg/t). It has been found that the rolling resistance factor
increases about 30 lb/ton (15 kg/t) for each inch (2.5 cm) of tire penetration. This leads to the
following equation for estimating rolling resistance factors:

𝒍𝒃
𝑹𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟒𝟎 + (𝟑𝟎 𝒙 𝒊𝒏. 𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 ( ) − 𝑬𝒒 𝟑𝑨
𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝒌𝒈
𝑹𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝟐𝟎 + (𝟔 𝒙 𝒄𝒎. 𝒑𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 ( ) − 𝑬𝒒 𝟑𝑩
𝒕
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 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

The rolling resistance in pounds (kilograms) may be found by multiplying the rolling resistance
factor by the vehicle’s weight in tons (metric tons). Table 1 provides typical values for the rolling
resistance factor in construction situations.
Crawler tractors may be thought of as traveling over a road created by their own tracks. As a result,
crawler tractors are usually considered to have no rolling resistance when calculating vehicle
resistance and performance. Actually, of course, the rolling resistance of crawler tractors does
vary somewhat between different surfaces. However, the standard method for rating crawler
tractor power (drawbar horse- power) measures the power actually produced at the hitch when
operating on a standard surface. Thus, the rolling resistance of the tractor over the standard
surface has already been subtracted from the tractor’s performance. Although a crawler tractor is
considered to have no rolling resistance, when it tows a wheeled vehicle (such as a scraper or
compactor) the rolling resistance of the towed vehicle must be considered in calculating the total
resistance of the combination.

Grade resistance represents that component of vehicle weight which acts parallel to an inclined
surface. When the vehicle is traveling up a grade, grade resistance is positive. When traveling
downhill, grade resistance is negative. The exact value of grade resistance may be found by
multiplying the vehicle’s weight by the sine of the angle that the road surface makes with the
horizontal. However, for the grades usually encountered in construction, it is sufficiently accurate
to use the approximation of Equation 4. That is, a 1% grade (representing a rise of 1 unit in 100
units of horizontal distance) is considered to have a grade resistance equal to 1% of the vehicle’s
weight. This corresponds to a grade resistance factor of 20 lb/ton (10 kg/t) for each 1% of grade.

𝒍𝒃
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 ( ) = 𝟐𝟎𝒙 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 (%) (−𝑬𝒒 𝟒𝑨)
𝒕𝒐𝒏

𝒌𝒈
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 ( ) = 𝟏𝟎𝒙 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 (%) (−𝑬𝒒 𝟒𝒃)
𝒕

Grade resistance (lb or kg) may be calculated using equations 5 and 6

𝒍𝒃
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒍𝒃) = 𝑽𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 (𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔)𝒙 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 ( ) (−𝑬𝒒 𝟓𝑨)
𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝒌𝒈
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒌𝒈) = 𝑽𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 (𝒕)𝒙 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 ( ) (−𝑬𝒒 𝟓𝑩)
𝒕

𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒍𝒃) = 𝑽𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 (𝒍𝒃)𝒙 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒍𝒃) (−𝑬𝒒 𝟔𝑨)

𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒌𝒈) = 𝑽𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 (𝒌𝒈)𝒙 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒌𝒈) (−𝑬𝒒 𝟔𝑩)

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 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

Equation 7:

𝒍𝒃
𝑹𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 (𝒕𝒐𝒏)
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 (%) = 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 (%) + (−𝑬𝒒. 𝟕𝑨)
𝟐𝟎

𝒌𝒈
𝑹𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 ( )
𝒕
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 (%) = 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 (%) + (−𝑬𝒒. 𝟕𝑩)
𝟏𝟎

Example: A wheel tractor-scraper weighing 100 tons (91 t) is being operated on a haul road
with a tire penetration of 2 in. (5 cm). What is the total resistance (lb and kg) and effective
grade when (a) the scraper is ascending a slope of 5%; (b) the scraper is descending a slope of
5%?

Solution:

𝑹𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝒒 𝟑𝑨 & 𝟑𝑩

𝒍𝒃
𝟒𝟎 + (𝟑𝟎 𝒙 𝟐) = 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒕𝒐𝒏

𝒌𝒈
𝟐𝟎 + (𝟔 𝒙𝟓𝟐) = 𝟓𝟎
𝒕
𝑹𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒍𝒃
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃
𝒕𝒐𝒏

𝒌𝒈
𝟓𝟎 𝒙 𝟗𝟏 𝒕 = 𝟒𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈
𝒕

𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂. ) 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝒒 𝟔𝑨 & 𝟔𝑩

𝒍𝒃
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒙 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 = 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃
𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝒌𝒈
𝟗𝟏 𝒕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 = 𝟒, 𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈
𝒕
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃 + 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃 = 𝟐𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃

𝟒, 𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈 + 𝟒, 𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈 = 𝟗, 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒌𝒈

𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝒒 𝟕𝑨 & 𝟕𝑩

𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟓+ = 𝟏𝟎%
𝟐𝟎

𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒃. ) 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝒒 𝟔𝑨 & 𝟔𝑩 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒚𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝒒 𝟕𝑨 & 𝟕𝑩

𝒍𝒃 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝒙 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙(−𝟎. 𝟎𝟓) = −𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃 −𝟓 + = 𝟎%
𝒕𝒐𝒏 𝟐𝟎
𝒌𝒈
𝟗𝟏 𝒕 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 (−𝟎. 𝟎𝟓) = − 𝟒, 𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈 𝟓𝟎
𝒕 −𝟓 + = 𝟎%
𝟏𝟎
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆

−𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃 + 𝟏𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃 = 𝟎 𝒍𝒃

− 𝟒, 𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈 + 𝟒, 𝟓𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈 = 𝟎 𝒌𝒈

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 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

Example: A crawler tractor weighing 80,000 lb (36 t) is towing a rubber-tired scraper

weighing 100,000 lb (45.5 t) up a grade of 4%. What is the total resistance (lb and kg) of the
combination if the rolling resistance factor is 100 lb/ton (50 kg/t)?

Solution:

𝟏𝟎𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃 𝒍𝒃
𝑹𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒄𝒓𝒂𝒘𝒍𝒆𝒓)𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒃 = 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃
𝒍𝒃 𝒕𝒐𝒏
𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒐𝒏

𝒌𝒈
𝑹𝒐𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝒄𝒓𝒂𝒘𝒍𝒆𝒓)𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒈 = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟓 𝒕 𝒙 𝟓𝟎 = 𝟐𝟐𝟕𝟓 𝒌𝒈
𝒕

𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒃) = 𝟏𝟖𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 = 𝟕𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃

𝒌𝒈
𝑮𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒈) = 𝟖𝟏. 𝟓 𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝒙 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒 = 𝟑𝟐𝟔𝟎 𝒌𝒈
𝒕

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒃) = 𝟓𝟎𝟎𝟎 + 𝟕𝟐𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟐, 𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝒍𝒃

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 (𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒈) = 𝟐𝟐𝟕𝟓 + 𝟑𝟐𝟔𝟎 = 𝟓𝟓𝟑𝟓𝒌𝒈

Estimating Dozer Production

The basic earthmoving production equation Production = Volume per cycle x Cycles per hour
equation may be applied in estimating dozer production. This method requires an estimate of
the average blade load and the dozer cycle time. There are several methods available for
estimating average blade load, including the blade manufacturer’s capacity rating, previous
experience under similar conditions, and actual measurement of several typical loads. A
suggested method for calculating blade volume by measuring blade load is as follows:

1. Doze a full blade load, then lift the blade while moving forward on a level surface until an even
pile is formed.
2. Measure the width of the pile (W) perpendicular to the blade and in line with the inside of each
track or wheel.
3. Average the two measurements.
4. Measure the height (H) of the pile in a similar manner.
5. Measure the length of the pile parallel to the blade.
6. Calculate blade volume using Equation 10.

𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 (𝑳𝑪𝒀) = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟗 𝒙 𝑯(𝒇𝒕)𝒙 𝑾 (𝒇𝒕)𝒙 𝑳 (𝒇𝒕) − (𝑬𝒒. 𝟏𝟎𝑨)

𝑩𝒍𝒂𝒅𝒆 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 (𝑳𝑪𝑴) = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 𝒙 𝑯(𝒎)𝒙 𝑾 (𝒎)𝒙 𝑳 (𝒎) − (𝑬𝒒. 𝟏𝟎𝑩)

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 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

Example: A power-shift crawler tractor has a rated blade capacity of (7.65 LCM). The dozer
is excavating loose common earth and pushing it a distance of 61 m. Maximum reverse speed
in third range is km/h. Estimate the production of the dozer if job efficiency is 50 min/h.

Solution
𝒌𝒎 𝒎
𝑭𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏 (𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟒) 𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒆: 𝟏 = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟕
𝒉 𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝒌𝒎
𝑫𝒐𝒛𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = 𝟒. 𝟎 (𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟔)
𝒉
𝟔𝟏
𝑫𝒐𝒛𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏 𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟔. 𝟕
𝟔𝟏
𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝟖 𝒙 𝟏𝟔. 𝟕

𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 + 𝟎. 𝟗𝟏 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏 𝒎𝒊𝒏

𝟓𝟎 𝑳𝑪𝑴
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟕. 𝟔𝟓 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟕𝟏
𝟏. 𝟒𝟏 𝒉

Example: Estimate the hourly production in loose volume LCM2.68-m3) wheel loader
excavating sand and gravel (average material) from a pit and moving it to a stockpile. The
average haul distance is (61 m), the effective grade is 6%, and the bucket fill factor is
1.00, and job efficiency is 50 min/h.

Solution

𝑩𝒖𝒄𝒌𝒆𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟖 𝑳𝑪𝑴)

𝑩𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏 (𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝟔)

𝑻𝒓𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏

𝑪𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟎 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏

𝟓𝟎 𝑳𝑪𝑴
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟖 𝒙 = 𝟏𝟔𝟖
𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 𝒉

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 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

Example: Find the expected production of the scraper fleet of Example 10 if only one pusher
is available and the chain-loading method is used. Expected production of a single scraper
assuming adequate pusher support is 173 BCM/h.
Solution

𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒖𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒓𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒕𝒐 𝒇𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒆 𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒆𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟒

𝟏 𝑩𝑪𝑴
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝒙 𝟗 𝒙 𝟏𝟕𝟑 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟐
𝟏. 𝟒 𝒉

Estimating Grading Production

Grader production is usually calculated on a linear basis (miles or kilometers completed per
hour) for roadway projects and on an area basis (square yards or square meters per hour) for
general construction projects. The time required to complete a roadway project may be
estimated as follows:

𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔 𝒙 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 (𝒎𝒊 𝒐𝒓 𝒌𝒎) 𝟏

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒉) = [𝜮 ]𝒙
𝒎𝒊 𝒌𝒎 𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 ( 𝒐𝒓 )
𝒉 𝒉

Average speed will depend on operator skill, machine characteristics, and job conditions.
Typical grader speeds for various types of operations are given in Table 6.

Example: 24.1 km of gravel road require reshaping and leveling. You estimate that six passes
of a motor grader will be required. Based on operator skill, machine characteristics, and job
conditions, you estimate two passes at 6.4 km/h, two passes at 8.0 km/h, and two passes at
9.7 km/h. If job efficiency is 0.80, how many grader hours will be required for this job?

Solution
𝟐 𝒙 𝟐𝟒. 𝟏 𝟐 𝒙 𝟐𝟒. 𝟏 𝟐 𝒙 𝟐𝟒. 𝟏 𝟏
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒉) = ( + + 𝒙 = 𝟐𝟑. 𝟏 𝒉
𝟔. 𝟒 𝟖. 𝟗 𝟗. 𝟕 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎

Ripper Production

The seismic velocity of a rock formation (Section 1) provides a good indication of the rock’s
rippability. Charts such as the one shown in Figure 17 have been prepared to provide a guide
to the ripping ability of a particular tractor/ripper combination in various types of rock over a
range of seismic velocities. When ripping conditions are marginal, the use of two tractors to
power the ripper (tandem ripping) will often produce a substantial increase in production and
reduce unit excavation cost. Equation 6 may be used to predict ripper production when
effective ripping width, depth, and speed can be established. Trial operations are usually
required to accurately estimate these values unless such data are available from previous
operations under similar conditions. Prepared by: Engr. Matthew
 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

𝑩𝑪𝒀 𝟐. 𝟐𝟐 𝒙 𝑫 𝒙 𝑾 𝒙 𝑳 𝒙 𝑬
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 ( )= − 𝑬𝒒 𝟔𝑨
𝒉 𝑻

𝑩𝑪𝑴 𝟔𝟎 𝒙 𝑫 𝒙 𝑾 𝒙 𝑳 𝒙 𝑬
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 ( )= − 𝑬𝒒 𝟔𝑩
𝒉 𝑻

Where D = average penetration (ft or m)

W = average width loosened (ft or m)
L = length of pass (ft or m)
E = job efficiency factor
T = time for one ripper pass, including turn (min)

Example: Estimate the hourly production of the rock excavation involved in preparing an
industrial building site by drilling and blasting. The site is (91.4 m) by (121.9 m) and must be
excavated to an average depth of 3.658 m. The material to be excavated is a thinly laminated
shale with a sonic velocity of 1220 m/s. The drilling equipment to be used will consist of an
air-powered track drill and air compressor. The average drilling rate, including steel changes,
moves, and delays, is estimated at 30.5 m/h.

Trial blasting indicates that 3-in. (7.6-cm) holes drilled in 3.658-m rectangular pattern will
provide adequate fracturing. A hole depth of 4.115 m must be drilled to yield a 3.658-m
effective depth. The blasting agent is ANFO. (0.23 kg) of primer with an electric blasting cap
will be used in each hole. The powder factor is 0.297 kg/BCM. A labor force of one drill
operator and one compressor operator will be used for drilling. One blaster and one helper will
be employed in blasting.

Solution

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 = 𝟗𝟏. 𝟒 𝒙 𝟏𝟐𝟏. 𝟗 𝒙 𝟑. 𝟔𝟔 = 𝟒𝟎, 𝟕𝟕𝟖 𝑩𝑪𝑴

𝑩𝑪𝑴
𝒀𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟓𝟖𝟐 𝒙 𝟑. 𝟔𝟓𝟖 = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟗
𝒉𝒐𝒍𝒆

𝟒𝟖. 𝟗 𝑩𝑪𝑴
𝑫𝒓𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒀𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅 = = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖
𝟒. 𝟏𝟏𝟓 𝒎

𝑩𝑪𝑴 𝑩𝑪𝑴
𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟖𝟖 𝒙 𝟑𝟎. 𝟓 = 𝟑𝟔𝟐. 𝟑
𝒎 𝒉

𝟒𝟎. 𝟕𝟕𝟖
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝑹𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 = = 𝟏𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝒉
𝟑𝟔𝟐. 𝟑

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 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

Aggregates often require washing to remove silt, clay, or organic material prior to processing
and sorting. Common types of washing equipment include scrubber drums, wet screens, log
washers, sand dehydrators, and classifying tanks. Scrubber drums consist of an inclined
revolving drum turns, is estimated at 25 m/min. equipped with agitator fins and water spray
nozzles. Undesirable material is removed as the aggregate is mixed with water and agitated
while moving down the drum. Wet screens are essentially vibrating screens equipped with
water spray bars to remove undesirable material as the aggregate is screened. Log washers
utilize revolving auger paddles immersed in a tub of water to wash off undesirable material as
the aggregate is moved through the tub by the auger blades. Sand dehydrators consist of
rotating auger screws mounted in an inclined trough. Water and material to be cleaned are
piped into the bottom of the trough. As the aggregate is moved up through the trough by the
screw conveyors, the lighter undesirable material overflows into a flume and is drained off.
Classifying tanks are essentially settling tanks which float off undesirable material while
allowing clean aggregate to settle to the tank bottom where it can be removed.

The other major piece of aggregate processing equipment is the belt conveyor. Portable or
stationary belt conveyors are used to move aggregate between crushers, screens, washers,
and stockpiles, and to load the processed material into haul units. A radial stacker is a form
of belt conveyor which pivots about a base point so that the conveyor discharges its output to
form a semicircular stockpile.

Concrete is produced by mixing portland cement, aggregate, and water. In addition, a fourth
component, an additive, may be added to improve the workability or other properties of the
concrete mix. The construction operations involved in the production of concrete include
batching, mixing, transporting, placing, consolidating, finishing, and curing.
The production and transporting of plastic concrete are described in this section.

To meet design requirements while facilitating construction, it is important that concrete

possess certain properties. Hardened concrete must meet design strength requirements and
be uniform, watertight, durable, and wear-resistant. Desirable properties of plastic concrete
include workability and economy. All of these properties are influenced by the concrete
components and mix design used as well as by the construction techniques employed.

Types of Concrete

Concrete is classified into several categories according to its application and density. Normal-
weight concrete usually weighs from 140 to 160 lb/cu ft (2243–2563 kg/m3), depending on
the mix design and type of aggregate used. A unit weight of 150 lb/cu ft (2403 kg/m3) is usually
assumed for design purposes. Typical 28-day compressive strength ranges from 2000 to 4000
psi (13,790–27,580 kPa). Structural lightweight concrete has a unit weight less than 120 lb/cu
ft (1922 kg/m3) with a 28-day compressive strength greater than 2500 lb/sq in. (17,237 kPa).
Its light weight is obtained by using lightweight aggregates such as expanded shale, clay, slate,
and slag. Lightweight insulating concrete may weigh from 15 to 90 lb/cu ft (240–1442 kg/m3)
and have a 28-day compressive strength from about 100 to 1000 lb/sq in. (690–6895 kPa). As
the name implies, such concrete is primarily utilized for its thermal insulating properties.
Aggregates frequently used for such concrete include perlite and vermiculite. In some cases,
air voids introduced into the concrete mix in foam replace some or all of the aggregate
particles.
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 MSTE Module Notes and Formulas
Construction Methods

Mass concrete is concrete used in a structure such as a dam in which the weight of the
concrete provides most of the strength of the structure. Thus, little or no reinforcing steel is
used. Its unit weight is usually similar to that of regular concrete. Heavyweight is concrete
made with heavy aggregates such as barite, magnetite, and steel punching; it is used primarily
for nuclear radiation shielding. Unit weights may range from 180 to about 400 lb/cu ft (2884–
6408 kg/m3). No-slump concrete is concrete having a slump of 1 in. (2.5 cm) or less. Slump is
a measure of concrete consistency obtained by placing concrete into a test cone following a
standard test procedure (ASTM C143) and measuring the decrease in height (slump) of the
sample when the cone is removed. Applications of no- slump concrete include bedding for
pipelines and concrete placed on inclined surfaces.

Refractory concrete is concrete that is suitable for high-temperature applications such as

boilers and furnaces. The maximum allowable temperature for refractory concrete depends on
the type of refractory aggregate used. Precast concrete is concrete that has been cast into the
desired shape prior to placement in a structure. Architectural concrete is concrete that will be
exposed to view and therefore utilizes special shapes, designs, or surface finishes to achieve
the desired architectural effect. White or colored cement may be used in these applications.
Surface textures may include exposed aggregates, raised patterns produced by form liners,
sandblasted surfaces, and hammered surfaces. Architectural concrete panels are often precast
and used for curtain walls and screens.

Prepared by: Engr. Matthew