SOCIAL SCIENCE

AND PHILOSOPHY
SOCIOLOGY
Sociology is an important field of study that
offers many valuable insights into human
behavior, social interactions, and the structures Sociology is the study of human social behavior,
and institutions that shape our lives. Here are relationships, and institutions. It is concerned with
some of the key reasons why sociology is the ways in which people interact with each other,
important: and how social structures and cultural norms
influence these interactions. One of the key
Understanding society: Sociology helps us concepts in sociology is society, which refers to a
understand how society is organized, how it group of people who share a common culture and
functions, and how it changes over time. This way of life. Societies can be studied at various
can help us make sense of our own experiences levels, from small communities to entire nations.
and the experiences of others, and can give us a
broader perspective on social issues and SOCIOLOGY ACCORDING TO :
challenges.

Promoting social change: Sociology can help us According to Seligman, Sociology is the study of
identify social problems and develop strategies social facts, collective behavior, social control, and
for addressing them. By understanding the social interaction.
causes and consequences of social inequalities Mitchell on the other hand, defines sociology as
and injustices, we can work to create a more just the study of social processes, social structures,
and equitable society. and the functions of society. He emphasizes the
importance of understanding how society works
Enhancing social policy: Sociological research as a system, and how different parts of society
can inform social policies and programs, helping interact with each other.
to ensure that they are effective and beneficial Peter Lewis defines sociology as the scientific
for all members of society. By studying the study of social life, social change, and the social
impact of social policies and programs, causes and consequences of human behavior. He
sociologists can also identify areas for emphasizes the use of systematic methods to
improvement and reform. gather and analyze data, and the importance of
understanding the social context in which
Developing critical thinking skills: Sociology behavior occurs.
teaches critical thinking skills, including the Fairchild defines sociology as the systematic
ability to analyze complex social phenomena, study of social phenomena, including social
identify patterns and relationships, and evaluate institutions, social processes, and social change.
evidence and arguments. These skills are He emphasizes the importance of understanding
valuable in many different fields and can be the relationships between individuals and larger
applied in both personal and professional social structures, and the impact of social
contexts. structures on individual behavior and attitudes.

Fostering cultural awareness: Sociology helps us

understand the cultural diversity of our world DERIVATION OF THE TERM
and appreciate the unique contributions of
different cultures. This can enhance our personal
relationships and improve our ability to
communicate and collaborate with people from
The term "sociology" was first coined by Auguste
different backgrounds.
Comte in the early 19th century. He derived the term
from the Latin word "socius" (meaning companion or
Overall, sociology is an important field of study
associate) and the Greek word "logos" (meaning
that offers valuable insights into human behavior
study or science), to describe the scientific study of
and social phenomena. By understanding the
human society and social behavior.
complex social structures and institutions that
shape our lives, we can work to create a more
just, equitable, and harmonious society.
BRANCHES OF SOCIAL SCIENCE FORERUNNERS OF SOCIOLOGY
OTHER THAN SOCIOLOGY
Anthropology is the study of human
cultures, societies, and behaviors AUGUSTE COMTE (1798-1857)
throughout history and across the world.
Anthropologists study various aspects of Comte is considered the founder of sociology, and he
human life, including language, religion, developed the first systematic approach to the study of
social organization, and art. society. He emphasized the importance of positivism, or the
use of scientific methods to understand social phenomena. He
Geography is the study of the earth and believed that sociology should be used to improve society and
its features, including its physical and coined the term "altruism" to describe the idea of acting for
human characteristics. Geographers study the good of others.
a range of topics, including climate,
natural resources, population distribution,
and urbanization. HARRIET MARTINEAU (1802-1876)

Psychology is the scientific study of Martineau was one of the first women sociologists and is
behavior and mental processes. known for her pioneering work in feminist sociology. She
Psychologists study various aspects of translated Comte's work into English and wrote several
human behavior, including cognition, influential books on social issues such as poverty, slavery, and
emotion, personality, and social women's rights.
interactions.
HERBERT SPENCER (1820-1903)
Economics is the study of the production,
distribution, and consumption of goods Spencer is known for his theory of social Darwinism, which applied
and services. Economists study a range of the principles of natural selection to human societies. He believed
topics, including supply and demand, that societies evolve over time and that the fittest societies will
market structures, and economic systems. survive and prosper.

Law is the study of rules and regulations

that govern society. Lawyers and legal
EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)
scholars study various aspects of law,
including criminal law, civil law, and Durkheim is known for his work on the sociology of religion and his
international law. study of suicide. He believed that social phenomena should be
studied objectively and that social facts have an independent
Linguistics is the study of language and existence beyond individual consciousness.
its structure, including how it is used in
different cultures and contexts. Linguists MAX WEBER (1864-1920)
study language acquisition, language
variation, and language change over time.
Weber is known for his work on bureaucracy, the sociology of
Archaeology is the study of human religion, and the concept of social action. He emphasized the
societies and cultures through the importance of understanding the subjective meanings that
analysis of artifacts and other material individuals attach to their actions and believed that social
remains. Archaeologists study a range of phenomena cannot be reduced to simple cause-and-effect
topics, including ancient civilizations, relationships.
historical events, and cultural practices. KARL MARX (1818-1883)
Political science is the study of
Marx is known for his contributions to the development of Marxist
government and political processes.
theory, which emphasizes the importance of social class and
Political scientists study a range of topics,
economic structures in shaping society. He believed that capitalism
including political systems, political
creates social inequality and that a socialist revolution is necessary
behavior, and international relations.
to create a more just and equitable society.
History is the study of the past, including
the people, events, and societies that have GEORG SIMMEL (1858-1918)
shaped the world as we know it.
Historians study a range of topics, Simmel is known for his contributions to the field of urban
including political, economic, and social sociology and his work on social interactions and group dynamics.
history, as well as cultural and intellectual He emphasized the importance of studying the forms and
history. structures of social interactions, rather than their content.
 MAJOR THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

A. The Sociological Perspective emphasizes the D. The Feminist Theory emphasizes the importance
importance of studying social phenomena from a of gender in shaping social relations and power
scientific, objective standpoint. It involves examining dynamics. It seeks to understand how gender
social structures and patterns, as well as the ways in inequalities are created and maintained, and how
which individuals and groups interact with each they can be addressed through social change.
other. Sociologists who adopt the sociological
perspective seek to understand the social world and E. The Symbolic Interactionist Perspective according
the factors that shape it, in order to create a more to Erving Goffman, George Herbert Mead, and Carol
just and equitable society. Brooks Gardner:

Sociological Persoective was developed through the The symbolic interactionist perspective emphasizes
contributions of: the importance of symbols and meanings in shaping
social interactions and relationships. It suggests that
Charles Cooley (1864-1929): Cooley is known for individuals construct their identities through social
his theory of the "looking-glass self," which interactions, and that meaning is negotiated through
suggests that our sense of self develops from our these interactions.
interactions with others. He emphasized the
importance of social interaction and communication F. Sociological Imagination:
in shaping our identities.
The sociological imagination is a concept developed
Jane Addams (1860-1935): Addams was a social by C. Wright Mills that refers to the ability to see the
reformer and activist who founded Hull House, a connections between individual experiences and
settlement house in Chicago that provided services larger social structures and patterns. It involves
to immigrants and the poor. She applied sociological understanding the ways in which social structures
principles to her work and was a pioneer in the field shape individual experiences and behaviors, and
of social work. how individuals can take action to change these
structures. The sociological imagination encourages
Robert Merton (1910-2003): Merton developed individuals to think critically about the social world
several important sociological concepts, including and to take an active role in shaping it.ups.
the idea of "latent functions" and "manifest
functions." He also developed the concept of "strain Brief History of Sociology
theory," which suggests that social structures can
create strains that lead to deviant behavior. Sociology has its roots in the Enlightenment period of
the 18th century, when thinkers such as Jean-Jacques
B. The Functional Perspective according to Rousseau and Immanuel Kant began to question the
traditional religious and political systems that
Talcott Parsons: Parsons was a prominent governed society. Auguste Comte is considered the
sociologist who developed the functionalist founder of sociology, and he developed the first
perspective, which emphasizes the importance of systematic approach to the study of society. Other
social structures and institutions in maintaining early sociologists, such as Herbert Spencer, Emile
social order. He believed that society is made up of Durkheim, and Max Weber, further developed
interconnected parts that work together to ensure sociological theories and methods. In the 20th century,
its stability and survival. sociology became more diverse and interdisciplinary,
with the emergence of new subfields such as feminist
C. The Conflict Perspective according to sociology, critical race theory, and cultural sociology.
Today, sociology continues to be a vital field of study,
W.E.B Du Bois: Du Bois was a prominent African informing our understanding of social issues and
American sociologist who developed the conflict helping to create a more just and equitable society. it.
perspective, which emphasizes the role of power
and inequality in shaping society. He believed that
social structures and institutions are shaped by
class, race, and gender struggles, and that social
change is often the result of conflicts between
different groups.
 SOCIAL SCIENCE VS HUMANITIES

The distinction between social science and humanities Conducting a sociological inquiry
is often described as a hairline difference, as both involves several steps, which can be
fields study human behavior, culture, and society.
However, there are some subtle distinctions that can summarized as follows:
be drawn between the two.
Identify the research question: A sociological
Social science tends to use scientific and empirical inquiry begins by identifying a research question
methods to study human behavior, relying on data that is of interest and importance to the field.
collection, statistical analysis, and systematic The research question should be specific, clear,
observation. The focus is often on explaining and
and feasible to investigate.
predicting social phenomena using theories and
models.
Review the literature: Once the research
question has been identified, the next step is to
Humanities, on the other hand, tend to take a more review the existing literature on the topic. This
interpretive and qualitative approach to the study of involves reading and analyzing previous studies,
human behavior and culture, focusing on theories, and research findings related to the
understanding the meanings and values that people research question.
attach to their experiences, beliefs, and practices. The Choose a research method: After reviewing the
focus is often on exploring the richness and complexity
literature, the sociologist must choose an
of human experience through literature, art,
appropriate research method or methods to
philosophy, and history.
investigate the research question. The choice of
Despite these differences, there is significant overlap method depends on the nature of the research
between social science and humanities, with many question, the available resources, and ethical
scholars working in both fields and using considerations.
interdisciplinary approaches to study complex social Collect data: The next step is to collect data
phenomena. Ultimately, the hairline distinction using the chosen research method. This may
between social science and humanities is a reminder of
involve conducting surveys, interviews,
the interconnectedness of all fields of knowledge, and
participant observation, content analysis,
the need for a broad, multidisciplinary approach to
understanding human behavior and culture. experiments, or other methods.
SOCIOLOGICAL INQUIRY Analyze data: Once the data has been collected,
Sociological inquiry is the systematic study of human the sociologist must analyze it using appropriate
society and social behavior. It involves using scientific
statistical or qualitative methods. This may
methods to investigate social phenomena and explore
patterns of social interaction and social change. involve coding and categorizing data, running
statistical tests, or interpreting qualitative data.
The main goals of sociological inquiry include: Draw conclusions: Based on the analysis of the
Describing social phenomena: Sociologists use empirical data, the sociologist draws conclusions about
data to describe various aspects of social life, including
the research question and develops theoretical
social structures, institutions, and processes.
Explaining social phenomena: Sociologists seek to insights. This may involve testing hypotheses,
explain social phenomena by identifying the causes and generating new theories, or refining existing
consequences of social patterns and behaviors. theories.
Understanding social phenomena: Sociologists aim to Report findings: Finally, the sociologist reports
develop a deeper understanding of human behavior and
the findings of the study in a research paper or
social dynamics by exploring the meaning and
significance of social phenomena. other academic publication. This involves
Predicting social phenomena: Sociologists use empirical presenting the research question, methodology,
data and social theories to predict future trends and data analysis, and conclusions in a clear and
patterns in social behavior and social change. concise manner.
Sociological inquiry is interdisciplinary, drawing on
Throughout the sociological inquiry process, it is
theories and methods from a range of disciplines,
including psychology, economics, political science, and important to adhere to ethical standards, such as
anthropology. It is also informed by social theories, such protecting the privacy and confidentiality of
as functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic research participants and obtaining informed
interactionism, which provide frameworks for consent.
understanding and explaining social phenomenon.
PHILOSOPHY

SUBJECT OF PHILOSOPHY
Philosophy is a branch of study that seeks to
understand the nature of reality, knowledge, and
existence through critical reflection and rational The subject of philosophy is the nature of reality,
inquiry. The word "philosophy" comes from the knowledge, existence, and morality. Philosophy is
Greek words "philos" meaning love and "sophia" concerned with asking fundamental questions about the
meaning wisdom, so philosophy can be understood world and human experience, and seeking to
as the love of wisdom. understand the underlying principles and concepts that
govern them. It is a broad and diverse field that
Philosophy addresses fundamental questions encompasses various sub-disciplines, including
about the nature of reality, morality, knowledge, metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, logic, and
and human existence. It seeks to provide a aesthetics.
coherent and comprehensive view of the world and
our place in it. Philosophy is a critical and FUNCTION OF PHILOSOPHY
analytical discipline that encourages the
development of rigorous arguments and clear
thinking.
The functions of philosophy can be summarized as
follows:
The significance of studying philosophy lies in its
ability to enhance critical thinking skills and foster
Critical analysis: Philosophy provides a framework for
intellectual curiosity. By studying philosophy,
critical analysis and rigorous reasoning. It encourages
individuals develop the ability to think deeply and
individuals to question assumptions and evaluate
critically about complex issues, to analyze and
arguments, leading to a deeper understanding of
evaluate arguments, and to articulate their own
complex issues and a more nuanced perspective.
views clearly and persuasively.
Inquiry and exploration: Philosophy encourages inquiry
and exploration into fundamental questions about the
Philosophy is also significant because it provides a
world and human experience. It provides a space for
foundation for other areas of study, such as
intellectual curiosity and the pursuit of knowledge.
science, social science, and the humanities.
Conceptual clarification: Philosophy seeks to clarify
Philosophy helps to establish the fundamental
concepts and ideas that may be ambiguous or unclear.
assumptions and concepts that underpin these
By defining key terms and establishing clear definitions,
disciplines, and provides a framework for philosophy helps to enhance understanding and reduce
understanding the nature of knowledge, reality, confusion.
and existence. Ethical and moral reflection: Philosophy is concerned
with ethics and morality, and provides a framework for
Furthermore, philosophy has practical applications ethical and moral reflection. It helps individuals to
in everyday life. It helps individuals to make ethical develop a clear sense of right and wrong, and to make
and moral decisions, to understand different informed ethical decisions.
perspectives, and to navigate complex social and Integration and synthesis: Philosophy seeks to integrate
political issues. Philosophy also has applications in and synthesize different areas of knowledge and
various professions, such as law, medicine, and experience, creating a holistic and comprehensive
business, where critical thinking and ethical understanding of the world and human experience.
reasoning are essential skills. Critique and reform: Philosophy provides a space for
critique and reform, encouraging individuals to question
Overall, the study of philosophy is significant established norms and values and seek to improve
because it provides a framework for understanding society and the world.
the world and our place in it, develops critical Overall, philosophy plays a critical role in human
thinking skills, and has practical applications in intellectual and moral development, providing a space
everyday life and various professions.ce and for critical inquiry, exploration, and reflection on
humanities is a reminder of the interconnectedness fundamental questions about the world and human
of all fields of knowledge, and the need for a experience. It has broad applications in various areas of
broad, multidisciplinary approach to understanding life, from the development of new technologies to the
human behavior and culture. formulation of ethical policies and practices.
NATURE AND SCOPE OF PHILOSOPHY
ROLE OF PHILOSOPHY
The nature of philosophy is to critically and
systematically examine fundamental questions The subject of philosophy is the nature of reality,
about the nature of reality, knowledge, existence, knowledge, existence, and morality. It is a broad and
and morality. It involves using rational diverse field that encompasses various sub-disciplines,
including metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, logic, and
argumentation and logical reasoning to evaluate
aesthetics.
arguments and theories in order to arrive at a
deeper understanding of these concepts.
The role of philosophy in culture is to provide a framework
for critical analysis, rigorous reasoning, and ethical and
The scope of philosophy is vast and encompasses moral reflection. Philosophy plays a critical role in shaping
a wide range of topics and questions. Some of the cultural values and norms by providing a space for
main branches of philosophy include: individuals to question assumptions, evaluate arguments,
and explore fundamental questions about the world and
Metaphysics: This branch of philosophy deals with human experience. It encourages individuals to think
the nature of reality and the fundamental nature of deeply and critically about the ethical, social, and political
existence. implications of their actions, beliefs, and values, and to
Epistemology: This branch of philosophy is engage in constructive dialogue and debate about these
issues.
concerned with the nature of knowledge and the
ways in which we acquire knowledge.
Ethics: This branch of philosophy deals with
questions of morality and how we ought to live
PHILOSOPHY VS SOCIAL SCIENCE
our lives. Philosophy and social science are closely related, as both
Logic: This branch of philosophy deals with the are concerned with understanding human behavior,
study of reasoning and argumentation. society, and culture. Social science is a scientific discipline
Aesthetics: This branch of philosophy is concerned that uses empirical methods to study human behavior and
with questions of beauty, art, and taste. social patterns, whereas philosophy uses critical analysis
Political philosophy: This branch of philosophy and logical reasoning to explore fundamental questions
deals with questions of political power, justice, about the nature of reality, knowledge, existence, and
morality. However, there is a great deal of overlap between
and governance.
the two fields, as many social science questions and
Philosophy of science: This branch of philosophy
theories involve philosophical concepts and assumptions.
is concerned with the nature of scientific
For example, social science research on ethics, politics, and
knowledge and how it is acquired. social norms often relies on philosophical frameworks and
Philosophy of language: This branch of philosophy theories. Likewise, philosophical theories about human
deals with the nature of language and how it is nature and morality often inform social science research on
used to communicate. these topics.
Philosophy of mind: This branch of philosophy is
concerned with the nature of consciousness and
the relationship between the mind and the body.
Philosophy of religion: This branch of philosophy
deals with questions of faith, belief, and religious
practice.
Overall, the scope of philosophy is vast and
diverse, encompassing a wide range of questions
and topics. Philosophical inquiry is characterized
by a commitment to critical thinking, logical
reasoning, and the pursuit of knowledge and
understanding through rigorous analysis and
reflection.