DAVANAGERE UNIVERSITY

GOVERNMENT FIRST GRADE COLLEGE, DAVANAGERE

NAAC B+ GRADE
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY

PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF SIXTH SEMESTER ZOOLOGY

ENVIRONMENTAL BIOLOGY, WILDLIFE

MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATIONS
COURSE CODE:UGZOODSCP6 - 2 QP CODE: SZOP62

PREPARED BY:
FACULTY OF ZOOLOGY
GOVERNEMENT FIRST GRADE COLLEGE
DAVANAGERE
 CONTENTS

Sl. No. Title of Practicals Page Number

1. Water Quality Parameters Assessment – Estimation of Dissolved 1 – 12
Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, Total hardness, Chloride and Alkalinity,
Salinity.
2. Analysis of physico – chemical parameters of Soil – pH, Soil 13 – 21
moisture, Soil temperature, Organic matter.
3. Visit of pond and lakes – Collection and identification of Flora and 22 – 28
Fauna. Collection, preservation and estimation of zooplanktons.
4. Demonstration of field equipments used in wildlife census – 29 – 33
compass, Binoculars, Spotting scope, Range Finders, Global
Positioning System, Cameras and lenses.
5. Identification of wild animal’s pugmarks, hoof marks, scats, 34 – 41
pellet groups, nest, antlers.
6. Field visit to Wildlife sanctuary/National Park (report to be
submitted)
ESTIMATION OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN IN THE WATER SAMPLE:
(Winkler’s Method)
Aim: To estimate the amount of dissolved oxygen in the given water sample.
Introduction: Dissolved oxygen is the amount of oxygen present in a particular
water body that is available for the aquatic organisms. The amount of dissolved
oxygen doesn’t remain constant due to reasons such as population of fauna, rate
of photosynthesis by plants.
The aquatic plants such as hydrilla and others increases the amount of
dissolved oxygen and animal community decreases the dissolved oxygen levels
by utilizing as a respiratory gas.
Principle: Manganous sulphate reacts with alkali to form white precipitate of
manganous hydroxide in the presence of oxygen to get oxidized to brown colour
compound. In the strong acid medium, manganous ions released by iodide which
is equivalent to original concentration in the sample. The iodine is titrated
against the starch indicator.
Reactions:
MnSO4 + 2KOH Mn (OH)2+ K2SO4 (White solid)
This reacts with dissolved oxygen to produce brown precipitate.
Mn (OH)2 + O2 2Mn (OH)2 (Brown solid)
After the addition of the conc.H2SO4, the precipitate is dissolved forming the
manganous sulphate.
2Mn (OH)2+ 2H2SO4 Mn (SO4)2 + 3H2O
There is an important reaction between this compound and potassium iodide
previously added liberating iodine and resulting in the typical iodide colouration.
Mn (SO4)2 +KI MnSO4 + K2O4 + I2
The quantity of iodide liberated by these reactions is equivalent of the quantity
of oxygen present in the water sample. The quantity of iodine is determined by
titrating a portion of solution with a standard sodium thiosulphate solution.
2Na2S2O3 + I2 Na2S4O6 + 2NaI (Sodium tetra thionate)

1
Requirements:
Glass wares – Burette, pipette, conical flasks, measuring cylinder
Water Samples – Tap water
Reagents – Sodium thiosulphate, alkaline potassium iodide, manganous
sulphate, Conc. Sulphuric acid, starch indicator
Procedure:
1. Fill the sample in a glass Stoppard bottle of BOD of known capacity
carefully avoiding any kind of bubbling and trapping of air bubbles in the
bottle.
2. Pour 1ml of each MnSO4 and alkaline KI solutions along the inner surface
of walls.
3. Place the stopper and shake the content by inverting the bottle
repeatedly. Keep the bottles for some time to settle down the precipitate.
4. Place the BOD bottles in dark chamber for thirty minutes.
5. Take BOD bottles, add 1ml of conc.H2SO4 and shake well to dissolve the
precipitate.
6. Take 25 ml of the solution in the conical flask add 2 – 3 drops of starch as
indicator.
7. Titrate the solution against the sodium thiosulphate solution until initial
dark blue colour changes to colourless.
Observation and Calculations:
In BOD bottle: sample solution + 1ml of MnSO4 + 1 ml of KI solution + 1 ml of
Conc.H2SO4.
In Burette: 0.025N sodium thiosulphate solution
In conical flask: 25 ml of water sample
Indicator: starch
End point: Dark blue colour to colourless

2
Formula:
Amount of Dissolved Oxygen present in sample =
𝑚𝑙 × 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑜𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑡𝑒 × 8 × 1000
𝑉
𝑉2 [ 1 − 𝑉 ]
𝑉1

Here,
V = Volume of KI and MnSO4 added.
V1 = Volume of sample bottle after placing stopper.
V2 = Volume of sample titrated.

Sample 1:
Trials I II III
Final burette reading
Initial burette reading
Vol. of Na2S2O3 consumed
Mean:
Calculation:

Results: Amount of dissolved oxygen present in sample is mg/Liter.

Discussion:
Ponds and channels are fresh water bodies consists of both aquatic
plants and animals. The plants add oxygen by synthesis and animals reduces by
utilizing.
In tap water dissolved oxygen will be less as it is free from microorganisms.
In sewage water the amount of dissolved oxygen is very much less and
negligible due to presence of large number of microorganisms and absence of
any photosynthesis process.
The standard values of dissolved oxygen will be as follows.
Pond water>channel water>tap water>sewage water.

3
ESTIMATION OF CARBON DIOXIDE IN GIVEN WATER SAMPLE:
Aim: To estimate the amount of free carbon dioxide present in the given water
samples.
Introduction: Carbon dioxide present in the water in the form of dissolved gas.
The surface water normally contains less than 10 ppm free CO2. Carbon dioxide
is readily soluble in the water over the temperature range of 00 to 300C.
Calcium and magnesium combine with carbon forms carbonates and
bicarbonates. Aquatic fauna, phytoplankton, large rooted plants use carbon
dioxide for photosynthesis. Plant photosynthesis some time reduce its
concentration nearly to zero, under such condition plants obtain carbon dioxide
directly from bicarbonate ion.
Principle: Free carbon dioxide can be determined by titrating the sample using
alkali contents with pH of 8.3, at this pH all the fee carbonate is converted into
bicarbonates.
Reactions:
CO2 + H2O H2CO3
Some of the carbonic acid dissociates to form ion, which is also in equilibrium.
H2CO3 H+ + HCO3 –
Some bicarbonate in dissociates to form carbonate ion.
HCO3– H+ +CO3–2
At a pH below 8.3 little carbonate ion is present in water.
Free carbon dioxide reacts with sodium carbonate or Sodium
hydroxide to form sodium bicarbonate. The completion of the reaction is
indicated by the development of pink colour, is characteristic of phenolphthalein
indicator at an equivalent to pH 8.3
Requirements:
Glass wares: Conical flasks, burette, burette stand, measuring cylinders, different
samples and pipettes.
Reagents: 0.05N sodium hydroxide, phenolphthalein indicator
Water sample: Tap water.

4
Procedure:
1. Take 25ml of water sample in a conical flask and add 2 – 3 drops of
phenolphthalein indicator.
2. If colour turns to pink, free CO2 is absent.
3. If sample remains colourless titrate it against the standard NaOH solution.
4. At the end point faint pink appears which persist for 30 sec.
Observation and Calculations:
In Burette: 0.05N sodium hydroxide solution
In conical flask: 25 ml of water sample
Indicator: Phenolphthalein indicator
End point: Colourless to faint pink
Formula:
Amount of dissolved CO2 present in given water sample =
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛×𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻×1000×44
𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

Trials I II III
Final burette reading
Initial burette reading
Vol. of NaOH consumed
Mean:
Calculation:

Results:
1. Amount of Dissolved Carbon dioxide present in sample is ppm

5
Discussion:
The amount of carbon dioxide varies for different water sources. The
occurrence of zooplankton and various microorganisms in ponds the amount of
CO2 is moderate or balanced. In sewage water amount of CO2 is maximum due
to dissolution of atmospheric carbon dioxide and addition by microorganisms.
Generally, in case of tap water, channel water and pond water the carbon
dioxide concentration is reduced compare to sewage water due to the
processing and lack of microorganisms.

ESTIMATION OF CHLORIDES IN GIVEN WATER SAMPLES:

Aim: To estimate the amount of chloride in the given water samples.
Principle: Silver nitrate reacts with chloride to form very slightly soluble white
precipitate of silver chloride. At the end point where all the chloride gets
precipitated, free silver ions reacts with chromate to form silver chromate of
reddish-brown colour.
Reactions:
AgNO3 + NaCl AgCl + NaNO3
Requirements:
Glass wares: Conical flask, burette, pipette, measuring cylinders
Reagents: 0.02N silver nitrate, 5g of potassium chromate
Water sample: Tap water
Procedure: 25 ml water sample was taken in a conical flask and 2 ml of
potassium chromate solution was added. The contents where titrated against
0.02N AgNO3, a red tint appears as reddish brown as the end point.
Observation and Calculation:
In Burette: 0.02 AgNO3 solution
In conical flask: 25ml of water sample
Indicator: Potassium chromate
End point: Reddish brown colour

6
Formula:
Amount of chloride present in the given sample
𝑀𝐵𝑅 × 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂3 × 35.5 × 1000
=
𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Here, MBR – Mean burette reading
N – Normality of AgNO3
35.5 – Equivalent weight of chloride
1000 – Calculated for 1 Liter of sample
Trials I II III
Final burette reading
Initial burette reading
Vol. of AgNO3 consumed
Mean:
Calculation:

Results:
1. Amount of chloride present in sample 1 is …………………………..mg/liter
Discussion:
Chlorides are the important minerals of soil which will be in the form of metal
chloride like calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, potassium chloride etc….
the chlorides can readily dissolve in water when comes in contact with it.
In ponds and channels the water quality is affected by CO2, pH,
alkalinity, hardness and other factors.
In tap water contents of chloride shows relatively moderate amount as
chlorine is used for the purpose of purification, as the water get treated the level
does not get exceed.
In sewage water the pollutants are high due to presence of effluents
from industries, hospitals, house hold wastes and other harmful sources hence
the amount of chloride is maximum.

7
ESTIMATION OF TOTAL HARDNESS IN GIVEN WATER SAMPLE:
Aim: To estimate the total hardness in the given water sample by EDTA titration
method.
Principle: Hardness is generally caused by calcium ions magnesium ions,
polyvalent ions, metals like strontium ion, aluminum, manganese, zinc etc…. The
hardness is generally measured as the concentration of only calcium and
magnesium ions which are far higher in quantity over other hardness producing
ions.
Calcium and magnesium ions formed a complex of wine-red colour with
Eriochrome black –T at pH of 10. The EDTA has good and stronger affinity
towards Ca2+ and Mg2+.
Requirements:
Glass wares – Beakers, pipette, burette, conical flask, measuring cylinder.
Reagents – Standard EDTA solution (0.01N), Ammonium buffer solution,
Erichrome Black – T
Water samples – Tap water
Procedure:
1. 25 ml of sample was taken in a conical flask and add 1 to 2 ml of ammonium
buffer solution.
2. Add about 100-200 mg of Erichrome black – T powder and shake the content
until the powder gets dissolved and wine-red colour appears.
3. Titrate the content against EDTA solution when colour turns from wine red to
purple, note down the reading which is the end point of Ca2+ ion.
4. Continue the titration from purple colour note down the reading when colour
turns to blue which is the end point of Mg2+ ion.
5. From wine red colour to blue colour gives the total hardness.
Observation and Calculation:
In Burette: 0.01 M EDTA
In conical flask: 25ml of water sample + 1 ml of buffer solution
Indicator: Erichrome black – T
End point: Wine red to blue colour

8
Formula:
𝑀𝐵𝑅 × 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 × 40 × 1000
For Calcium =
𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

𝑀𝐵𝑅 × 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 × 24.3 × 1000

For Magnesium =
𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

𝑀𝐵𝑅 × 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 ×100 × 1000

For Total hardness =
𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

Trials Ca2+ Mg2+ TH Ca2+ Mg2+ TH Ca2+ Mg2+ TH

Final burette reading

Initial burette reading

Difference

Mean for Ca2+

Mean for Mg2+
Mean for TH

𝑀𝐵𝑅 × 𝑁𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 × 40 × 1000

For Calcium =
𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

𝑀𝐵𝑅 × 𝑁𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 × 24.3 × 1000

For Magnesium =
𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

𝑀𝐵𝑅 × 𝑁𝑜𝑓 𝐸𝐷𝑇𝐴 ×100 × 1000

For Total hardness =
𝑚𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

9
Discussion:
Water hardness is a traditional measure of the capacity of water to
precipitate soap. Hardness of water is not a specific constituent but is a
variable and complex mixture of anions and cations. It is caused by dissolved
polyvalent metal ions. In fresh water the hardness causing ions are calcium and
magnesium which precipitate soap, other polyvalent cations also precipitate
soap but often forms complex sources.
Total hardness is defined as the sum of calcium and magnesium concentration
and both are expressed as CaCO3 in mg/l.

ESTIMATION OF TOTAL ALKALINITY OF WATER:

Aim: To estimate the total alkalinity in the given water sample.
Introduction: Total alkalinity is the total concentration of bases in water is
expressed as parts per million (ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/l) of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). These bases are usually bicarbonates (HCO3) and carbonates
(CO3), and they work as a buffer system that checks drastic changes in PH. For
instance, inverters with low alkalinity, PH might fluctuate from 6 or lower to as
high as 10 or above; while in high alkalinity waters, PH might fluctuate from about
7.5 to 8.5.
Principle: The measurement of total alkalinity is based upon simple acidimetric
titration with the use of varied indicators, which function in pH range (above 8.2)
or in acidic range (below 6.0). In a water sample analysis,
Total alkalinity= carbonate + bicarbonate alkalinity
Reagents required:
Methyl Orange indicator: 0.5% solution in 95% ethanol.
Phenolphthalein indicator: 0.25% solution in 60% ethanol.
Standard sulphuric acid (0.02N): 2.8 ml of H2SO4 (concentrated) is diluted to 1l
with distilled water. Further 200 ml of this solution is diluted to 1l to get 0.02 (N)
H2SO4. The solution is standardized.
Procedure:
1. 10 ml of water sample is taken into a conical flask.
2. 2-3 drops of phenolphthalein is added a, pink colour appears indicating the
presence of carbonate. This is a titrated with 0.02 (N) H2SO4 until the colour

10
disappears this is phenolphthalein indicator end point, where alkali carbonate is
converted to bicarbonate. The titrant amount is designated as 'V1' ml.
3. Next in the colourless solution, 1 to 2 drops of methyl orange indicator is
added and titration is continued until colour changes from yellow to Rose Red.
The titrant amount is designated as 'V2' ml.
The volume of the acid required with phenolphthalein is equal to 1/2 of
CaCO3 and the rest of acid required in the methyl orange is equal to rest of CaCO3
and whole of Ca (HCO3)2.
Results:
Titration of water for estimation of total alkalinity in presence of indicators
No. of Titrant volume with Mean Titrant volume Mean Mean [V2 ml - (V1 ml)]
trial phenolphthalein with methyl
(V1 ml) (V2 ml)
indicator (V1 ml) orange indicator
(V2 ml)

1
2
3
Calculation:
No. Total alkalinity (TA) = [HCO3-] + 2[CO3--] or
TA = Phenolphthalein alkalinity + methyl orange alaknality
1. Volume of acid required to neutralize 1/2 CaCO3 in 100 ml = V1 ml.
2. Volume of acid required to neutralize whole CaCO3 in 100 ml = 2V1 ml.
3. Volume of acid required to neutralize whole Ca (HCO3)2 and 1/2 CaCO3 = V2
ml.
4. Volume of acid required to neutralize whole Ca(HCO3)2 = (V2 ml - V1 ml).
Concentration of CO3- equivalent to CaCO3
i.e. 100 ml of sample = 2V1ml of 0.02(N) H2SO4
So, 1000 ml of sample = (2V1 x 0.02 x 1000 x f)/ 100
= f x 2V1 x 0.2 ml of H2SO4(N)
= f x 2V1 x 0.2 ml of CaCO3(N)

11
Now 1000 ml of CaCO3(N) contains 50 g of CaCO3 i.e. 1 ml of CaCO3(N) contains 50/1000 = 50
g of CaCO3.
Therefore, 0.4 V1f ml of CaCO3(N) contains 50 x 0.4 V1f = 20 V1f mg.
Thus, the carbonate concentration is 20 V1f mg.
Concentration of bicarbonates as CaCO3 equivalent:
100 ml of sample is equivalent to (V2 - V1) ml of 0.02(N) H2SO4
i.e. 1000 ml of sample
= (V2 - V1)f x 0.02 x 1000/100
= 0.2 (V2 - V1)f ml H2SO4(N)
= 0.2 (V2 - V1)f ml CaCO3(N)
1000 ml of CaCO3 (N) contains 50 g of CaCO3
1 ml of CaCO3 (N) contains 50/1000 = 50 g of CaCO3
i.e. 0.2 (V2 - V1)f ml CaCO3 (N) contains
50 x 0.2 x (V2 - V1)f = 10 x (V2 - V1)f mg
Thus bicarbonate concentration = 10 x (V2 - V1)f mg/l

DETERMINATION OF SALINITY OF WATER:

Aim: To determine the salinity in the given water sample.
Principle: Amount of inorganic compounds in water when expressed in grams/kilo or in ppt
(%) is known as salinity. It is determined by estimation of precipitable halide halogens in 10
ml of water. Such estimation is done through the titration with silver nitrate using a chromate
end point.
Reagents required:
1. 0.16N silver nitrate: 27.25g of silver nitrate dissolved in 1000 ml of distilled water.
2. Potassium chromate indicator: 5g of potassium chromate is dissolved in distilled water and
the solution is diluted to 100 ml.
Procedure:
10 ml of the sample water is taken in a conical flask and titrated against 0.16N silver
nitrate using potassium chromate indicator. The end point is indicator by persistent reddish-
brown colour.
Calculations:
The added volume of silver nitrate V ml is approximately equal to salinity (S) in parts
per thousands.

12
MEASUREMENT OF pH OF SOIL BY ELECTRIC pH METER
(POTENTIOMETRIC) METHOD:

Aim: To measurement of pH of soil.

Introduction: The term is introduced by Sorenson in 1909, it is derived from
French word Pouvior hydrogene means power of hydrogen.
The pH scale is a series of numbers which express the degree of acidity,
alkalinity or neutrality of a solution. The pH value ranges from 0 – 14, where 0
represents highest degree of acidity, 7 represents neutrality and 14 represents
highest alkalinity.
The pH of a solution has been defined as the negative logarithm of the
hydrogen ion concentration, expressed in gram mole per liter.
pH = – log10[H+] or [H+] = 10-pH
pH value of soil is an estimate of the hydrogen ion activity of the soil water
system and expresses the acidity and alaknality of soil. The pH is a very essential
property of soil as it establishes the availability of nutrients, microbial activity
and physical condition of soil.
Instrument: The instrument generally used in this method is glass electrode pH
meter with calomel reference electrode with a Salt bridge. Modern digital pH
meter at present has single (combined) electrode assembly. The instrument
having a potentiometer circuit requires to be calibrated prior to use with buffer
solutions of known pH values.
Principle: The glass electrode employs glass membrane. Across the glass
membrane develops electric potential that is proportion to the difference in pH
of 0.1M HCl filled inside the glass bulb and the pH of soil water suspension
outside the glass bulb. The KCl diffusing through the fine holes of calomel
electrode into the soil-water suspension from ionic invisible bridge between the
electrodes through which current passes. An electric potential develops
between the electrodes and the potential difference is measured through a
galvanometer. The pH dial is calibrated to the potential difference in relation to
soil pH.
Materials required:
1. Glass electrode pH meter.
2. Glass rod, weight box, balance, measuring cylinder, beakers (100ml or 50ml).

13
3. Reagents:
• Distilled water
• Standard buffer solutions of pH 4.0, 7.0 and 9.2
• CaCl2.2H2O (0.01M) – Dissolve 1.47g of CaCl2.2H2O in distilled water and
make up the volume to one litre with distilled water.
• KCl (1.0M) – Dissolve 74.6 g of KCl in distilled water and make up the
volume to one litre with distilled water.
Procedure:
1. Weigh 20 g of soil into a clean 100 ml beaker.
2. Add 40 ml of distilled water.
3. Stir the suspension several times intermittently for 30 minutes.
4. Record the pH using pH meter.
Calibration of the pH meter:
1. Warm up the instrument for 30 to 60 minutes before measuring.
2. Adjust the temperature control knob to room temperature.
3. Dip the electrode in standard buffer solutions i.e. pH of 4.0 or 7.0 and set the
buffer control knob.
4. Remove the electrode, wash with a jet of distilled water and dip the electrode
pH 9.2 or 7.0 standard buffer solution and calibrate the instrument.
5. When calibration is satisfactory, take out the electrode and rinse with distilled
water. Insert the electrode into soil suspension and record the pH.
Soil Type pH value Inference

Importance of soil pH:

• The rate of decomposition of soil minerals and organic matter is

influenced by soil pH.

14
 • Suitability of soil as a medium of plant growth and micro-organisms
depend upon the soil reaction.
• The solubility and availability of plant nutrients is governed by soil
reaction.
• Directly H and OH ions are reported to have a toxic effect on plant when
present in higher concentration.

MEASUREMENT OF SOIL TEMPERATURE:

Introduction: The temperature of the soil affects climate, plant growth, the
timing of budburst or leaf fall, the rate of decomposition of organic wastes and
other chemical, physical, and biological processes that take place in the soil.
The temperature of soil is directly linked to the temperature of the
atmosphere because soil is an insulator for heat flowing between the solid earth
and the atmosphere.
Soil temperatures can be relatively cool in the summer or relatively warm
in the winter. Soil temperatures can range from 50˚ C for near-surface summer
desert soils (warmer than the maximum air temperature) to values below
freezing in the winter.
Soil temperature has a significant effect on the budding and growth rates
of plants. For, example, as soil temperatures increase, chemical reactions speed
up and cause seeds to sprout.

Preparation of spacers for 5 cm Measurement:

1. Measure 7 cm up from the tip of the soil thermometer and mark this spot.
(Note that the location of the temperature sensor is typically 2 cm above the tip
of the thermometer.)
2. Measure the distance from the base of the soil thermometer dial to the 7 cm
mark.
3. Make a spacer by cutting a piece of plastic tubing or wood to this length. (If
using wood, drill a hole through the center of the block).
4. Insert the soil thermometer through the spacer. 7 cm of the thermometer
should be sticking out of the bottom of the spacer.
5. Label this spacer 5 cm Measurement.

15
Measurement Procedures:
• After selecting an appropriate site, a pilot hole is made to a depth of 5 cm
and the temperature probe is inserted and read after 2-3 minutes.
• The pilot hole is then deepened to 10 cm and the temperature probe is
again inserted and read after the temperature reading stabilizes.
• This process is repeated twice more within 25 cm of the original
measurement and should take a total of about 20 minutes.
• Students measure the soil temperature three times at depths of 5 cm and
10 cm.
• The three measurements taken at the same depth within 25 cm should be
similar.

ESTIMATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT OF SOIL:

Aim: To estimate the moisture content of soil.

Introduction: Water plays a very important role in soil plant growth. It forms the
most important part of the plant itself, necessary for physiological activities, acts
as a solvent and nutrients career and maintains turgidity of the plants. Actually,
water is controller of physical, chemical and biological activities in the soil.
Classification of the soil moisture:
It is known that there are number of different kinds of the soil. For
practical purpose, soil water (moisture) is classified on the basis of tension and
condition in which it exists in the soil.
Classification of soil and physical properties
Soil water Tension (pF) Bars or Potential (Mpa)
Atmosphere
Capillary matter 4.5 to 2.5 - 0.3 to - 3.1 -0.03 to - 3.1
Gravitational 2.5 to Zero Zero to - 0.3 Zero to - 0.03
water
Ground water Tension free Zero Zero
Hygroscopic 7.0 to 4.5 - 3.1 to -10000 -3.1 to -1000
water
Water of Above 7.0 Above -10000 Above -1000
Constitution or
interlayer water

16
Measurement of soil moisture through gravitation method
Principle: Soil sample is weighed and then placed in an oven at 105°C and it is
dried to constant weight. The weight difference is considered to be water
present in the soil sample.
Loss in weight
Percentage of moisture in soil = x 100
Oven dry weight of soil

Materials required:
1. Sample auger
2. Moisture cans (numbered)
3. Drying oven
4. Desiccator
Procedure:
1. The empty moisture can is weighed.
2. About 100 g of soil sample is taken from the required depth with the help of
an auger.
3. Soil sample is placed immediately in the moisture can and the can is closed to
prevent loss of moisture by evaporation.
4. Can containing the moist soil is brought to the laboratory and weighed
immediately.
5. The lids are removed and the moisture cans are placed in oven to constant
weight at 105°C. This takes approximately 46 hours.
6. The sample is allowed to cool for some time in oven. The cans are closed and
or put into a desiccator for further cooling. The closured cans are weighed with
the oven dry soil.
Observations:
Weight of empty moisture can= (x) g
Weight of moisture can + moist soil = (y) g
Weight of moisture can + oven dry soil = (z) g

17
Calculations:
Moisture content in soil= (y-z) g
Weight of oven dry soil= (z-x) g
y−z
Percentage moisture in the soil = x 100
z−x

Note: An error can result from the oxidation of organic matter.

Results:
Three such observations are taken into consideration and tabulated
below:
Means soil moisture
No. of trials % of soil moisture Means soil moisture (%)
1.
2.
3.

DETERMINATION OF ORGANIC MATTER IN SOIL:

Introduction: The term soil organic matter embraces the whole non-mineral
fraction of soil and is defined as the “organic fraction of soil including plant,
animal and microbial residues, fresh and at all stages of decomposition and the
relatively resistant soil humus”.
The role of soil organic matter in relation to soil fertility and physical
conditions are widely recognized. Organic matter is the source of plant nutrients
which are released in assimilable forms during decomposition. A major portion
nitrogen of 95 – 99%, phosphorous 33-67% and sulphur 75% in soils occur in
organic combinations which mineralize to release the nutrients in inorganic
forms to be used by plants. It serves as a reservoir of plant nutrients, promotes
water storage and regulates microbial activity.
Organic matter content of a soil is estimated by the amount of
organic carbon present in it and on an average organic matter contains 52 – 58%
organic carbon. In the subsoil, the average organic carbon amounts to 36 to 44%
and the C:N ratio is <8.

18
 In order to find out the amount of organic matter, the organic
carbon content is multiplied by 1.724 factor which is known as Van Bemmelean
factor.
Walkley and Black Method:
Principle: a known weight of soil is treated with an excess of K2Cr2O7 in the
presence of Conc. H2SO4. Reaction is facilitated by the heat of dilution of H2SO4
and the organic carbon in the soil is oxidised to CO2. The high temperature
attained by the heat of dilution reaction produced on the addition of H2SO4 is
1200C which is sufficient to oxidize the active forms of soil organic carbon.
The excess of K2Cr2O7 not reduced by organic matter is titrated back
against a standard solution of ferrous ammonium sulphate in the presence of
phosphoric acid and diphenyl amine or ferroin indicator. The organic matter
content is calculated by the amount of reduced chromate.
Reactions:
Oxidation of carbon
2 K2Cr2O7 + 8 H2SO4 + 3C 2K2SO4 + 8H2O + 3CO2
Titration reaction
2FeSO4(NH4)2SO4.12H2O + H2SO4 + O 2(NH4)2SO4 + Fe2(SO4)3 + 13H2O
Action of diphenyl amine indicator
2C6H5NH6H5 + O 2(C6H5NHC6H4) C6H5N–C6H4–C6H4N–C6H5
Diphenylamine Diphenyl benzidine (violet)
Reagents:
1. 1N potassium dichromate solution – dissolve 49.04 g of K2Cr2O7 in about 500
ml of distilled water and make up to one litre.
2. 0.5N ferrous ammonium sulphate (Mohr’s salt) – dissolve 392 g of ferrous
ammonium sulphate in distilled water and add 15 ml of Conc. Sulphuric acid and
make up to 1 litre with distilled water.
3. orthophosphoric acid (85%) or sodium fluoride.
4. Diphenylamine indicator – dissolve 0.5 g of diphenyl amine in a mixture of 20
ml water and 100 ml conc. Sulphuric acid. Store this indicator in amber coloured
bottle. Note: Ferroin indicator can be used in place of diphenyl indicator.
4. Conc. H2SO4 containing 15 g Ag2SO4per litre.

19
Apparatus:
Conical flask (500ml), measuring cylinder, burette, pipettes, asbestos sheet,
agate and mortar.
Sample material:
Grind 2 g of 2mm (8meshes/inch) sieved soil sample in agate pestle
and mortar and pass through 0.2 mm sieve (80meshes/inch).
Procedure:
1. transfer 0.5 to 1 g of 0.2 mm sample into 500 ml dry conical flask.
2. Add 10 ml of 1 N K2Cr2O7 and swirl gently to mix.
3. Add 20 ml of conc. H2SO4 (containing 1.25% Ag2SO4) and swirl the flask for 2
to 3 minutes.
4. Allow the flask to stand for 30 minutes on an asbestos sheet to complete the
reaction.
5. pour 200ml of distilled water to dilute the suspension.
6. Add 10ml of 85% H3PO4 and 1 ml of diphenylamine indicator which gives violet
colour to the suspension.
7. Titrate the contents of the flask against 0.5N ferrous ammonium sulphate
solution taken in burette till the colour changes from violet through dark blue to
bright green.
Note the reading.
Run a blank without soil in a similar manner simultaneously.
Carry out a blank titration without soil in a similar manner.
Observations:
(a) Weight of soil = w gm
(b) Volume of 0.5N ferrous ammonium sulphate solution consumed for blank
titration (BTV) = ………….ml
(c) Volume of 0.05 N Ferrous ammonium sulphate solution consumed for
sample titration (STV) = …………ml.

20
Calculations:
Walkley averaged 77% recovery of organic carbon by this method. Thus, the
correction factor is 1.33
0.5𝑁 𝐹𝐴𝑆×(𝐵𝑇𝑉−𝑆𝑇𝑉)×0.003×100×(1𝑁 𝑃𝑂𝑇𝐴𝑆𝐼𝑈𝑀 𝐷𝐼𝐶𝐻𝑅𝑂𝑀𝐴𝑇𝐸
=
𝑊𝐸𝐼𝐺𝐻𝑇 𝑂𝐹 𝑆𝑂𝐼𝐿 𝑆𝐴𝑀𝑃𝐿𝐸 (𝑔)

The calculated value is called “Q”

% of organic carbon in soil (corrected) = Q × 1.33
The calculated value is called “R”
The percentage of organic matter (OM) in soil = R × 1.724
Total N = % OM × 0.05
OM = Total N × 20

21
COLLECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF FLORA AND FAUNA OF POND
ECOSYSTEM:
Ponds are natural or man-made ‘standing’ water bodies with relatively
2
slow flow, distinguished from lakes by their smaller size (typically <20,000 m )
and shallow depth (< 8 m) allowing for the development of plants across the
entire area of the pond. Despite their small size, collectively pond systems are
exceptionally richer in biodiversity than other freshwater bodies (e.g. reservoirs,
lakes, streams), constituting biodiversity ‘hot spots’ within a landscape. Ponds
can support a diversity of fauna through provision of a range of habitats in a
relatively small area.

Collection of Fauna:
• Benthic invertebrates and small fishes are sampled with a dredge (mesh
bag attached to a metal frame mounted on runners) or sled which is
dragged across the bottom of the pond by a rope.
• The macroinvertebrates of pond are collected by using a sweep net have
a coarse mesh bag of about 0.25 – 2.0 mm diameter mesh size attached
to a pole.
• Some macroinvertebrates may caught in bait traps made of plastic mesh
about 3 – 5 cm sewn into a cylinder. Here one or both ends of the cylinder
is stitched truncated cones through which animals can enter but not
escape.
• The debris and sediment will be removed by washing through
progressively finer endecott sieves.
• The animals are removed from the samples by using fine forceps, care
should be taken not to damage specimens.
Sample Examination:
• A various sized Petri dishes or shallow plastic trays are used for holding
specimens.
• A hand lens or magnifying glass may be suitable for larger specimens.
• Dissecting microscopes and light microscopes are used for smaller
specimens.
• In some cases, it may be necessary to dissect some animals to obtain a
better view of particular body part or appendage.
Sample Preservation:
• Gloves need to be worn while handling preservatives.
• Formalin (2-5%) or alcohol (70-80% ethanol/methanol/isopropanol) ae
most commonly used.

22
 • For preservation to be kept for extended period, addition of glycerol is
recommended. It protects against loss of specimens against dying
process.
• Preserved samples are kept in a leak proof glass or plastic containers.
Identification:
• An arbitrary system of classification has been adopted by biologists to
name the different types of animals according to their degree of similarity
or likeness to each other.
• This system comprises several hierarchical levels of classification from
kingdom at the broadest level through to the species which is
fundamental unit.

23
Collection of Flora:
• Aquatic plants can be collected using a long-handled hook or nets or by
hand.
• For quantification of sample in a given area the floating or sinking
quadrants of known size (1m×1×0.5m) made up of PVC pipes or wood
are used.
• These quadrants are placed to mark the area from which sample is to be
taken.

Identification: Pond plants can be broadly categorized into five main types,
based on their growth habits and preferred growing conditions:

1. Floating Plants: As the name suggests, floating plants drift on the water
surface with their roots submerged, deriving nutrients directly from the water.
These plants provide shade and shelter for aquatic life and help control algae.
Examples include water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), duckweed (Lemna
spp.), and water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes).

2. Submerged Plants: Also known as oxygenating plants, submerged plants

grow entirely underwater with their roots anchored in the substrate. They play
a vital role in oxygenating the water, absorbing excess nutrients, and providing
habitat for fish and other aquatic creatures. Examples include hornwort
(Ceratophyllum demersum), anacharis (Elodea spp.), and cabomba (Cabomba
spp.).

3. Marginal Plants: These plants grow along the pond edges, in shallow water
or damp soil, with their roots submerged or in moist soil. Marginal plants add
texture, colour, and vertical interest to the pond perimeter and help stabilize
the shoreline. Examples include pickerel weed (Pontederia cordata), marsh
marigold (Caltha palustris), and iris (Iris spp.).

4. Bog Plants: Bog plants prefer moist, waterlogged soils and are typically
found in the shallow areas of ponds or in bog gardens. They contribute to the
overall pond ecosystem and provide attractive foliage and flowers. Examples
include carnivorous plants like pitcher plants (Sarracenia spp.), sundews

5. Moisture-Loving Plants: These plants thrive in consistently damp soil but do

not require their roots to be submerged. They are often planted near the
pond's edge or in areas with high soil moisture content. Examples include
astilbe (Astilbe spp.), ferns (various species), and Japanese primrose (Primula
japonica).

24
COLLECTION, PRESERVATION AND ESTIMATION OF
ZOOPLANKTONS.
Zooplankton (Greek: Zoon, animal; planktos, wandering) are
myriads of diverse floating and drifting animals with limited power of
locomotion. Majority of them are microscopic, unicellular or multicellular forms
with size ranging from a few microns to a millimetre or more.
Zooplankton encompass an array of macro and microscopic
animals and comprise representatives of almost all major taxa particularly the
invertebrates. The herbivorous zooplankton feed on phytoplankton and in turn
constitute an important food item to animals in higher trophic level including
fish.
The zooplankton are ubiquitous. They occur in the pelagic
environment either as adults (holoplankton) or eggs and larvae (meroplankton).
The most characteristic feature is their variability over space and time in any
aquatic ecosystem.
The zooplankton play an important role to study the faunal bio-
diversity of aquatic ecosystems. They feed on phytoplankton and facilitate the
conversion of plant material into animal tissue and in turn constitute the basic
food for higher animals including fishes, particularly their larvae.
METHODS OF COLLECTION:
The zooplankton collection involves primarily the filtration of water
by net, collecting the water in bottles/ water samplers or by pumps. The
sampling success will largely depend on the selection of a suitable gear; mesh
size of netting material, time of collection, water depth of the study area and
sampling strategy.
1. Bottles / water samplers:
• This method is used mainly for collecting smaller forms or
microzooplankton. The water is collected at the sampling site in bottles or
water samplers of 5 to 20 litre capacity.
• The sterile bottles should be preferred. Surface water can be collected by
scooping water into the bottle of suitable size. While collecting the water
samples, there should be minimum disturbance of water to prevent
avoidance reaction by plankton.
• The advantage of this method is that it is easy to operate and sampling
depths are accurately known.

25
 • The disadvantage is that the amount of water filtered is less. The bigger or
macrozooplankton and rare forms are usually not collected by this method
and so it is unsuitable for qualitative and quantitative estimations.
2. Pumps:
• The gear is normally used on board the vessel/boat. The sampling can also
be carried out from a pier.
• In this method, the inlet pipe is lowered into the water and the outlet pipe
is connected to a net of suitable mesh size.
• The net is particularly submerged in a tank of a known volume. This
prevents damage to the organisms.
• The zooplankton is filtered through the net. A meter scale on the pump
records the volume of water filtered.
• This method is used for quantitative estimation and to study the small-
scale distribution of plankton.
• The advantage of the method is that the volume of the water pumped is
known. Again, the continuous sampling is possible. However, the sampling
depth is limited to a few meters and it is difficult to obtain samples from
deeper layers.
3. Nets:
• The most common method
of zooplankton collection is
by a net.
• The amount of water filtered
is more and the gear is
suitable both for qualitative
and quantitative studies.
• The plankton nets used are
of various sizes and types.
• The different nets can
broadly be put into two
categories, the open type for
horizontal and oblique hauls
and the closed nets for
vertical samples from desired depths.
• Net is conical in shape and consists of ring (rigid/flexible and
round/square), the filtering cone and the collecting bucket for collection
of organisms.
• The collecting bucket should be strong and easy to remove from the net.

26
 • The netting of the filtering cone is made of bolting silk, nylon or other
synthetic material.
• The material should be durable with accurate and fixed pore size.
• The mesh should be square and aperture uniform. The mesh size of the
netting material will influence the type of zooplankton collected by a net.
• The nets with finer mesh will capture smaller organisms, larval stages and
eggs of planktonic forms and fish eggs while those with coarse netting
material are used for collecting bigger plankton and fish larvae
FIXATION:
• After the sampling, the fixation of samples should be carried out, as early
as possible, at least within 5 minutes after the collection to avoid damage
to animal tissue by bacterial action and autolysis.
• The most common fixing and preserving reagent is 4-5% formaldehyde
(formalin). It is the cheapest fixative and the zooplankton samples can be
stored for number of years. Analytical grade formalin should be used for
fixation.
• The other fixatives occasionally used are ethanol, picric acid, acetic acid
etc.
• The concentrated formalin should be diluted with fresh water, seawater
or preferably with water from the sampling area to avoid undesirable
osmotic effects.
• The dilution is in the ratio of 1 part formalin and 9 parts of fresh water or
seawater.
• The pH of the fixative should be around 8.0. It is advisable to use buffered
formalin.
• The commonly used buffers are borax (sodium tetraborate) or
hexamethyene teteramine. The buffers are added in an amount of 200 g
to one litre of concentrated formalin.
• The fixative usually renders the zooplankton body tissues hard and brittle.
The additives viz. propylene phenoxetal and propylene glycerol (2 to 5 %)
are added to fixatives for flexibility of specimens, resistance to bacteria
and moulds.
PRESERVATION:
• Allow 10 days as the minimum fixation periods.
• After fixation, the zooplankton are transferred and stored in airtight
containers with sufficient quantity of preservative.
• While transferring, due care should be taken so that no part of the
zooplankton sample is lost.

27
• The buffered formalin (4 to 5%) is mostly used both as fixative and as the
preservative.
• The other preservative used is 70% ethanol or 40% isopropanol.
• Glycerine is often added to formalin to prevent shrinkage of specimens,
drying of the material and to facilitate retaining colours of zooplankters.
• For better shelf life of the zooplankton samples, the preservative should
be changed within the first 6 months.
• It would be better to store the preserved zooplankton samples in well-
ventilated room at temperature less than 25°C.
• The samples should be kept in the wide mouth glass jars.
• A good quality preprinted labels, on which the collector’s name, fixative
and preservative used and other field information are written should be
put into the jars for ready reference at the time of sample analysis.

28
WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION:
Wildlife comprises all living organisms in their natural habitats
which neither cultivated/domesticated nor tamed. India has a rich heritage of
wildlife. It had a long history and tradition of conservation. The Vedas includes
hymns in praise of animals and the Indian mythology is full of references to
several animal-like gods.
Importance of wildlife – ecological balance, gene bank, plant propagation,
cleaning of environment, prevention of soil erosion, scientific importance,
economically beneficial, animal sporting, aesthetic values, ethical reasons.
Conservation of wildlife – the management of human use of the biosphere so
that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generation and to
maintain its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations.
The protected areas include national parks, sanctuaries, biosphere
reserves, safari parks, zoological garden, zoological park, sanctum sanctorum.

DEMONSTRATION OF FIELD EQUIPMENTS USED IN WILDLIFE CENSUS:

1.COMPASS:
It is an instrument used for navigation and orientation that shows
direction relative to geographic cardinal points. It shows the directions north,
south, east and west.
The needle is called the compass rose and is
aligned with the directions.
1. magnetic compass:
It functions as a pointer to magnetic north.
They make use of magnetic declination which is the angle
between true north and magnetic north used in
navigation.

29
2. Non – magnetic compass:
It has two sensors that utilise two principles
such as gyrocompass and GPS compass.
A gyrocompass finds true north by using a
fast-spinning wheel and fiction forces. They are used in
ships. GPS receivers, use two or more antennae mounted
separately and blending data. They accurately determine
positions and are used in marine and aviation
application.
3. Magnetic modern compass:
It contains magnetized needle inside a capsule filled with liquid
(oil/spirit/alcohol). This reduces oscillation time and increase stability.

2. BINOCULARS:
Binoculars are hand held optical instruments that provide a
magnified stereoscopic view of distant objects, consisting of two similar
telescopes one for each eye and mounted on a single thumbwheel controls the
focus and each eye piece has a reflecting prism that re-invert an inverted image.
They are of two forms:
1. Roof Prism – it employs
complex light gathering that
bounces light waves in a series of
pathway till it exists the eyepieces.
As a result, they achieve greater
magnification and brighter
images.
2. Porro Prism – they have a classic
V- shaped body with a very
narrow distance between the
lenses and eyepiece. They send
light waves in a quick horizontal
way marking their depth
perception and field of view higher.

30
3.RANGE FINDER:
It is an instrument
used to measure the distance
from it to a selected point or
object. The process is called
ranging. A basic model is the
optical range finder and there
are two types.
1. Coincidence range finder – It
is chiefly used in the camera
and for survey. It consists of an
arrangement of lenses and
prism at each end of a tube
with a single piece in the
centre. It allows the correlation
of parallax and the range is determined by measuring the angles formed by the
line of sight at each end of the tube. Smaller the angles greater the distance and
vice versa.
2. Stereoscopic range finder – It allows the same principle but has two eyepieces.
This makes it more effective for sighting objects, especially those working.
A non-optical ranging device determines the distance to a target by
measuring the time it takes the radio pulses to reach the object, bounce off and
return.
3. Laser range finder – it measures distance by timing the interval between the
transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves and employs visible or
infrared light.
4.GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
(GPS):
It’s a worldwide radio-
navigation system formed from a
constellation of 24 satellites and their
ground station. It is a method of
working out exact location and track
movement. There are two types.
Passive GPS system – it will monitor
the location and store data based on

31
certain events. It has an internal memory card from which data can be
downloaded for analysis.
Active GPS system – it is also called real time system and automatically sends
information to a central tracking portal in real time. It is particularly useful in
security activities.

5.CAMERA TRAP:
It is method for capturing wild
animals on films and is used in ecological
research. A camera trap is a remotely
activated camera equipped with motion or
infrared sensors. They are of following types.
1. Traditional camera trap – They used a one
trigger function and contained a film that had
to be developed.
2. Non-triggered camera trap – They either run
continuously or at specific time intervals.
3. Modern camera traps – It is a digital camera
connected to an infrared sensor that can sense
warm, moving animals.
Camera traps cause little or no
disturbance to wild life, but provide permanent and verified records of animals.

32
6.SPOTTING SCOPE:
• A spotting scope is a long, high-powered telescope with a large eyepiece
that is generally used during hunting, photography, bird watching and
astrophotography.
• Spotting scopes can be used
with binoculars, cameras, or
telephoto lenses to raise the
magnification of any one or
several of these devices with the
same optical zoom.
• The spotting scopes eyepiece
will then magnify the entire field
of view as if it was a single lens
with a magnification.
• It is highly effective in low light
and functions well during
daytime hours.
• A spotting scope’s greatest asset
is its ability to zoom in on
objects far from viewer.
• Many models have an attached tripod to make it even easier to view
objects at a great distance. Most models are equipped with the option to
view both horizontally and vertically.
• There are two basic types of spotting scopes: a mono-ocular and a bi-
ocular. Both work the same way, with a large single eyepiece.
Straight Spotting Scopes
• Straight spotting scopes have a one-piece lens and eyepiece assembly.
Here user’s eye is very close to the centre of the eyepiece. This allows for
greater magnification while viewing distant objects.
Angled Spotting Scopes
• Angled spotting scopes are great viewing devices that are angled at an
appropriate angle to make viewing the image easier when using both
eyes. Angled spotting scopes can also be used with a camera lens or
binoculars for more magnification.

33
IDENTIFICATION OF WILD ANIMALS:
Wildlife can sometimes be hard to spot, especially if it is
nocturnal. But the signs that animals frequent an area can be a good start to
discovering all kinds of species, from rare otters to common rabbits. In fact,
ecologists rely on animal signs to help them understand the numbers,
behaviours and movements of species. Such animal signs include calls,
burrows, leftover meals, territorial markings, fur, droppings and tracks.
1. PUGMARK:
Pugmarks are the marks which are left by different animal’s species while
they are walking, running, or moving from one place to another place. Pugmarks
refer to the footprints of most animals’ species.
Pugmarks denote “paw print” of most feline animals for e.g. like dog, cat,
etc. Herbivore footprints are called as hoofmark. Some of the herbivore animals
are like cow, goat, buffalo etc.
Mostly the footprints of tigers are termed as pugmarks.
Every animal species has different type of pugmark and this factor can be
used for their identification purpose. Through pugmark it is not only possible to
identify the animals, but also identify its sex whether it is male or female, age,
and its size is also possible to identify accurately.
It was first implemented in 1972 at all India level. The pugmark method
of estimating tiger populations is a cost effective, practical and easy to apply
method that is capable of producing fairly accurate results, provided the persons
using it are adequately trained.
IMPORTANCE:
 Pugmarks are recorded whenever an animal moves through the jungle
over suitable ground.
 Pugmarks are easy to find indirect evidence of an animals presence.
 pugmarks can be easily recorded through traces and plaster casts for
analysis at a higher level.
 If analysed skill fully and honestly, pugmarks can provide reliable data of
presence of different species in the area of study, Population of large cats
and Sex ratio of large cats.
 Identification of individual animals.

34
TIGER PUGMARK
Where to search for tiger pugmarks
• Dusty or damp ground.
• Forest paths and roads.
• Animal trails.
• River and stream beds.
• Near water holes.
• Dry nala beds.
• In the vicinity of natural salt licks.

Identification:
 A tiger’s paw consists of a pad and four toes.
 A fifth toe commonly called the dew claw, is placed high
on the front limbs only.
 Dew claws are retractable and are a part of the tiger’s
weaponry.
 Ordinarily, the dew claw does not touch the ground.
 The pad is 3-lobed at the rear end.
Measurement:
 Pugmark Length or PML is the measurement from the
tip of the farthest toe to the base of the pad along the
line of walk.
 Pugmark Breadth or PMB is the measurement
between the outer edges of the first and last toe.
 The above are measured by drawing a box (all corners
at 90degrees) touching the extreme ends of the
pugmark.
Distinguishing hind pugmark of male and female:
• The pugmark of a male almost fits into a square.
• The pugmark of a female fits into a rectangle.
• The shape of toes in a male is more rounded.
• The shape of toes in a female is elongated.

35
 • If the difference between PML and PMB is less than 1.5 cms, the pugmark
is likely to be that of a male.
• If the difference between PML and PMB is more than 1.5 cms, the
pugmark is likely to be that of a female.

MALE FEMALE

2. PELLET GROUPS:
Faecal or pellet groups are used for identification of herbivorous fauna
of wild life. This exercise will be done on the line transect that has been sampled
for encounter rate of ungulates.
Process:
1. At every 400m along the transect line of walks, the observer needs to sample
an area of 2m × 20m perpendicular to the transect for quantifying ungulate
pellets.
2. The plot is placed alternately to the right and left at every 400m.
3. All pellets need to counted where they occur in large numbers.
4. In areas where small livestock like sheep and goat are known to be grazed it is
possible that pellets of these can be confused with wild ungulates. In such areas,
a mention need to be made that domestic ungulates graze that area.
5. In the last row of data sheet, the observer needs to be report if ungulate or
animal listed in the data sheet occur in the sample beat to best of the knowledge
irrespective of its pellets during recorded in plots.

36
BLACK BUCK FOUR HORNED ANTELOPE SPOTTED DEER

3. SCATES:
• Scat, also called droppings, poop, dung, pellet, faeces and excreta of
carnivorous fauna of wildlife.
• Scat analysis involves careful examination of the shape, size, colour,
consistency, and even odour of the faecal matter.
• The helped us to know about essential knowledge about animal diet,
population dynamics, health assessment, and even genetic components.
• It is a non-invasive method, which means that minute details can be
uncovered from scat without disrupting or manipulating an animal’s
behaviour.
• The procedure involves collecting samples from stools left behind by
animals in the wild.
• Clues can also be found in materials consumed by the animal, such as
claws, hair feathers, seeds, scales, and bones.

37
 BENGAL TIGER LEOPARD JACKAL

4. HOOF MARKS:
• Ungulates have a split hoof with two toes that leave a distinct
imprint. They can be divided into two main groups based on the
shape of their toes.
• One group has toes that curve forming a heart-shaped print.
• while the other has toes that are rounded and leave a round or
even square-shaped print.
• Hooved animals leave staggered tracks as they are diagonal
walkers.

38
Moose Tracks:
• Moose are among the
largest of the hooved
animals and have two
toes that curve together
into a point forming
almost a heart shape
print.
• They are heavy and sink
down deep into snow
allowing the dew claws to sometimes appear on the track.
• Their tracks measures 5 – 7” long, about the size of human hand.

Deer Tracks:
• Deer have two toes that
curve sharply together
forming almost a heart
shape print.
• The tracks are smaller in
size, measuring 2 – 3.5”.

Elk Tracks
• Toes are rounder an not
sharply tapered at the
tips.
• Dew claw sometimes
appear in deep snow or
when the elk is galloping.
• The tracks measure 3 – 5”.
•

39
5. ANTLERS:
• Members of the deer family (which includes caribou, deer, elk, and
moose) have antlers.
• Antlers are solid bone and are shed annually. They are one of the fastest
growing natural materials in the world.
• Antlers grow from the tip while horns grow from the base. Except for
caribou, only male deer have antlers.
• Antler’s identification usually relies on size measurement and overall
shape of complete antlers which still attach to the skull.
• It is difficult to identify shed, broken or individual antler.

REINDEER MANITOBAN ELK

MOOSE

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 7. NEST:
Babbler:
• Grey-crowed and White-browed Babblers live and breed in communal
nests and have multiple decoy nests around the breeding area, perhaps
because these colonial birds do practice nest building until it is their turn
to establish a real nest with eggs in it.
• They are a social bird, living in groups
of two to fifteen birds, and most
members of the group will help to build
nests and rob each other’s nests for
building materials.
• A roosting nest (a much larger nest for
resting and used by the whole group)
and a brood nest (for the breeding
female) is built, usually in the fork of a tree 4-7metres high, and will be
renovated and reused every year.
• Nests are built with sticks and are dome shaped with a hood and landing
platform for the entrance tunnel.

Fairy-Wren:
• Nests are an oval or round shaped dome,
constructed of loosely woven grasses and
spider web, with an entrance to one side.
• Nests are often placed in a low shrub close
to the ground, well-concealed in thick and
often thorny vegetation, such as species of
Hakea.

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