HISTORY OF INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1

The history of mathematics in counting started with the ideas of the formulation of measurement
methods, which were used by the Babylonians and Egyptians, the introduction of the pattern recognition
in number counting in pre-historical time, the organization concepts of different shapes, sizes, and
numbers by the pre-historical people, and the natural phenomenon observance and universe behaviors.
This chapter will discuss the evolution of mathematics from the ancient times to the current time. It also
helps students to understand the origin/history of mathematics and its application in the early times.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

 Define basic concepts;
 Discuss the brief origin/history of mathematics;
 Discuss the origin of numbers;
 Determine the evolution of counting in the ancient times.

LEARNING CONTENT

LESSON 1: BRIEF HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS

The origins of numbers are cloaked in mystery. But, it’s safe to say that as civilization
advanced, numbers advanced with it; and it is equally safe to say that civilization could not have
advanced without it.
The history of mathematics is nearly as old as humanity itself. Since antiquity, mathematics
has been fundamental to advances in science, engineering, and philosophy. It has evolved from
simple counting, measurement and calculation, and the systematic study of the shapes and motions
of physical objects, through the application of abstraction, imagination and logic, to the broad,
complex and often abstract discipline we know today.
The first method of counting has been argued to be counting on fingers. This evolved into
sign language for the hand-to-eye-to-elbow communication of numbers which, while not writing,
gave way to written numbers. From the notched bones of early man to the mathematical advances
brought about by settled agriculture in Mesopotamia and Egypt and the revolutionary
developments of ancient Greece and its Hellenistic empire, the story of mathematics is a long and
impressive one.
The East carried on the baton, particularly China, India and the medieval Islamic empire,
before the focus of mathematical innovation moved back to Europe in the late Middle
Ages and Renaissance. Then, a whole new series of revolutionary developments occurred in 17th
Century and 18th Century, Europe, setting the stage for the increasing complexity and abstraction
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 1
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

of 19th Century mathematics, and finally the audacious and sometimes devastating discoveries of
the 20th Century. INTRODUCTION

Tallies made by carving notches in wood, bone, and stone were used for at least forty
thousand years. These tally marks may have been used for counting elapsed time, such as
numbers of days, lunar cycles or keeping records of quantities, such as of animals.
The earliest direct evidence of counting is two animal bones which show clear group marks. One is a
35, 000-year-old baboon’s thigh bone from the Lebombo Mountains of Africa and the other is a 33, 000-year-
old wolf bone from Czechoslovakia. The wolf bone found at the ancient human campsite is especially
intriguing. It was notched with fifty-five marks, grouped in eleven sets of five marks each.
Lebombo bone is a baboon fibula with incised markings discovered in the Lebombo
Mountains located between South Africa and Eswatini. The bone is between 44, 230 and 43,
000 years old, according to two dozen radiocarbon datings. According to The Universal Book of
Mathematics, the Lebombo bone's 29 notches suggest "it may have been used as a lunar phase
counter, in which case African women may have been the first mathematicians, because keeping
track of menstrual cycles requires a lunar calendar." But the bone is clearly broken at one end, so
the 29 notches can only be a minimum number. Furthermore, in the many more notched bones
since found there is no consistent notch tally, many being in the 1–10 range.
Ishango bone is an artifact with a sharp piece of quartz affixed to one end, perhaps for
engraving. It was first thought to be a tally stick, as it has a series of what has been interpreted
as tally marks carved in three columns running the length of the tool. But some scientists have
suggested that the groupings of notches indicate a mathematical understanding that goes beyond
counting. It has also been suggested that the scratches might have been to create a better grip on
the handle or for some other non-mathematical reason. It is believed that the bone is more than
20,000 years old. The Ishango bone (fibula of a baboon) was found in the Congo region of Africa
in 1960. The line cut into the bone are too uniform to be accidental. Archeologist believe the lines
were tally marks to keep track of something, but what that was isn’t clear.
LEBOMBO BONE

PRE-HISTORIC MATHEMATICS
Our prehistoric ancestors would have had a general sensibility about amounts, and would
have instinctively known the difference between, say, one and two antelopes. But the intellectual
leap from the concrete idea of two things to the invention of a symbol or word for the abstract idea
of “two” took many ages to come about.

Pre-dynastic Egyptians and Sumerians represented geometric designs on their artifacts as

early as the 5th millennium BCE, as did some megalithic societies in northern Europe in the 3rd
millennium BCE or before. But this is more art and decoration than the systematic treatment of
figures, patterns, forms and quantities that has come to be considered as mathematics.
Mathematics proper initially developed largely as a response to bureaucratic needs when
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 2
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

civilizations settled and developed agriculture – for the measurement of plots of land, the taxation of
individuals, etc – and this first occurred in the Sumerian and Babylonian civilizations of
Mesopotamia (roughly, modern Iraq) and in ancient Egypt.
According to some authorities, there is evidence of basic arithmetic and geometric notations
on the petroglyphs at Knowth and Newgrange burial mounds in Ireland (dating from about 3500
BCE and 3200 BCE, respectively). These utilize a repeated zig-zag glyph for counting, a system
that continued to be used in Britain and Ireland into the 1st millennium BCE.
Stonehenge, a Neolithic ceremonial and astronomical monument in England, which dates
from around 2300 BCE, also arguably exhibits examples of the use of 60 and 360 in the circle
measurements, a practice which presumably developed quite independently of the sexagesimal
counting system of the ancient Sumerian and Babylonians.
But numbers, and counting, didn’t truly come into being until the rise of cities. Indeed
numbers and counting weren’t really needed until then. Numbers, and counting, began about 4,000
BC in Sumeria, one of the earliest civilizations. With so many people, livestock, crops and artisan
goods located in the same place, cities needed a way to organize and keep track of it all, as it was
used up, added to or traded.
Their method of counting began as a series of tokens. Each token a man held represented
something tangible, say five chickens. If a man had five chickens he was given five tokens. When
he traded or killed one of his chickens, one of his tokens was removed. This was a big step in the
history of numbers and counting because with that step subtraction — and thus the invention of
arithmetic — was invented.
In the beginning Sumerians kept a group of clay cones inside clay pouches. The pouches
were then sealed up and secured. Then the number of cones that were inside the clay pouch was
stamped on the outside of the pouch, one stamp for each cone inside. Someone soon hit upon the
idea that cones weren’t needed at all. Instead of having a pouch filled with five cones with five
marks written on the outside of the pouch, why not just write those five marks on a clay tablet and
do away with the cones altogether? This is exactly what happened.
This development of keeping track on clay tablets had ramifications beyond arithmetic, for
with it, the idea of writing was also born. But, if you’re keeping track of your wealth with marks made
on a clay tablet what’s to stop you from making your own clay tablet and stamping in 50 marks, and
trading those 50 marks on a clay tablet for grain?
To prevent this from happening, the Sumerians needed an official method of keeping track,
and an official group of people who kept track. A select few were allowed to enter this group. They
essentially became the world’s first accountants. So a farmer may have made his own clay tablet
with 50 marks on it and claimed that this proved that he was the owner of 50 chickens, but if that
tablet didn’t have an official seal from the accountants it was worthless.
It was the Egyptians who transformed the number one from a unit of counting things to a unit
of measuring things. In Egypt, around 3,000 BC, the number one became used as a unit of
measurement to measure length. If you’re going to build pyramids, temples, canals and obelisks
you’re going to need a standard unit of measurement — and an accurate method of applying it to
real objects. What they invented was the cubit, which they considered to be a sacred measurement.
A cubit is the length of a man’s forearm, from elbow to fingertips, plus the width of his palm.
Considered sacred as they were, they had officially ordained sticks which they kept in the temples.
If copy cubits were needed they were made from one of the original cubits kept in the temple.
Thanks to this very official, very guarded and very precise unit of measurement the Egyptians were
able to create colossal buildings and monuments with wondrous accuracy.
The Egyptians were the first civilization to invent different symbols for different numbers.
They had a symbol for one, which was just a line. The symbol for ten was a rope. The symbol for a
hundred was a coil of rope. They also had numbers for a thousand and ten thousand. The
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 3
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

Egyptians were the first to dream up the number one million, and its symbol was a prisoner begging
for forgiveness, which was a person on its knees, hands upraised in the air, in a posture of humility.
Greece made further contributions to the world of numbers and counting, much of it under
the guidance of Pythagoras. He studied in Egypt and upon returning to Greece established a school
of math, introducing Greece to mathematical concepts already prevalent in Egypt. Pythagoras was
the first man to come up with the idea of odd and even numbers. To him, the odd numbers were
male; the evens were female. He is most famous for his Pythagorean Theorem, but perhaps his
greatest contribution to math was laying the groundwork for Greek mathematicians who would
follow him.
Pythagoras was one of the world’s first theoretical mathematicians, but it was another
famous Greek mathematician, Archimedes, who took theoretical mathematics to a level no one had
ever taken it to before. Archimedes is considered to the greatest mathematician of antiquity and one
of the greatest of all time. Archimedes enjoyed doing experiments with numbers and playing games
with numbers.
But as trivial as his math games may have seemed to outsiders they often led to results that
proved practical in the real world, some of which we still benefit from today. One example:
Archimedes wondered if you could turn the surface of a sphere into a cylinder, and if you did, what
would be the difference in area covered? Archimedes successfully worked this problem out, and to
him that was the end of it. But thanks to the formulas he left behind, later mapmakers were able to
turn the surface of the globe into a flat map.
Archimedes is also famous for his Archimedes’ screw, which is a circular inclined plane (a
screw) inside a tube that pumps water from one level to a higher level. He is equally famous for
inventing a method of determining the volume of an object with an irregular shape. The answer
came to him while he was bathing. He was so excited he leapt from his tub and ran naked through
the streets screaming “Eureka!” which is Greek for “I have found it.”
Archimedes made many, many other mathematical contributions, but they are too numerous
to mention here during a brief history of numbers.
The Greek’s role in mathematics ended, quite literally, with Archimedes. He was killed by a
Roman soldier during the Siege of Syracuse in 212 BC. And thus ended the golden age of
mathematics in the classical world. Under the rule of Rome, mathematics entered a dark age, and
for a couple different reasons.

MATHEMATICS IN ANCIENT MESOPOTAMIA

Until the 1920s it was commonly supposed that mathematics had its birth among the ancient
Greeks. What was known of earlier traditions, such as the Egyptian as represented by the Rhind
papyrus (edited for the first time only in 1877), offered at best a meagre precedent. This impression
gave way to a very different view as historians succeeded in deciphering and interpreting the
technical materials from ancient Mesopotamia.
Owing to the durability of the Mesopotamian scribes’ clay tablets, the surviving evidence of
this culture is substantial. Existing specimens of mathematics represent all the major eras—
the Sumerian kingdoms of the 3rd millennium BCE, the Akkadian and Babylonian regimes (2nd
millennium), and the empires of the Assyrians (early 1st millennium), Persians (6th through 4th
century BCE), and Greeks (3rd century BCE to 1st century CE). The level of competence was
already high as early as the Old Babylonian dynasty, the time of the lawgiver-
king Hammurabi (c. 18th century BCE), but after that there were few notable advances. The
application of mathematics to astronomy, however, flourished during the Persian
and Seleucid (Greek) periods.

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 4
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF
INTRODUCTION

HOW EARLY HUMAN KEPT COUNT

Early humans in the Paleolithic age likely counted animals and other everyday objects by
carving tally marks into cave walls, bones, wood or stone. Each tally mark stood for one and each
fifth mark was scored through to help keep track.

This system is fine for

small numbers, but it
doesn’t really work with
large numbers - try writing
27, 890 using tally marks.

SYMBOLS FOR NUMBERS DEVELOPED WITH EARLY CIVILIZATIONS

As early civilizations developed, they came up with different ways of writing down numbers.
Many of these systems, including Greek, Egyptian and Hebrew numerals, were essentially
extensions of tally marks. They used a range of different symbols to represent larger values. For
example, in the Ancient Egyptian system, a coiled rope represented 100 and a water lily
represented 1000.
Each symbol was repeated as many times as necessary and all were added together, so
under the Ancient Egyptian system, 300 would be shown as three coiled ropes. But even with this
system, it was still a cumbersome method for writing large numbers.

REMEMBER. . .
Mathematics, the science structure, order, and relation that has evolved from elemental
practices of counting, measuring, and describing the shapes of objects. It deals with logical
reasoning and quantitative calculation, and its development has involved an increasing degree of
idealization and abstraction of its subject matter. Since the 17th century, mathematics has been
an indispensable adjunct to the physical sciences and technology, and in more recent times it has
assumed a similar role in the quantitative aspects of the life sciences.
In many cultures—under the stimulus of the needs of practical pursuits, such as
commerce and agriculture—mathematics has developed far beyond basic counting. This growth
has been greatest in society, complex enough to sustain these activities and to provide leisure for
contemplation and the opportunity to build on the achievements of earlier mathematicians.

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 5
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF
INTRODUCTION

REFERENCES

https://www.storyofmathematics.com/
https://www.storyofmathematics.com/prehistoric.html
http://www.math.wichita.edu/history/topics/num-sys.html
https://www.deseret.com/2012/8/5/20505112/a-brief-history-of-numbers-and-counting-part-1-
mathematics-advanced-with-civilization
https://education.casio.co.uk/blog/a-brief-history-of-numbers
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/math4liberalarts/chapter/early-counting-systems/
https://www.slideshare.net/shikharmaheswari/history-numbers
https://study.com/academy/lesson/basics-of-ancient-number-systems.html
https://www.britannica.com/science/mathematics/Geometric-and-algebraic-problems
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cZH0YnFpjwU

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 6
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1
This lesson focuses on the mathematicians in the ancient times and at the same time,
focuses on their discoveries or contributions in the history of mathematics. In this lesson, students
will be able to appreciate the contributions and works of discoveries of mathematicians in the
ancient times which led to the civilization of mathematics.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

 Recognize mathematicians in the ancient times;
 Discuss the contributions/discoveries of mathematicians in the ancient times;
 Appreciate the contributions of mathematicians in the ancient times.

LEARNING CONTENT

LESSON 2: MATHEMATICIANS IN THE ANCIENT TIMES & THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS

TO THE GREAT CHAIN OF MATHEMATICS

Mathematics is an increasingly central part of our world and an immensely fascinating realm
of thought.

But long before the development of the math that gave us computers, quantum mechanics,
and GPS satellites, generations of brilliant minds — spanning from the ancient Greeks through the
eighteenth century — built up the basic mathematical ideas and tools that sit at the foundation of
our understanding of math and its relationship to the world.

Here is the list of mathematicians who contributed to the great chain of mathematics:

MAJOR
ACHIEVEMENTS/DISCOVERIES
DATE NAME NATIONALITY (CONTRIBUTIONS TO
MATHEMATICS)

35000 BCE African First notched tally bones

3100 BCE Sumerian Earliest documented counting and

measuring system

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 7
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

2700 BCE Egyptian INTRODUCTION

Earliest fully-developed base 10
number system in use

2600 BCE Sumerian Multiplication tables, geometrical

exercises and division problems

2000-1800 Egyptian Earliest papyri showing numeration

BCE system and basic arithmetic

1800-1600 Babylonian Clay tablets dealing with fractions,

BCE algebra and equations

1650 BCE Egyptian Rhind Papyrus (instruction manual in

arithmetic, geometry, unit fractions,
etc)

1200 BCE Chinese First decimal numeration system with

place value concept

1200-900 Indian Early Vedic mantras invoke powers of

BCE ten from a hundred all the way up to a
trillion

800-400 Indian “Sulba Sutra” lists several Pythagorean

BCE triples and simplified Pythagorean
theorem for the sides of a square and
a rectangle, quite accurate
approximation to √2

650 BCE Chinese Lo Shu order three (3 x 3) “magic

square” in which each row, column and
diagonal sums to 15

624-546 Thales of Miletus Greek Around 600 BC, a Greek called

BCE Thales calculated the height of
pyramid by measuring the statue.

Early developments in geometry,

including work on similar and right
triangles

Thales has been credited with the

discovery of five geometric theorems:
1. That a circle is bisected by its
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 8
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

diameter;
2. That angles in a triangle
opposite two sides of equal
length are equal;
3. That opposite angles formed by
intersecting straight lines are
equal;
4. That angle inscribed inside a
semi-circle is a right angle; and
5. That a triangle is determined if
its base and the two to angles
at the base are given.

570-495 Pythagoras of Salmos Greek Expansion of geometry, rigorous

BCE approach building from first principles,
square and triangular numbers,
Pythagoras’ theorem (Pythagorean
Theorem)

It is sometimes claimed that we owe

pure mathematics to Pythagoras, and
he is often called the first “true”
mathematician

500 BCE Hippasus of Greek Discovered potential existence of

Metapontum irrational numbers while trying to
calculate the value of √2

As a mathematician, Hippasus is the

discoverer of irrational numbers,
infinite decimals with no indefinitely
repeating digits. Furthermore, he
discovered that the ratio of a side of a
pentagon to the diagonal of a pentagon
is equal to an irrational number and
that the length of an isosceles’ triangle
shorter side is an irrational number if
the length of the two equal sides is a
whole one.

490-430 Zeno of Elea Greek Describes a series of paradoxes

BCE concerning infinity and infinitesimals

Zeno is especially known for his

paradoxes that contributed to the
development of logical and
mathematical rigor and that we are
insoluble until the development of
precise concepts of continuity and
infinity.
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 9
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF
INTRODUCTION

470-410 Greek First systematic compilation of

BCE
Hippocrates of geometrical knowledge, Lune of
Chios Hippocrates

Greek geometer who compiled the first

known work on the elements of
geometry nearly a century before
Euclid.

He was the first to write a

systematically organized geometry
textbook called Elements (Stoicheia),
that is, basic theorems, or building
blocks of mathematical theory.

460-370 Democritus Greek Developments in geometry and

BCE fractions, volume of a cone

Democritus is renowned for being a

pioneer of mathematics and geometry.
He was among the first Greek
philosophers to observe that a cone or
pyramid has one-third the volume of a
cylinder or prism with the same base
and height.

428-348 Plato Greek Platonic solids, statement of the Three

BCE Classical Problems, influential teacher
and popularizer of mathematics,
insistence on rigorous proof and logical
methods

Plato the mathematician is perhaps

best known for his identification of 5
regular symmetrical 3-dimentsional
shapes, which he maintained were the
basis for the whole universe, and
which have become known as the
Platonic Solids:
1. The TETRAHEDRON
(constructed of regular
triangles, and which for Plato
represented fire.)
2. The OCTAHEDRON
(composed of 8 triangles,
representing air).
3. The ICOSAHEDRON
(composed of 20 triangles, and
representing water).
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 10
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

4. The CUBE (composed of 6

squaresINTRODUCTION
and representing
earth).
5. The DODECAHEDRON (made
up of 12 pentagons, which
Plato obscurely described as
“the god used for arranging
the constellations on the
whole heaven”).

410-355 Eudoxus of Cnidus Greek Method for rigorously proving

BCE statements about areas and volumes
by successive approximations

Eudoxus’ major contribution to

mathematics are his “method of
exhaustion” and his “theory of
proportion”, essentially the
introduction of irrational numbers.
Before Eudoxus, mathematicians could
deal with fractions (such as 7/13),
known as rational numbers.

384-322 Aristotle Greek Development and standardization of

BCE logic (although not then considered
part of mathematics) and deductive
reasoning

He made pioneering contributions to all

fields of Philosophy and Science, he
invented the field of formal logic,
and he identified the various scientific
disciplines and explored their
relationships to each other.

300 BCE Euclid Greek Definitive statement of classical

(Euclidean) geometry, use of axioms
and postulates, many formulas, proofs
and theorems including Euclid’s
Theorem on infinitude of primes

Euclid was one of the first great Greek

mathematicians. In his classic
“Elements”, Euclid laid the framework
for our formal understanding of
Geometry.

Euclid introduced the idea of rigorous

proof. Starting with a handful of
assumed axioms about the basic
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 11
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

nature of points, lines, circles and

angles. He builds up ever more
complicated ideas in Geometry by
using pure deductive logic to combine
insights from previous results to
understand new ideas.

287-212 Archimedes Greek Formulas for areas of regular shapes,

BCE “method of exhaustion” for
approximating areas and value of π,
comparison of infinities

Archimedes was possibly the greatest

mathematician of all time.

He was able to estimate the value of

pi to remarkably precise value and
to calculate the area underneath a
parabolic curve. Archimedes
calculated pi and areas under curves
by approximating them with straight-
edged polygons, adding more and
more refined shapes so that he would
get closer and closer to the desired
value. This is strongly reminiscent of
the modern idea of an infinite limit.

276-195 Eratosthenes of Greek “Sieve of Eratosthenes” method for

BCE Cyrene identifying prime numbers

Eratosthenes measured Earth’s

circumference mathematically using
two surface points to make the
calculation. He noted that the Sun’s
rays fell vertically at noon in Syene
(now Aswan), Egypt, at the summer
solstice.

262-190 Apollonius of Perga Greek Work on geometry, especially on

BCE cones and conic sections (ellipse,
parabola, hyperbola)

Appolonius was a Greek

mathematician known as “The Great
Geometer”. His works had a very great
influence on the development of
mathematics and his famous boo
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 12
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

Conic introduced the terms

INTRODUCTION
parabola, ellipse and hyperbola.

200 BCE Chinese “Nine Chapters on the Mathematical

Art”, including guide to how to solve
equations using sophisticated matrix-
based methods

190-120 Hipparchus Greek Develop first detailed trigonometry

BCE tables

Greek astronomer and mathematician

who discovered the precession of
the equinoxes, calculated the length
of the year within 6 ½ minutes,
compiled the first known star catalog,
and made an early formulation of
trigonometry.

36 BCE Mayan Pre-classic Mayans developed the

concept of zero by at least this time

Heron (or Hero) of Greek Heron’s Formula for finding the area of
10-70 CE Alexandria a triangle from its side lengths, Heron’s
Method for iteratively computing a
square root

Heron or Hero of Alexandria was an

important geometer and worker in
mechanics who invented many
machines including a steam turbine.
His best known mathematical work is
the formula for the area of a triangle
in terms of the lengths of its sides.

90-168 CE Ptolemy (Latin in full Greek/Egyptian Develop even more detailed

Claudius Ptolemaeus) trigonometry tables

He compiled a star catalog and the

earliest surviving table of a
trigonometric function and
established mathematically that an
object and its mirror image must make
equal angles to a mirror.

200 CE Sun Tzu (Sun Zi) Chinese First definitive statement of Chinese
Remainder Theorem
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 13
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

He tried to develop a calendar and for

INTRODUCTION
this he investigated Diophantine
equations

200 CE Indian Refined and perfected decimal place

value number system

200-284 CE Diophantus of Greek Diophantine Analysis of complex

Alexandria algebraic problems, to find rational
solutions to equations with several
unknowns

Diophantus was the first Greek

mathematician who recognized
fractions as numbers; thus he
allowed positive rational numbers for
the coefficients and solutions. In
modern use, Diophantine equations
with integer coefficients for which
integer solutions sought.

220-280 CE Liu Hui Chinese Solved linear equations using a

matrices (similar to Gaussian
elimination), leaving roots unevaluated,
calculated value ofπcorrect to five
decimal places, early forms of integral
and differential calculus

In 263, he edited and published a

book with solutions to mathematical
problems presented in the famous
Chinese book of mathematics known
as The Nine Chapters on the
Mathematical Art, in which he was
possibly the first mathematician to
discover, understand and use
negative numbers.

400 CE Indian “Surya Siddhanta” contains roots of

modern trigonometry, including first
real use of sines, cosines, inverse
sines, tangents and secants

476-550 CE Aryabhata Indian Definitions of trigonometric functions,

complete and accurate sine and
versine tables, solutions to
simultaneous quadratic equations,
accurate approximation forπ(and
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 14
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

recognition thatπis an irrational

number)

Aryabhatta is among the

mathematicians who brought new
deductions and theories in
mathematics and astronomy. His
contribution to the mathematics is
unmatched and cannot be ignored, as
he was the one who deduced the
approximate value of pi, which he
found it to be 3.14.

598-668 CE Brahmagupta Indian Basic mathematical rules for dealing

with zero (+, – and x), negative
numbers, negative roots of quadratic
equations, solution of quadratic
equations with two unknowns

Brahmagupta was the one to give the

area of a triangle and the important
rules of trigonometry such as
values of the sine function. he
introduced the formula for cyclic
quadrilaterals. He also gave the value
of pi as square root of ten to be
accurate and 3 as the practical
value.

600-680 CE Bhaskara I Indian First to write numbers in Hindu-Arabic

decimal system with a circle for zero,
remarkably accurate approximation of
the sine function

780-850 CE Muhammad Al- Persian Advocacy of the Hindu numerals 1 – 9

Khwarizmi and 0 in Islamic world, foundations of
modern algebra, including algebraic
methods of “reduction” and
“balancing”, solution of polynomial
equations up to second degree

Al-Khwarizmi was a ninth-century

mathematician who created many of
the most basic techniques for how we
perform calculations. His greatest
contributions were in the realm of
developing formal, systematic ways of
doing arithmetic and solving equations.

Al-Khwarizmi's writings introduced the

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 15
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

Hindu-Arabic decimal number

system we use today to Europe, and
this system makes it far easier to add,
subtract, multiply, and divide quantities
of any size than using Roman
numerals or other non-positional
systems.

Al-Khwarizmi also came up with

systems of rules for solving basic
equations, like 4x + 8 = 2, or x 2 - 8 =
4. His work marks the beginning of
what we today understand as algebra.
Indeed, the word "algebra" comes from
part of the title of his book on solving
equations, and the word "algorithm,"
meaning a systematic set of rules used
to solve a problem, descends from al-
Khwarizmi's name.

908-946 CE Ibrahim ibn Sinan Arabic Continued Archimedes’ investigations

of areas and volumes, tangents to a
circle

600-680 CE Bhaskara I Indian First to write numbers in Hindu-Arabic

decimal system with a circle for zero,
remarkably accurate approximation of
the sine function

953-1029 Muhammad Al-Karaji Persian First use of proof by mathematical

CE induction, including to prove the
binomial theorem

966-1059 Ibn al-Haytham Persian/Arabic Derived a formula for the sum of fourth
CE (Alhazen) powers using a readily generalizable
method, “Alhazen’s problem”,
established beginnings of link between
algebra and geometry

1048-1131 Omar Khayyam Persian Generalized Indian methods for

extracting square and cube roots to
include fourth, fifth and higher roots,
noted existence of different sorts of
cubic equations

1114-1185 Bhaskara II Indian Established that dividing by zero yields

infinity, found solutions to quadratic,
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 16
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

cubic and quartic equations (including

negative and irrational solutions) and
to second order Diophantine
equations, introduced some
INTRODUCTION
preliminary concepts of calculus

1170-1250 Leonardo of Pisa Italian Fibonacci Sequence of numbers,

(Fibonacci) advocacy of the use of the Hindu-
Arabic numeral system in Europe,
Fibonacci’s identity (product of two
sums of two squares is itself a sum of
two squares)

1201-1274 Nasir al-Din al-Tusi Persian Developed field of spherical

trigonometry, formulated law of sines
for plane triangles

1202-1261 Qin Jiushao Chinese Solutions to quadratic, cubic and

higher power equations using a
method of repeated approximations

1238-1298 Yang Hui Chinese Culmination of Chinese “magic”

squares, circles and triangles, Yang
Hui’s Triangle (earlier version of
Pascal’s Triangle of binomial co-
efficients)

1267-1319 Kamal al-Din al-Farisi Persian Applied theory of conic sections to

solve optical problems, explored
amicable numbers, factorization and
combinatorial methods

1350-1425 Madhava Indian Use of infinite series of fractions to give

an exact formula forπ, sine formula
and other trigonometric functions,
important step towards development of
calculus

1323-1382 Nicole Oresme French System of rectangular coordinates,

such as for a time-speed-distance
graph, first to use fractional exponents,
also worked on infinite series

1446-1517 Luca Pacioli Italian Influential book on arithmetic,

geometry and book-keeping, also
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 17
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

introduced standard symbols for plus

INTRODUCTION
and minus

1499-1557 Niccolò Fontana Italian Formula for solving all types of cubic
Tartaglia equations, involving first real use of
complex numbers (combinations of
real and imaginary numbers),
Tartaglia’s Triangle (earlier version of
Pascal’s Triangle)

1501-1576 Gerolamo Cardano Italian Published solution of cubic and quartic

equations (by Tartaglia and Ferrari),
acknowledged existence of imaginary
numbers (based on √-1)

1522-1565 Lodovico Ferrari Italian Devised formula for solution of quartic

equations (an algebraic equation that
contains the fourth power of the
unknown quantity but no high power).

1550-1617 John Napier British Invention of natural logarithms,

popularized the use of the decimal
point, Napier’s Bones tool for lattice
multiplication

1588-1648 Marin Mersenne French Clearing house for mathematical

thought during 17th Century, Mersenne
primes (prime numbers that are one
less than a power of 2)

1591-1661 Girard Desargues French Early development of projective

geometry and “point at infinity”,
perspective theorem

1596-1650 René Descartes French Development of Cartesian coordinates

and analytic geometry (synthesis of
geometry and algebra), also credited
with the first use of superscripts for
powers or exponents

Descartes’ primary contribution to

mathematics was in the development
of Analytic Geometry. Descartes’
Analytical Geometry unified these two
fields. He pioneered the idea of
representing algebraic forms and
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 18
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

equation using geometric lines and

curves on a coordinate plane.

1598-1647 Bonaventura Cavalieri Italian “Method of indivisibles” paved way for

the later development of infinitesimal
calculus INTRODUCTION

1601-1665 Pierre de Fermat French Discovered many new numbers

patterns and theorems (including Little
Theorem, Two-Square Theorem and
Last Theorem), greatly extending
knowledge of number theory, also
contributed to probability theory

Pierre de Fermat was one of the most

brilliant and productive mathematicians
of his time, making many contributions
to the Differential and Integral
Calculus, Analytic Geometry, as well
as initiating the development of
probability theory in correspondence
with Pascal.

1616-1703 John Wallis British Contributed towards development of

calculus, originated idea of number
line, introduced symbol ∞ for infinity,
developed standard notation for
powers

1623-1662 Blaise Pascal French Pioneer (with Fermat) of probability

theory, Pascal’s Triangle of binomial
coefficients

Pascal's Triangle provides a

remarkably elegant way to calculate
binomial coefficients, a set of numbers
that are important in algebra and
elsewhere. He also developed one of
the first mechanical calculators in the
world, a distant and primitive relative of
modern computers.
Pascal was also one of the originators
of probability theory, coming from his
analysis of games of chance. Pascal's
work on the basics of probability
represented the beginning of our ability
to understand chance and risk in a
mathematical way.

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 19
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

1643-1727 Isaac Newton British Development of infinitesimal calculus

(differentiation and integration), laid
ground work for almost all of classical
mechanics, generalized binomial
theorem, infinite power series

No list of great mathematicians could

be complete without Newton. With his
invention in Calculus (an achievement
shared with our next entry),
mathematics was able for the first time
to systematically describe how things
change across space and time.
Newton developed Calculus in the
context of developing his theories in
Physics.

1646-1716 Gottfried Leibniz German Independently developed infinitesimal

calculus (his calculus notation is still
used), also practical calculating
machine using binary system
(forerunner of the computer), solved
linear equations using a matrix

Leibniz independently developed

Calculus in Germany at the same time
Newton was developing it in England,
an occasional issue of debate among
mathematicians. Leibniz, however,
came up with much of the notation for
Calculus that we continue to use up to
the present.

1654-1705 Jacob Bernoulli Swiss Helped to consolidate infinitesimal

calculus, developed a technique for
solving separable differential
equations, added a theory of
permutations and combinations to
probability theory, Bernoulli Numbers
sequence, transcendental curves

1667-1748 Johann Bernoulli Swiss Further developed infinitesimal

calculus, including the “calculus of
variation”, functions for curve of fastest
descent (brachistochrone) and
catenary curve

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 20
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

1690-1764 Christian Goldbach German Goldbach Conjecture, Goldbach-Euler

Theorem on perfect powers

1707-1783 Leonhard Euler Swiss Made important contributions in almost

all fields and found unexpected links
between different fields, proved
numerous theorems, pioneered new
methods, standardized mathematical
INTRODUCTION
notation and wrote many influential
textbooks

Euler took up the reins of Calculus

where Newton and Leibniz left off. He
introduced what is now the
Fundamental Concept of a function:
some kind of rule, or set of rules, used
to assign a number to another number.
This is a concept used in modern math
to bring together all kinds of disparate
things; linear and polynomial
equations, trigonometric concepts, and
even how we measure geometric
distance in the plan can all be
represented and understood in terms
of functions and their manipulations.

1728-1777 Johann Lambert Swiss Rigorous proof thatπis irrational,

introduced hyperbolic functions into
trigonometry, made conjectures on
non-Euclidean space and hyperbolic
triangles

1736-1813 Joseph Louis Italian/French Comprehensive treatment of classical

Lagrange and celestial mechanics, calculus of
variations, Lagrange’s theorem of finite
groups, four-square theorem, mean
value theorem

1746-1818 Gaspard Monge French Inventor of descriptive geometry,

orthographic projection

1749-1827 Pierre-Simon Laplace French Celestial mechanics translated

geometric study of classical mechanics
to one based on calculus, Bayesian
interpretation of probability, belief in
scientific determinism

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 21
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

1752-1833 Adrien-Marie French Abstract algebra, mathematical

Legendre analysis, least squares method for
curve-fitting and linear regression,
quadratic reciprocity law, prime
number theorem, elliptic functions

1768-1830 Joseph Fourier French Studied periodic functions and infinite

sums in which the terms are
INTRODUCTION
trigonometric functions (Fourier series)

1777-1825 Carl Friedrich Gauss German Pattern in occurrence of prime

numbers, construction of
heptadecagon, Fundamental Theorem
of Algebra, exposition of complex
numbers, least squares approximation
method, Gaussian distribution,
Gaussian function, Gaussian error
curve, non-Euclidean geometry,
Gaussian curvature

1789-1857 Augustin-Louis French Early pioneer of mathematical analysis,

Cauchy reformulated and proved theorems of
calculus in a rigorous manner,
Cauchy’s theorem (a fundamental
theorem of group theory)

1790-1868 August Ferdinand German Möbius strip (a two-dimensional

Möbius surface with only one side), Möbius
configuration, Möbius transformations,
Möbius transform (number theory),
Möbius function, Möbius inversion
formula

1791-1858 George Peacock British Inventor of symbolic algebra (early

attempt to place algebra on a strictly
logical basis)

1791-1871 Charles Babbage British Designed a “difference engine” that

could automatically perform
computations based on instructions
stored on cards or tape, forerunner of
programmable computer.

1792-1856 Nikolai Lobachevsky Russian Developed theory of hyperbolic

geometry and curved spaces
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 22
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

independendly of Bolyai

1802-1829 Niels Henrik Abel Norwegian Proved impossibility of solving quintic

equations, group theory, abelian
groups, abelian categories, abelian
variety INTRODUCTION

1802-1860 János Bolyai Hungarian Explored hyperbolic geometry and

curved spaces independently of
Lobachevsky

1804-1851 Carl Jacobi German Important contributions to analysis,

theory of periodic and elliptic functions,
determinants and matrices

1805-1865 William Hamilton Irish Theory of quaternions (first example of

a non-commutative algebra)

1811-1832 Évariste Galois French Proved that there is no general

algebraic method for solving
polynomial equations of degree greater
than four, laid groundwork for abstract
algebra, Galois theory, group theory,
ring theory, etc

1815-1864 George Boole British Devised Boolean algebra (using

operators AND, OR and NOT), starting
point of modern mathematical logic, led
to the development of computer
science

1815-1897 Karl Weierstrass German Discovered a continuous function with

no derivative, advancements in
calculus of variations, reformulated
calculus in a more rigorous fashion,
pioneer in development of
mathematical analysis

1821-1895 Arthur Cayley British Pioneer of modern group theory, matrix

algebra, theory of higher singularities,
theory of invariants, higher dimensional
geometry, extended Hamilton’s
quaternions to create octonions

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 23
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

1826-1866 Bernhard Riemann German Non-Euclidean elliptic geometry,

Riemann surfaces, Riemannian
geometry (differential geometry in
multiple dimensions), complex
manifold theory, zeta function,
Riemann Hypothesis

German mathematician whose

profound and novel approaches to
the study of Geometry laid
mathematical foundation Albert
Einstein’s Theory of Relativity. He also
made important contributions to the
Theory of Functions, Complex
Analysis and Number Theory.

1831-1916 Richard Dedekind German Defined some important concepts of

set theory such as similar sets and
infinite sets, proposed Dedekind cut
(now a standard definition of the real
numbers)

1834-1923 John Venn British Introduced Venn diagrams into set

theory (now a ubiquitous tool in
probability, logic and statistics)

1842-1899 Marius Sophus Lie Norwegian Applied algebra to geometric theory of

differential equations, continuous
symmetry, Lie groups of
transformations

1845-1918 Georg Cantor German Creator of set theory, rigorous

treatment of the notion of infinity and
transfinite numbers, Cantor’s theorem
(which implies the existence of an
“infinity of infinities”)

Russian-born mathematician who can

be considered as the founder of set
theory and introduced the concept
of infinite numbers with his
discovery of cardinal numbers. He
also advanced the study of
Trigonometric Series.

1848-1925 Gottlob Frege German One of the founders of modern logic,

first rigorous treatment of the ideas of
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 24
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

functions and variables in logic, major

contributor to study of the foundations
of mathematics

1849-1925 Felix Klein German Klein bottle (a one-sided closed

surface in four-dimensional space),
Erlangen Program to classify
geometries by their underlying
symmetry groups, work on group
theory andINTRODUCTION
function theory

1854-1912 Henri Poincaré French Partial solution to “three body

problem”, foundations of modern chaos
theory, extended theory of
mathematical topology, Poincaré
conjecture

1858-1932 Giuseppe Peano Italian Peano axioms for natural numbers,

developer of mathematical logic and
set theory notation, contributed to
modern method of mathematical
induction

1861-1947 Alfred North British Co-wrote “Principia Mathematica”

Whitehead (attempt to ground mathematics on
logic)

1862-1943 David Hilbert German 23 “Hilbert problems”, finiteness

theorem, “Entscheidungsproblem“
(decision problem), Hilbert space,
developed modern axiomatic approach
to mathematics, formalism

1864-1909 Hermann Minkowski German Geometry of numbers (geometrical

method in multi-dimensional space for
solving number theory problems),
Minkowski space-time

1872-1970 Bertrand Russell British Russell’s paradox, co-wrote “Principia

Mathematica” (attempt to ground
mathematics on logic), theory of types

1877-1947 G.H. Hardy British Progress toward solving Riemann

hypothesis (proved infinitely many
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 25
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

zeroes on the critical line), encouraged

new tradition of pure mathematics in
Britain, taxicab numbers

1878-1929 Pierre Fatou French Pioneer in field of complex analytic

dynamics, investigated iterative and
recursive processes

1881-1966 L.E.J. Brouwer Dutch Proved several theorems marking

breakthroughs in topology (including
fixed point theorem and topological
invariance INTRODUCTION
of dimension)

1887-1920 Srinivasa Ramanujan Indian Proved over 3,000 theorems, identities

and equations, including on highly
composite numbers, partition function
and its asymptotics, and mock theta
functions

1893-1978 Gaston Julia French Developed complex dynamics, Julia

set formula

1903-1957 John von Neumann Hungarian/ Pioneer of game theory, design model
American for modern computer architecture,
work in quantum and nuclear physics

1906-1978 Kurt Gödel Austria Incompleteness theorems (there can

be solutions to mathematical problems
which are true but which can never be
proved), Gödel numbering, logic and
set theory

1906-1998 André Weil French Theorems allowed connections

between algebraic geometry and
number theory, Weil conjectures
(partial proof of Riemann hypothesis
for local zeta functions), founding
member of influential Bourbaki group

1912-1954 Alan Turing British Breaking of the German enigma code,

Turing machine (logical forerunner of
computer), Turing test of artificial
intelligence

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 26
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

1913-1996 Paul Erdös Hungarian Set and solved many problems in

combinatorics, graph theory, number
theory, classical analysis,
approximation theory, set theory and
probability theory

1917-2008 Edward Lorenz American Pioneer in modern chaos theory,

Lorenz attractor, fractals, Lorenz
oscillator, coined term “butterfly effect”

1919-1985 Julia Robinson American Work on decision problems and

Hilbert’s tenth problem, Robinson
hypothesis

1924-2010 Benoît Mandelbrot French Mandelbrot set fractal, computer

plottings of Mandelbrot and Julia sets

1928-2014 Alexander French Mathematical structuralist,

Grothendieck revolutionary advances in algebraic
geometry, theory of schemes,
contributions to algebraic topology,
number theory, category theory, etc

1928-2015 John Nash American Work in game theory, differential

geometry and partial differential
equations, provided insight into
complex systems in daily life such as
economics, computing and military

1934-2007 Paul Cohen American Proved that continuum hypothesis

could be both true and not true (i.e.
independent from Zermelo-Fraenkel
set theory)

1937 John Horton Conway British Important contributions to game theory,

group theory, number theory, geometry
and (especially) recreational
mathematics, notably with the
invention of the cellular automaton
called the “Game of Life”

1947 Yuri Matiyasevich Russian Final proof that Hilbert’s tenth problem
is impossible (there is no general
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 27
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

method for determining whether

Diophantine equations have a solution)

1953 Andrew Wiles British Finally proved Fermat’s Last Theorem

for all numbers (by proving the
Taniyama-Shimura conjecture for
semistable elliptic curves)

1966 Grigori Perelman Russian Finally proved Poincaré Conjecture (by

proving Thurston’s geometrization
conjecture), contributions to
Riemannian geometry and geometric
topology

INTRODUCTION

REFERENCES

https://www.businessinsider.com/12-classic-mathematicians-2014-7#the-pythagoreans-5th-century-bc-1
https://www.storyofmathematics.com/mathematicians.html
https://www.britannica.com/science/mathematics/The-three-classical-problems
https://www.businessinsider.com/12-classic-mathematicians-2014-7#-13
https://www.quantamagazine.org/mathematicians-open-a-new-front-on-an-ancient-number-problem-
20200910/
https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Chronology/index/
https://fabpedigree.com/james/mathmen.htm

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 28
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

HISTORY OF THE
NUMBER SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 2

This chapter discusses the evolution of number systems. It will focus on the different
number systems of numeration from the ancient times and its evolution to the number system we
are currently using---the Decimal System of Numeration.

This chapter will highlight the evolution history of counting by the Egyptians/Babylonians, the
Romans, Hindu-Arabic, and the Mayans’ counting systems. Moreover, the chapter will outline the
reasons why Western counting systems are widely used contemporarily.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

 Define basic concepts;
 Discuss the number sense and its importance;
 Discuss the origin of numbers.

LEARNING CONTENT

LESSON 2: INTRODUCTION: THE NUMBER SENSE

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 29
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

The evolution of numbers developed differently with disparate versions, which include the
Egyptian, Babylonians, Hindu-Arabic, Mayans, Romans, and the modern American number
systems. The developmental history of counting is based on the mathematical evolution, which is
believed to have been in existence before the counting systems of numbers started (Zavlatsky 124).

Before embarking on the study of our present numeration system, it would be interesting to
have a review of the numerals used in ancient times. Recorded history of certain numeration
systems dates back roughly 3500 BC.
Numbers are really idea in our minds.
DEFINE ME. . . We write or talk about numbers using
NUMBER is an numerals such as "5" or "five". We could also
abstract idea hold up 5 fingers, or tap the table 5 times.
that exists only These are all different ways of referring to
in mind. the same number.
There are also different types of numbers,
A number is a such as:
count or  whole numbers {1,2,3,...}
measurement.  decimals (like 1.48 or 50.5)
HISTORY OF THE
 fractions (like NUMBER
1/2 or 3/8)
SYSTEMS
 and more.

A numerical digit is a single symbol used

alone (such as “3”) or in combination (such as
A numeral is a figure, “31”), to represent numbers in a positional
symbol, or group of numeral system. The name digit comes from
figures or symbols the fact that the ten digits (Latin digiti, meaning
denoting a number. fingers) of the hands corresponding to the ten
symbols of the common base 10 numeral
system, i.e. the decimal (ancient Latin adjective
decem meaning ten) digits.
WHY NUMERATION SYSTEM EXISTS?
Numeration systems are structured methods or procedures for counting in order to
determine the total units in a collection. Numeration systems consist of counting bases (base 2,
base 5, base 10, base 20, etc.) and some form of representation. This representation might be as
primitive as the hand signals used in aborigine cultures and in the trading pits of stock exchanges,
or it could be written on paper or inscribed magnetically in an electronic medium like a computer
hard-drive.

Numeration systems exist for three reasons:

1. to identify;
2. to order; and
3. to tally

Numeration systems are used to identify people and property, because they preserve
confidentiality, increase security, and minimize errors caused when there are many people with the
same name or many identical objects in the same production run in a factory assembly.

REMEMBER. . .

Numeration is a way of representing Numeration system is

numbers by way of re-grouping them. It also the process of stating
refers
ISABELA STATE to the study ofOFnumerals
UNIVERSITY-CITY and their
ILAGAN CAMPUS numbers in their usual
properties.
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION order. 30
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

THE NUMBER SENSE

The number sense is not the ability to count, but the ability to recognize that something has
changes in a small collection. Some animal species are capable of this.

The number of young that the mother animal has, if changed, will be noticed by all mammals
and most birds. Mammals have more developed brains and raise fewer young than other species,
but take better care of their young for a much longer period of time.

Many birds have a good number sense. If a nest contains four eggs, one can safely be
taken, but when two are removed the bird generally deserts. The bird can distinguish two from
three.

An experiment done with a goldfinch showed the ability to distinguish piles of seed: three
HISTORY OF THE
from one, three from two, four from two, four from three, and six from three. The goldfinch almost
NUMBER SYSTEMS
always confused five and four, seven and five, eight and six, and ten and six.

Another experiment involved a squire who was trying to shoot a crow which made its nest in
the watchtower of his estate. The squire tried to surprise the crow, but at his approach, the crow
would
leave, watch from a distance, and not come back until the man left the tower. The squire then took
another man with him to the tower. One man left and the other stayed to get the crow when it
returned to the nest, but the crow was not deceived. The crow stayed away until the other man
came out. The experiment was repeated the next day with three men, but the crow would not return
to the nest. The following day, four men tried, but it was not until that next day with five men that the
crow returned to the nest with one man still in the tower.
In the insect world, the solitary wasp seemed to have the best number sense. The mother
wasp lays her eggs in individual cells and provides each egg with a number of live caterpillars on
which the young feed when hatched. Some species of wasp always provide five, others twelve, and
others as high as twenty-four caterpillars per cell. The solitary wasp in the genus Eumenus, will put
five caterpillars in the cell if it is going to be a male (the male is smaller) and ten caterpillars in a
female’s cell. This ability seems to be instinctive and not learned since the wasps behavior is
connected with a basic life function.

One might think people would have a very good number sense, but as it turns out, people do
not. Experiments have shown that the average person has a number sense that is around four.

People groups in the world today that have not developed finger counting have a hard time
discerning the quantity four. They tend to use the quantities one, two and many-which would include
four.
Small children around fourteen months of age will almost always notice something that is
missing from a group that he or she is familiar with. The same age child can usually reassemble
objects that have been separated into one group again. But the child’s ability to perceive numerical
differences in the people or objects around him or her is very limited when the number goes beyond
three or four.
So what separates people from the rest of the animal kingdom? It may include many things,
but the ability to count is very much one of them. Counting, which usually begins at the end of our
own hands or fingers, is usually taught by another person or possibly by circumstance. It is
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 31
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

something that we should never take lightly for it has helped advance the human race in countless
ways.
The number sense is something many creatures in this world have as well as we do.
Although, as we can see, our human ability is not much better than the common crowd’s ability. We
are born with the number sense, but we get to learn how to count.

WHERE DID NUMBERS ORIGINATE?

Thousands of years ago, there were no numbers to represent one, two, or three. Instead,
people used fingers, rocks, sticks, or eyes to represent numbers. There were neither clocks nor
calendars to help keep track of time. The Sun and the Moon were used to distinguish between
1:00 P.M. and 4:00 P.M. Most civilizations did not have words for numbers larger than two so they
used terminology familiar to them such as flocks of sheep, heaps of grain, piles of sticks or stones,
or groups of people. There was a little need for a numeric system until people formed clans,
villages, and settlements and began a system of bartering and trade that in turn created a demand
for currency. How would you distinguish between five and fifty if you could only use the above
terminology?
Paper and pencils were not available to transcribe numbers. Other methods were invented
for means of communication and teaching of numerical systems. BabyloniansHISTORY
stamped numbers
OF THE in
clay by using a stick and depressing it into the clay at different angles NUMBER
or pressures and the
SYSTEMS
Egyptians painted on pottery and cut numbers into stone.
Numerical systems devised of symbols were used instead of numbers.

The Babylonians, who lived in Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers,
began a numbering system about 5,000 years ago. It is one of the oldest numbering systems in the
world. The ancient Egyptians used special symbols, known as pictographs, to write down numbers
more than 3,000 years ago. The Babylonians and the Egyptians were the first to complete a system
for arithmetic based on whole numbers and positive rational numbers. About 500 B.C.E. the
Romans developed a system of numerals that used letters from their alphabet rather than special
symbols (for example, III represented three). Roman Numerals was the standard numbering system
and method of arithmetic in ancient Rome and Europe until about 900 C.E., when the Arabic
numbering system, which was originated by the Hindus, came into use. Today, we use numbers
based on the Hindu-Arabic system. We can write down any number using combinations of up to 10
different symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9).

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 32
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

HISTORY OF THE
NUMBER SYSTEMS

REFERENCES

https://www.mathsisfun.com/definitions/number.html
https://www.splashlearn.com/math-vocabulary/number-sense/number
https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciences-and-law/economics-business-and-labor/businesses-and-
occupations/numeration-systems
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cZH0YnFpjwU (a brief history of numerical systems)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cy-8lPVKLIo

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 33
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

HISTORY OF THE
NUMBER SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 3

This chapter discusses the Egyptian Numeration System and its evolution. It includes
the discussion on the symbols used in writing numbers using the different hieroglyphs used in the
Egyptian Number System during that era. This chapter will also discuss how to write or convert
Egyptian numbers or Egyptian Numerals into Decimal Numerals (Decimal Numeration System)
which is also known as the Hindu-Arabic System and vice-versa.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

 Define basic concepts;
 Discuss the evolution of the Egyptian Numeration System;
 Identify and determine the value of the symbol or hieroglyphs used in writing Egyptian
Numerals;
 Write Egyptian Numerals and Convert it to Decimal Numerals and vice versa.

LEARNING CONTENT

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 34
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

LESSON 2.1: THE EGYPTIAN NUMERATION SYSTEM

Recorded history of certain numeration systems dates back roughly 3500 B.C. The
Egyptians are among those who have developed their own system. The Egyptian system of
numeration was based on pictures of objects.
The early Egyptians settled along the fertile Nile valley as early as about 6000 BC, and they
began to record the patterns of lunar phases and the seasons, both for agricultural and religious
reasons. The Pharaoh’s surveyors used measurements based on body parts (a palm was the width
of the hand, a cubit the measurement from elbow to fingertips) to measure land and buildings very
early in Egyptian history, and a decimal numeric system was developed based on our ten fingers.
The oldest mathematical text from ancient Egypt discovered so far, though, is the Moscow Papyrus,
which dates from the Egyptian Middle Kingdom around 2000 - 1800 BC.
It is thought that the Egyptians introduced the earliest fully-developed base 10 numeration
system at least as early as 2700 BC (and probably much early). Written numbers used a stroke for
units, a heel-bone symbol for tens, a coil of rope for hundreds and a lotus plant for thousands, as
well as other hieroglyphic symbols for higher powers of ten up to a million. However, there was no
concept of place value, so larger numbers were rather unwieldy (although a million required just one
character, a million minus one required fifty-four characters).

HISTORY OF THE
NUMBER SYSTEMS

This hieroglyphic numeration was a written version of a concrete counting system using
material objects. To represent a number, the sign for each decimal order was repeated as many
times as necessary. To make it easier to read the repeated signs they were placed in groups of two,
three, or four and arranged vertically. Hieroglyphs are little pictures representing words.

The Egyptian numeration system evolved around 3400 BCE. It uses special symbols to
represent numbers that are power of 10. Egyptian hieroglyphs could be written in both
directions (and even vertically). This example is written left-to-right and top-down; on the original
stone carving, it is right-to-left, and the signs are thus reversed.

EVOLUTION OF EGYPTIAN NUMERATION SYSTEM

The Rhind Papyrus, dating from around 1650 BC, is a kind of instruction manual in arithmetic
and geometry, and it gives us explicit demonstrations of how multiplication and division was carried
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 35
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

out at that time. It also contains evidence of other mathematical knowledge, including unit fractions,
composite and prime numbers, arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means, and how to solve first
order linear equations as well as arithmetic and geometric series. The Berlin Papyrus, which dates
from around 1300 BC, shows that ancient Egyptians could solve second-order algebraic (quadratic)
equations.

Multiplication, for example, was achieved by a process of repeated doubling of the number to
be multiplied on one side and of one on the other, essentially a kind of multiplication of binary
factors similar to that used by modern computers (see the example at right). These corresponding
blocks of counters could then be used as a kind of multiplication reference table: first, the
combination of powers of two which add up to the number to be multiplied by was isolated, and then
the corresponding blocks of counters on the other side yielded the answer. This effectively made
use of the concept of binary numbers, over 3,000 years before Leibniz introduced it into the west,
and many more years before the development of the computer was to fully explore its potential.
Practical problems of trade and the market led to the development of a notation for fractions.
The papyri which have come down to us demonstrate the use of unit fractions basedOF
HISTORY on THE
the symbol
of the Eye of Horus, where each part of the eye represented a differentNUMBER fraction, SYSTEMS
each half of the
previous one (i.e. half, quarter, eighth, sixteenth, thirty-second, sixty-fourth), so that the total was
one-sixty-fourth short of a whole, the first known example of a geometric series.

Ancient Egyptian method of multiplication

Unit fractions could also be

used for simple division sums.
For example, if they needed to
divide 3 loaves among 5 people,
they would first divide two of the
loaves into thirds and the third
loaf into fifths, then they would
divide the left over third from the
second loaf into five pieces.
Thus, each person would receive
one-third plus one-fifth plus one-
fifteenth (which totals three-fifths,
as we would expect).

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 36
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

Ancient Egyptian method of division

Fractions to the ancient Egyptians were limited to unit fractions (with the exception of the
frequently used 2/3 and and less frequently used ¾). A unit fraction is of the form 1/n where n is an
integer and these were represented in numeral hieroglyphs by placing the symbol representing a
"mouth", which meant "part", above the number. Here are some examples:

Notice that when the number contained too many symbols for the "part" sign to be placed
over the whole number, as in 1/249, then the "part" symbol was just placed over the "first part" of the
number. [It was the first part for here the number is read from right to left.]

The Egyptians approximated the area of a circle by using shapes whose area they did know.
They observed that the area of a circle of diameter 9 units, for example, was very close to the area
of a square with sides of 8 units, so that the area of circles of other diameters could be obtained by
multiplying the diameter by 8⁄9 and then squaring it. This gives an effective approximation
of π accurate to within less than one percent.
The pyramids themselves are another indication of the sophistication of Egyptian
mathematics. Setting aside claims that the pyramids are first known structures to observe the
golden ratio of 1 : 1.618 (which may have occurred for purely aesthetic, and not mathematical,
reasons), there is certainly evidence that they knew the formula for the volume of a pyramid -
1
⁄3 times the height times the length times the width - as well as of a truncated or clipped pyramid.
They were also aware, long before Pythagoras, of the rule that a triangle with sides 3, 4 and 5 units
yields a perfect right angle, and Egyptian builders used ropes knotted at intervals of 3, 4 and 5 units
in order to ensure exact right angles for their stonework (in fact, the 3-4-5 right triangle is often
called "Egyptian").

ZERO and NEGATIVE NUMBERS

nfr heart with trachea
beautiful, pleasant, good

By 1740 BCE, the Egyptians had a symbol for zero in accounting texts. The symbol nfr,
meaning beautiful, was also used to indicate the base level in drawings of tombs and pyramids and
distances were measured relative to the base line as being above or below this line.

ROSETTA STONE
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 37
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

The Ancient Egyptians used both several methods of writing, including hieroglyphic,
hieratic, and demotic scripts. The story behind how "modern" scholars were able to decipher
these methods of writing is the story of the Rosetta Stone (link courtesy of the British Museum
where the Rosetta Stone is housed). Hieroglyphic script was used by Egyptians for important or
religious documents, while the demotic script was a simplified version of hieroglyphics, and was
the writing method for "the common". Demotic script evolved from hieratic numrerals, and was
used during the "last period" of ancient Egyptian, a 1000 year span from 500 BC to 500 AD. By 400
AD, demotic script was replaced almost entirely by the use of Greek
writing.

WRITING EGYPTIAN NUMERALS TO DECIMAL NUMERALS AND VICE-VERSA

The conventions for reading and writing numbers is quite simple; the higher number is always
written in front of the lower number and where there is more than one row of numbers, the reader
should start at the top. Thus, in writing the numbers, the largest decimal order would be written first.
The numbers were written from right to left or left to right.
LET’S DO THESE. . .
Example 1. Example 2. Example 3.

77 700 7, 000
Example 4.

760, 000
Example 5.

Example 6. Example 7.
3, 244 46, 206

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 38
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

Example 8. Example 9.

12, 610, 370

35, 242, 93
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
The techniques used by the Egyptians for these are essentially the same as those used by
modern mathematicians today. The Egyptians added by combining symbols. They would combine
all the units ( ) together, then all of the tens ( ) together, then all of the hundreds ( ), etc. If the
scribe had more than ten units ( ), he would replace those ten units by . He would continue to do
this until the number of units left was less than ten. This process was continued for the tens,

replacing ten tens with , etc.

For example, if the scribe wanted to add 456 and 265, his problem would look like this

(= 456)

(= 265)

The scribe would then combine all like symbols to get something like the following

He would then replace the eleven units ( ) with a unit ( ) and a ten ( ). He would then have
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 39
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

one unit and twelve tens. The twelve tens would be replaced by two tens and one one-hundred.
When he was finished he would have 721, which he would write as

.721

Subtraction was done much the same way as we do it except that when one has to borrow, it
is done with writing ten symbols instead of a single one.

As can be seen, adding numeral

hieroglyphs is easy. One just adds the
individual symbols but replacing ten copies of
a symbol by a single symbol of the next
higher value.

HISTORY OF THE
NUMBER SYSTEMS

REFERENCES

https://www.basic-mathematics.com/egyptian-numeration-system.html
https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Egyptian_numerals/
https://www.storyofmathematics.com/egyptian.html
http://www.wrightmath.info/media/Math%20230/The%20Egyptian%20Number%20System.pdf
https://www.oise.utoronto.ca/guestid/robertson/UserFiles/File/Culture_in_Math/
Egyptian_Number_System_and_Bingo.pdf
https://www.slideshare.net/WanNorFaezah/numeration-system
https://discoveringegypt.com/egyptian-hieroglyphic-writing/egyptian-mathematics-numbers-hieroglyphs/
https://mrscouris.weebly.com/uploads/1/0/4/3/10436364/lib-egyptian-hieroglyphs-33418-article_only.pdf
http://www.wrightmath.info/media/Math%20230/The%20Egyptian%20Number%20System.pdf
https://discoveringegypt.com/egyptian-hieroglyphic-writing/egyptian-mathematics-numbers-hieroglyphs/

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 40
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

HISTORY OF THE
NUMBER SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 2

As you might imagine, the development of a base system is an important step in making the
counting process more efficient. Our own base-ten system probably arose from the fact that we
have 10 fingers (including thumbs) on two hands. This is a natural development. However, other
civilizations have had a variety of bases other than ten ad this includes the Maya Number System.
This chapter discusses the Mayan Numeration System and its evolution. It includes the
discussion on the symbols used in writing Mayan numerals specifically the numeral system
developed by Mayans used by the “common people”. This chapter will also discuss how to write or
convert Mayan numerals into Decimal numerals (Decimal Numeration System) also known as the
Hindu-Arabic System and vice-versa.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

 Discuss the evolution of the Mayan Numeration System;
 Discuss the vigesimal number system (base 20);
 Identify and determine the value of the symbols used in writing Mayan Numerals;
 Write Mayan Numerals and convert it to Decimal Numerals and vice versa.

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 41
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

LEARNING CONTENT

LESSON 2.2: THE MAYAN NUMERATION SYSTEM

The history and civilization of ancient peoples has always intrigued modern man. Today we
are visiting the Maya and looking at their mathematics, especially their number system. We find it to
be sophisticated, logical, and yes, even beautiful. We'll try to give you an answer to the following
questions: “Did the Maya have a numerical system, and if so, how did it work?”
The Mayan civilization had settled in the region of Central America from about 2000 BC,
although the so-called Classic Period stretches from about 250 AD to 900 AD. At its peak, it was
one of the most densely populated and culturally dynamic societies in the world.

The Mayan and other Mesoamerican cultures used a vigesimal number system based
on base 20, (and, to some extent, base 5), probably originally developed from counting on fingers
and toes. The numerals consisted of only three symbols: zero, represented as a shell shape; one,
a dot; and five, a bar. Thus, addition and subtraction was a relatively simple matter of adding up
dots and bars. After the number 19, larger numbers were written in a kind of vertical place
value format using powers of 20: 1, 20, 400, 8000, 160000, etc. (see image below), although in
their calendar calculations they gave the third position a value of 360HISTORY
instead of
OF400
THE(higher
positions revert to multiples of 20). NUMBER SYSTEMS

MAYAN NUMERAL SYSTEM

For many people, one of the most perplexing aspects of the Maya number system is its
vigesimal nature.
Other than the bar and dot notation, Maya numerals were sometimes illustrated by face type
glyphs or pictures. The face glyph for a number represents the deity associated with the number.
These face number glyphs were rarely used, and are mostly seen on some of the most elaborate
monumental carvings.

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 42
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

DEFINITION. . . Mayan Numeral System

The Mayan Numeral System was the was a Vigesimal (base
system to represent numbers and 20) positional numeral
calendar date in the Maya Civilization. system.

THE ESSENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE of the MAYAN ZERO

The Mayan number system permits addition and subtraction functions that increase or
decrease in multiples of 20. The value relative to the numbers inscribed in an amount and the
position it occupies. The Mayan numeric system is a positional system because it distinguishes
positions of relative and absolute values when calculating large numbers. The discovery of ZERO
allowed the Maya to calculate extremely large values.

The Mayans were the first to conceive a systematic use of a symbol for zero in the place-
value system. They used this symbol long before others in different latitudes and more than a
millennium before the concept ever arrived in Europe. The Mayan zero symbol was used to indicate
the absence of any units of the various orders of the modified base-twenty system. This avoids
confusing one place with another. Today we take for granted the existence of a symbol for zero but
at the time this was certainly ingenious for the concept of zero to be understood. This concept
happened only two or three times in the entire history of humanity! HISTORY OF THE
NUMBER SYSTEMS

The Mayan concept of ZERO is related to a particular philosophical world view, and is
represented in other things such as:
 birth and death
 the beginning and ending of a cycle or period of time completion has
ingenious aspects relative to issues of Space – Time – Movement

THE MAYAN NUMEROLOGY

The Mayan people wrote page in the annuals of human history by inventing the concept of
zero over 2, 000 years ago. The Hindu people in India discovered the concept of zero 500 years
later. The Mayan Stelas that register the most ancient inscriptions with the application of zero
appear at:
Stela 2 at Chiapa de Corzo (35 BC), and Stela C3 at Tres Zapotes (31 BC) which precede the
oldest date in India by 911 years for the first date, and 907 years for the second date.

Using a positional numeric system with relative and absolute values, the Maya achieved what
scientific historian Otto Neugebaurer considers one of the richest of humanity comparable to in
some ways to the invention of the alphabet.
Some of the technical calculations developed in Western Europe in the 19 th century were
applied by the Mayas several centuries earlier. For example, according to Hector M. Calderon in his

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 43
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

book Cienca Matematica de los Maya (1966), the Maya were able to calculate square roots by
using mathematical tables.

THE MAYAN ASTRONOMY

Mathematics played an important role in Mayan Astronomy. The most notable mathematical
advances were a result of the discovery of countless astronomical correlations such as the
astronomical paths of Venus, Mars, the sun and the moon. They used this knowledge to govern
their society.
The understanding of advanced mathematics allowed the Maya to discover that (65)
revolutions of the planet Venus is the same as 104 Ab’ cycles or solar years, and 146 cycles of the
sacred calendar Cholq’ij. The Mayas were able to create a chart that contained 69 dates when solar
eclipses occurred at intervals of 33 years.

Mayan scientists calculated the solar calendar with an error of two – tenths of a thousandth
of a day. Modern astronomic calculations were only able to make more accurate calculations of the
solar year using sophisticated computers. Thanks to the development of mathematics and
astronomy, the Maya were able to establish a complete and exact calendar system comprised of:
 The CHOLQ’ IJ
 The CHOLAB’
 The CHOLMAY
 The CHOLTUN, also known as the Long Count Calendar, which has been
counting time since August 11, 3114 BC.

k'in day
winal 20 days, (a Mayan month)
Tun 18 winal-s, 360 days, almost a year
k'atun 20 tun-s, 7200 days, almost 20 years
bak'tu 20 k'atun-s, 144000 days, approx. 400
HISTORY OFyears
THE
n NUMBER SYSTEMS

A Mayan date is fully described by 5 numbers. For example, the famous king of Palenque, Hanab-Pakal,
was born on 9.8.9.13.0.

THE MAYAN COUNTING SYSTEM

The Maya of Central America understood the concept of zero and place notation hundreds
of years before its earliest known use in India and medieval Islam. When Europeans arrived in the
Americas, they found that the abacus was in use in both Mexico and Peru. The Maya number
system is in some respects very similar to ours but instead of the decimal system we have today,
the Maya used the vigesimal system for their calculations - a system based on 20 rather than 10.
This means that instead of the 1, 10, 100, 1 000 and 10 000 of our mathematical system, the Maya
used 1, 20, 400, 800 and 16 000. Base twenty was also used in their calendar, developed by
astronomers for keeping track of time. The Mayan and other Meso – American cultures used a
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 44
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

vigesimal number system based on base 20 (and, to some extent, base 5), probably originally
developed from counting on fingers and toes. The numerals consisted of only three symbols. They
used a notation with bars and dots as "shorthand" for counting. A dot stood for one, a bar
stood for five and a shell represented zero. The numbers could be written from bottom to top
or from right to left. Thus, addition and subtraction was a relatively simple matter of adding up
dots and bars. After the number 19, larger numbers were written in a kind of vertical place value
format using powers of 20: 1, 20, 400, 8000, 160000, etc., although in their calendar calculations
they gave the third position a value of 360 instead of 400 (higher positions revert to multiples of 20).
Some numbers were considered more sacred than others like 20 as it represented the
number of fingers and toes a human being could count on. Another special number was five, as this
represented the number of digits on a hand or foot. Thirteen was sacred as the number of original
Maya gods. Another sacred number was 52, representing a number of years in a "bundle", a unit
similar in concept to our century.
The importance of astronomy and calendar calculations in Mayan society required
mathematics, and the Maya constructed quite early a very sophisticated number system, possibly
more advanced than any other in the world at the time (although the dating of developments is quite
difficult).
The pre-classic Maya and their neighbors had independently developed the concept of zero
by at least as early as 36 BC, and we have evidence of their working with sums up to the hundreds
of millions, and with dates so large it took several lines just to represent them. Despite not
possessing the concept of a fraction, they produced extremely accurate astronomical observations
using no instruments other than sticks, and were able to measure the length of the solar year to a
far higher degree of accuracy than that used in Europe (their calculations produced 365.242 days,
compared to the modern value of 365.242198), as well as the length of the lunar month (their
estimate was 29.5308 days, compared to the modern value of 29.53059).
It is important to note that this number system was in use in Mesoamerica while the people
of Europe were still struggling with the Roman numeral system. That system suffered from serious
defects: there was no zero (0) in the system, and, as opposed to the Mayan system, the numbers
HISTORY OF
were entirely symbolic, without direct connection to the number of items represented. It isTHE
not known
whether a system was developed for multiplication and division. NUMBER SYSTEMS

WRITIG MAYAN NUMERALS

Unlike our system, where the ones place starts on the right and then moves to the left, the
Mayan systems places the ones on the bottom of a vertical orientation and moves up as the place
value increases.
When numbers are written in vertical form, there should never be more than four dots in a
single place. When writing Mayan numbers, every group of five dots becomes one bar. Also, there
should never be more than three bars in a single place…four bars would be converted to one dot in
the next place up. It’s the same as 10 getting converted to a 1 in the next place up when we carry
during addition.
The Mayan number system is vigesimal, which means it uses base 20 instead of our decimal
(base 10) number system. The Mayans used only three symbols (see diagram A), and their
numbers were arranged vertically (see diagram B). Each step up was a power of 20, as illustrated
below.

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 45
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

LET’S DO THESE. . .
Write the corresponding value of each Mayan numerals in Decimal numerals.

1. What is the value of this numeral?

Using the vigesimal system for the Mayan numerals:

13 x 200 + 3 x 20 = 73

2. Determine the value of the numeral given below.

Using the vigesimal system for the Mayan numerals:

11 x 200 + 0 x 20 + 18 x 202 = 7, 211

3. What Decimal numeral] corresponds to the Mayan numeral given below?

Using the vigesimal system for the Mayan numerals:

10 x 200 + 2 x 20 + 8 x 202 + 11 x 203= 91, 250

HISTORY OF THE
NUMBER SYSTEMS

4. Tease your brain with the following number. What is it?

Look carefully and see how the

place values were separated.

Thus,
14 + 7 × 20 + 1 × 202 + 3 × 203 + 0 × 204 + 15 × 205 + 5 × 206 = 368, 024, 554

5. Convert the base 10 number 3575 to Mayan numerals and write the corresponding Mayan
notation.
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 46
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

Solutions:
The first step is to divide the base into powers of 20.
3575  400 = 8.9375

The second step is to multiply the decimal numbers by 20.

0.9375 (20) = 18.75
The third step is to multiply again the decimal number by 20.
0.75 (20) = 15
This means that 357510 = 8,18,1520
The corresponding Mayan notation is:

15 (200) + 18 (20) + 8 (202) = 3, 575

6. Given the base 10 number 1055310, convert it into Mayan numerals. Show its corresponding
Mayan notation.
Solutions:
The first step is to divide the base into powers of 20.
10553  8000 = 1.319125

The second step is to multiply the decimal numbers by 20.

0.319125 (20) = 6.3825
The third step is to multiply again the decimal number by 20.
0.3825 (20) = 7.65
The third step is to multiply again the decimal number by 20.
0.65 (20) = 13

This means that 1055310 = 1, 6, 7, 1320

The corresponding Mayan notation is:

13 (200) + 7 (20) + 6 (202) + 1(203) = 10, 553

HISTORY OF THE
NUMBER SYSTEMS

7. Express 433 using Mayan notation.

Solution: Express first the Decimal numeral (base 10) into base 20.
433  202 = 1.0825
0.0825 x 20 = 1.65 13 (200) + 1(20) + 1(202) = 433
0.65 x 20 = 13

8. Convert 16, 125 into Mayan numerals.

Solutions:

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 47
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

16 125  203 = 2.015625

0.015625 x 20 = 0.3125
0.3125 x 20 = 6.25 5 (200) + 6(20) + 0(202) + 2(203) = 16, 125
0.25 x 20 = 5

9. Write 258, 458 in Mayan numerals.

Solutions:

258 458  204 = 1.6153625 1(204) = 160 000

0.6153625 x 20 = 12.30725 12(203) = 96 000
0.30725 x 20 = 6.145 6(202) = 2 400
0.145 x 20 = 2.9 2(20) = 40
0.9 x 20 = 18 18 (200) = 18__
258, 458

HISTORY OF THE
NUMBER SYSTEMS

REFERENCES

https://www.storyofmathematics.com/mayan.html
https://planetarchaeology.co.uk/maya-number-system/
http://centraledesmaths.uregina.ca/RR/database/RR.09.00/hubbard1/MayanNumerals.html
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 48
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

https://planetarchaeology.co.uk/maya-number-system/
https://www.maa.org/press/periodicals/convergence/when-a-number-system-loses-uniqueness-the-case-of-
the-maya-the-mayan-number-system
https://www.historymuseum.ca/cmc/exhibitions/civil/maya/mmc05eng.html
https://www.basic-mathematics.com/mayan-numeration-system.html
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymakermath4libarts/chapter/the-mayan-numeral-system/
https://www.dcode.fr/mayan-numbers
https://math.tools/numbers/to-mayan/
https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Mayan_mathematics/

HISTORY OF THE
NUMBER SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 2

This lesson focuses on Babylonian mathematics. You will learn how a series of discoveries
have enabled historians to decipher stone tablets and study the various techniques the Babylonians
used for problem-solving and teaching. The Babylonian problem-solving skills have been described
as remarkable and scribes of the time received a training far in advance of anything available in
medieval Christian Europe 3000 years later.
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 49
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

This chapter also discusses the Babylonian Numeration System and its evolution. It includes
the discussion on the symbols used in writing Babylonian numerals specifically the “Cuneiform”.
This chapter will also discuss how to write or convert Babylonian numerals into Decimal numerals
(Decimal Numeration System) also known as the Hindu-Arabic System and vice-versa.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

 Discuss the origin and evolution of the Babylonian Numeration System;
 Discuss the sexagesimal number system (base 60);
 Identify and determine the value of the symbols used in writing Babylonian numerals;
 Write Babylonian Numerals and convert it to Decimal Numerals and vice versa;
 Appreciate the advanced understanding of mathematics in Ancient Mesopotamia in
relation to anyone in medieval Christian Europe 3000 years later.

LEARNING CONTENT

LESSON 2.3: THE BABYLONIAN NUMERATION SYSTEM

The Babylonian number system began with tally marks just as most of the ancient math
systems did. The Babylonians developed a form of writing based on cuneiform. Cuneiform means
"wedge shape" in Latin. They wrote these symbols on wet clay tablets which were baked in the hot
sun. Many thousands of these tablets are still around today. The Babylonians used a stylist to
imprint the symbols on the clay since curved lines could not be drawn.
Nabu–rimanni and Kidinu are two of the only mathematicians from Babylonia. However,
not much is known about them. Historians believe Nabu–rimanni lived around 490 BC and Kidinu
lived around 480 BC.
ORIGIN
This system first appeared around 2, 000 BC, its structure reflects the decimal lexical
numerals of Semitic languages rather than Sumerian lexical numbers. However, the use of a special
Sumerian sign for 60 (beside two Semitic signs for the same number) attests to a relation with the
Sumerian system.
The Mesopotamia had been the center of the Sumerian civilization which flourished before 3,
HISTORY OF THE
500 BC. This was an advanced civilization building cities and supporting the people with irrigation
NUMBER SYSTEMS
systems, a legal system, administration and even postal service. Writing developed and counting
was
based on a sexagesimal system, that is to say base 60. Around 2, 300 BC, the Akkadians invaded
the area and for some time the more backward culture of the Akkadians mixed with the more
advanced culture of the Sumerians. The Akkadians invented the abacus as a tool for counting and
they developed somewhat clumsy methods of arithmetic with the fundamental operations all paying
a part. The Sumerians, however, revolted against Akkadian rule and by 2, 100 BC, they were back
in control.
The most amazing aspect of the Babylonian’s calculating skills was their construction of
tablets to aid calculation. Two tablets at Senkereh on the Euprhates in 1854 date from 2000 BC.
They give squares of the number up to 59 and cubes up to 32.
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 50
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

One of the Babylonians tablets, Plimpton 322, which is dated from between 1900 and 1600
BC, contains tables of Pythagorean triples for the equation a2 + b2 = c2. It is currently in a British
museum.

Plimpton 322, an ancient Mesopotamian mathematical tablet whose purpose is still a mystery. Image: Public domain, via Wikimedia
Commons.

The tablet is called Plimpton 322, and is described by Neugebauer (The Exact Sciences in
Antiquity (Dover, 1969) p. 40) as ‘one of the most remarkable documents of Old-Babylonian
mathematics’. The name arises simply from the fact that the tablet has catalogue number 322 in
the George A. Plimpton collection at Columbia University, New York.
Certainly in terms of their number system the Babylonians inherited ideas from the
Sumerians and from the Akkadians. From the number systems of these earlier peoples came the
base of 60, that is the sexagesimal system. Yet neither the Sumerian nor the Akkadian system
was a positional system and this advance by the Babylonians was undoubtedly their greatest
achievement in terms of developing the number system. Some would argue that it was their biggest
achievement in mathematics.

Often when told that the Babylonian number system was base 60 people's first reaction is:
what a lot of special number symbols they must have had to learn. Now of course this comment is
based on knowledge of our own decimal system which is a positional system with nine special
symbols and a zero symbol to denote an empty place. However, rather than have to
learn 10 symbols as we do to use our decimal numbers, the Babylonians only had to learn two
symbols to produce their base 60 positional system.
Now although the Babylonian system was a positional base 60 system, it had some vestiges
of a base 10 system within it. This is because the 59 numbers, which go into one of the places of
the system, were built from a 'unit' symbol and a 'ten' symbol. Babylonian numerals uses only two
numerals or symbols, a one and a ten to represent numbers and they looked this these:

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 51
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF THE
HISTORY OF NUMBER SYSTEMS

Here are the 59 symbols

built from the two
symbols. These were
symbols used by the
Babylonian in writing
their numerals.

WHAT WRITING WAS USED DURING THIS ERA?

The writing is in cuneiform (‘wedge-shaped’) script and it is usually found on the front and
the back of the tablets, and sometimes on the side as well. All of the Babylonian tablets are written
in Akkadian, a Semitic language, although some mathematical tablets do use a few Sumerian
words.

Cuneiform tablet in the British Museum [Image: gordontour under CC-BY-NC-ND licence]

HOW TO WRITE BABYLONIAN NUMERALS?

The Babylonians had a very advanced number system even for today’s standards. It was a
base 60 (sexagesimal) rather than a base 10 (Decimal). The Babylonians divided the day into
twenty-four hours, each hour into sixty minutes and each minute to sixty seconds. This form of
counting has survived for 4000 years.
Any number less than 10 had
a wedged that pointed down. Example: 4

The number 10 was

symbolized by a wedge
pointing to the left. Example: 20

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 52
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF HISTORY OF THE
NUMBER SYSTEMS

Numbers less than 60 were

made by combining the
symbols 1 and 10. Example: 47

As with our numbering system, the

Babylonian numbering system utilized
Example: 64 1(60) + 4 (600)
units, i.e. tens, hundreds, thousands.

However, they did not have a symbol for zero, but they did use the idea of zero. When they
wanted to express zero, they just left a blank space in the number they were writing.

When they wrote “60”, they would put a When they wrote “120”, they would put
single wedge in the second place of the two wedge marks in the second place of
numeral. the numeral.

LET’S DO THESE. . .
Following are some examples of larger numbers.
1. What is 147 in Babylonian numerals?

27(600) + 2(60) = 147

2. Write 3, 434 in Babylonian notation.

14(600) + 57(60) = 3, 434

3. Express 79, 883 in Babylonian numerals.

23(600) + 11(60) + 22(602) = 79, 883

4. Given the Babylonian numerals below, convert it to Decimal numerals.

2(600) + 1(60) + 10(602) + 24(603) = 5, 220, 062

5. Convert the given Babylonian numerals to Decimal numerals.

1(605) = 777 600 000

2(604) = 25 920 000
6(603) = 1 296 000
12(602) = 79 200 804 897 239
33(60) = 1 980
0
59(60 ) = 59

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 53
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF THE
HISTORY OF NUMBER SYSTEMS

REFERENCES

https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/roots-of-unity/ancient-babylonian-number-system-had-no-zero/
https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Babylonian_numerals/
https://www.open.edu/openlearn/history-the-arts/history/history-science-technology-and-medicine/history-
science/babylonian-numerals-and-problems
https://www.basic-mathematics.com/babylonian-numeration-system.html
https://www.open.edu/openlearn/science-maths-technology/mathematics-and-statistics/mathematics/
babylonian-mathematics/content-section-1.3
https://www.thoughtco.com/why-we-still-use-babylonian-mathematics-116679
https://www.math.wichita.edu/history/topics/num-sys.html

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 54
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF THE
HISTORY OF NUMBER SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 2

Roman numerals, a number system that was devised by the ancient Romans for the
purpose of counting and performing other day-to-day transactions. Several letters from the Latin
alphabet are used for the representation of roman numerals. They are typically utilized as general
suffixes for people across generations, hour marks on a clock, to denote the names of Popes and
Monarchs, etc. In this article, we will see how to write and interpret Roman numerals. Additionally,
we will also explore the various tips and tricks that can be used to make this chapter easier to learn
and understand.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

 Discuss the origin and evolution of the Roman Numeration System;
 Discuss the importance and uses of Roman numerals;
 Identify and determine the value of the symbols used in writing Roman numerals;
 Write Roman Numerals and convert it to Decimal Numerals and vice versa;
.

LEARNING CONTENT

LESSON 2.4: THE ROMAN NUMERATION SYSTEM

The history of Roman numerals follows the history of
ancient Rome itself, from its beginnings at the Latin Palatine Hill
in 8th and 9th century BC to its fall in the 2 nd century AD from civil
war, plague, civil apathy and the rise of Christianity and the
northern European powers.
Roman numerals are a system of numerical notations
used by the Romans. Roman numerals are additive (and
subtractive) system in which letters are used to denote
certain "base" numbers, and arbitrary numbers are then
denoted using combinations of symbols. Unfortunately, little
is known about the origin of the Roman numeral system (Cajori
1993, p. 30).

The history of Roman numeral system for representing number was developed around 500
BC. As the Romans conquered much of the world that was known to them, their numeral system
spread throughout Europe, where Roman numerals remained the primary manner for representing
numbers of centuries. And around 1300 AD, Roman numerals were replaced throughout most of
Europe with the more effective Hindu-Arabic System still used today.

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 55
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF THE
HISTORY OF NUMBER SYSTEMS

The number system prevailed longer than the empire itself, remaining in common use until
the 14th century when they were superseded by the Arabic system, which was introduced to Europe
in the 11th century .

The Roman Empire had inspirational, industrious and intellectual beginnings. Emperor
Domitianus, Aristotle, Aristarchus, Eratosthenes, Euclid and Archimedes helped to build Rome into
an ancient power, developing sophisticated intellectual and mathematical skills to build Colosseum,
Constantine’s Arch, Pantheon, Roman baths and Civil society.

The Roman numeral system was descended from ancient Etruscan numerals itself adapted
from the Greek Attic symbols. The system was somewhat flawed in that there was no symbol for
zero (0) and no real method for counting above several thousand other than adding lines around
numerals to indicate multiples.

IMPORTANCE & USES OF ROMAN NUMERALS

Today, Roman numerals appear in building cornerstones and movie credits and titles. They
are also used in names of monarchs, popes, ships and sporting events, like the Olympics and the
Super Bowl. They are still used in almost all cases for the copyright date on films, television
programs, and videos - for example MCMLXXXVI for 1986.
Roman numerals are used in astronomy to designate moons and in chemistry to denote
groups of the Periodic Table. They can be seen in tables of contents and in manuscript outlines, as
upper- and lower-case Roman numerals break information into an easily organized structure. Music
theory employs Roman numerals in notation symbols.

REMEMBER. . .
Today the use of Roman numerals is limited to certain fields such as:
Watches
Enumerate volumes, chapters and volumes of a work.
Names of popes, kings and emperors.
Acts and scenes of a play.
The appointment of congresses, Olympics, assemblies, competitions, etc.

HOW TO READ & WRITE ROMAN NUMERALS

Roman numerals are a type of number system that is used to represent a fixed integer
value. It was widely used throughout Europe as the standard writing system until the late middle
ages. It came into being as the ancient Romans figured that once a number reaches 10 it becomes
very hard to count on one’s fingers. Thus, there was a need to create a standardized system that
could be used for trade and communications.

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 56
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF THE
HISTORY OF NUMBER SYSTEMS

The Roman numeral is an additive and subtractive system in which letters are used to
denote certain base numbers and arbitrary numbers in the number system. Roman numerals are
denoted using a different combination of symbols that include English alphabets.
Numbers are formed by combining various letters and finding the sum of those values. The
numerals are placed from left to right, and the order of the numerals determines whether you add or
subtract the values. If one or more letters are placed after a letter of greater value, you add. If a
letter is placed before a letter of greater value, you subtract.

One way of easily mastering the Roman numerals is by using mnemonics.

Think "MeDiCaL XaVIer".

It has the roman numerals in descending order from 1000
to 1.

The seven symbols used by Romans in writing their numeral system. Each symbol has its
corresponding value in the Hindu-Arabic numerals.

METHOD FOR ADDING ROMAN NUMERALS

Let’s imagine that we are adding the numbers CXXIV and CXL, but we have no idea
how to interpret them in the decimal system. No problem, our method helps us find the right
solution. Let’s go!

As you know, when a symbol of a lesser value appears to the left of another, they are
subtracted. This is known as subtractive notation. In this first stage of the method, we
need to eliminate including any necessary symbols. For example, IV becomes IIII. In our
case, CXXIV → CXXIIII and CXL → CXXXX.

In this step, we gather all the symbols that we have obtained from the previous step
and order them from greatest to least, therefore CXXIIII y CXXXX → CCXXXXXXIIII

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 57
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF THE
HISTORY OF NUMBER SYSTEMS

Replace the repeated symbols with their higher value equivalents

In our addition problem we have six X’s, so we can change 5 X’s for an L. This way
we have CCXXXXXXIIII → CCLXIIII

Introduce subtractive notation, if necessary

We review the sequence that we have done, making sure it follows the rules for
writing Roman numerals and if not, then we make the necessary modifications. So we have
to modify the last four I’s and change them to IV… which gives us CCLXIIII → CCLXIV

Now we have found the sum of CXXIV and CXL: CCLXIV! Notice that, as we
promised, we did not have to change any numbers to the decimal system.

LET’S DO THESE. . .
Write the following Roman numerals to Hindu-Arabic numerals.

1. DCCXLIII = 743 3. MMMCDXXXVII = 3 437

2. CMIX = 909

Once a number gets bigger than a few thousand, Roman numerals become unwieldy. There
are no 'bigger' symbols for 5000, 10,000 or a million. The Romans had two ways of writing bigger
numbers.
The Romans sometimes used multiple parentheses to denote nested multiplications by 10,
so (I) for , ((I)) for , (((I))) for , etc. (Cajori 1993, p. 33).
The Romans also occasionally used a vinculum (called a titulus in the Middle Ages) over a
Roman numeral to indicate multiplication by 1000, so:

I = 1 000, IV = 4000, VII = 7000, etc. (Menninger 1992, p. 281; Cajori 1993, p. 32).
For large numbers, the Romans placed a partial frame around numbers (open at the
bottom), which indicated that the framed number was to be multiplied by 100 000, as illustrated
above (Menninger 1992, p. 44; Cajori 1993, p. 32).

LET’S DO THESE. . .
Write the following Roman numerals to Hindu-Arabic numerals.

1. XVCCXLI = 15 241 5. 12 709 = XMMDCCIX = (XII) DCCIX

2. (LVIII) = 58 000 6. 761 234 845 = (DCCLXI) (CCXXXIV) DCCXLV

3. ((XII)) = 120 000 7. 7 223 016 = LXXII XXIIIXVI

4. CCXCIV = 29, 400, 000 8. 440 911 = ((XLIV))CMXI

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 58
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF THE
HISTORY OF NUMBER SYSTEMS

REFERENCES

https://www.mathsisfun.com/roman-numerals.html
https://www.britannica.com/topic/I-letter
https://www.livescience.com/32052-roman-numerals.html
https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/roman-numerals-their-
origins-impact-and-limitations
https://www.cuemath.com/numbers/roman-numerals/
https://byjus.com/maths/roman-numerals/
https://www.math-only-math.com/roman-numerals.html
https://www.math-only-math.com/roman-symbols.html
https://tacomacc.instructure.com/courses/1931063/pages/roman-numeration-system
https://www.purplemath.com/modules/romannum.htm
https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-are-roman-numerals.html
https://www.smartick.com/blog/math/learning-resources/roman-numerals-add/
https://www.ipracticemath.com/learn/numbersense/roman-numerals
https://www.toppr.com/guides/maths/knowing-our-numbers/roman-numerals/
https://skidos.com/blog/zero-in-roman-numerals/
https://www.theschoolrun.com/what-are-roman-numerals
https://historylearning.com/a-history-of-ancient-rome/history-of-roman-numerals/

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 59
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF THE
HISTORY OF NUMBER SYSTEMS

CHAPTER 2

Today the most universally used system of numeration is the Hindu-Arabic System, also
known as the Decimal System or Base Ten System. The system was named for the Indian scholars
who invented it at least as early as 800 BC and for the Arabs who transmitted it to the western
world. Since the base of the system is ten, it requires special symbols for the numbers zero through
nine. The Hindu-Arabic numerals are said to have come from the Hindus, Egyptians, Persians and
Arabs.
The modern numbers also referred to as Hindu-Arabic numbers are a blend of just ten digits
or symbols namely: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 0. The introduction of these digits was done in the
twelfth century by an Italian mathematician, Leonardo Pisano also known as Fibonacci. This
mathematician obtained his education in North Africa where he learned and later transferred to Italy
the commonly known as Hindu-Arabic numerals.
This lesson will discuss the origin and evolution of the Hindu-Arabic numerals. It will focus
also on the symbols used in reading and writing the decimal numerals and its properties.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

 Discuss the origin and evolution of the Hindu-Arabic Numeration System;
 Discuss the importance and uses of Hindu-Arabic numerals;
 Identify and determine the value of the symbols used in writing Hindu-Arabic numerals;
 Determine the properties of the decimal numerals.
.

LEARNING CONTENT

LESSON 2.5: THE HINDU-ARABIC NUMERATION SYSTEM

By the 11th century, Hindu–Arabic numerals had been introduced into Europe from al-
Andalus, by way of Arab traders and arithmetic treatises.
The 0–9 digits used today were developed from Arabic-Hindu numerals system. This system
was named so following their development via various Indian and Middle Eastern language
systems. Originally they came from Sanskrit and Brahmi, developing into Western and Eastern
Arabic forms and were utilized in Europe from 11th century and later. The cipher and zero were
named after zephirum an Arabic word.
The Hindu–Arabic numeral system or Hindu numeral system is a
positional decimal numeral system, nowadays the most common symbolic representation of
numbers in the world. It was invented between the 1st and 4th centuries by Indian mathematicians.
The system was adopted by Persian mathematicians (Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī's c.
825 book On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals) and Arab mathematicians (Al-Kindi's c. 830

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 60
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

HISTORY
volumes On the Use of the Hindu Numerals) by the 9th century. It later spread OF THE
to medieval Europe
by the High Middle Ages. NUMBER SYSTEMS

The Hindu-Arabic numerals uses set of 10 symbols—1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0—that

represent numbers in the decimal number system. They originated in India in the 6th or 7th century
and were introduced to Europe through Arab mathematicians around the 12th century. They
represented a profound break with previous methods of counting, such as the abacus, and paved
the way for the development of algebra.
The system is based upon ten (originally nine) different glyphs. The symbols (glyphs) used
to represent the system are in principle independent of the system itself. The glyphs in actual use
are descended from Brahmi numerals and have split into various typographical variants since
the Middle Ages.

The development of these ten symbols and their use in a

positional system comes to us primarily from India.
It was not until the 15th century that the symbols that we are
familiar with today first took form in Europe. However, the history of these
numbers and their development goes back hundreds of years. One
TheAl-Biruni
Brahmi numerals important source
as the basis of information
of the system predate on this topic is the
the Common Era .writer Al-Biruni,
They replaced
whose picture is shown on the left. Al-Biruni, who
the earlier Kharosthi numerals used since the 4th century BC. Brahmi and Kharosthi numerals was born in modern
day Uzbekistan, had visited India on several occasions
were used alongside one another in the Maurya Empire period, both appearing on the 3rd century and made
BC edicts of Ashoka. comments on the Indian number system. When we look at the origins of
the numbers that Al-Biruni encountered, we have to go back to the third
Buddhist inscriptionscentury
from around
BCE to300 BC use
explore theirthe symbols
origins. It isthat
thenbecame
that the1,Brahmi
4 and numerals
6. One
century later, their use of the symbols
were that became 2, 4, 6, 7 and 9 was recorded. These Brahmi
being used.
numerals are the ancestors of the Hindu–Arabic glyphs 1 to 9, but they were not used as
a positional system with a zero, and there were rather separate numerals for each of the tens (10,
20, 30, etc.).
The actual numeral system, including positional notation and use of zero, is in principle
independent of the glyphs used, and significantly younger than the Brahmi numerals.
The Brahmi numerals were more complicated than those used in our own modern system.
They had separate symbols for the numbers 1 through 9, as well as distinct symbols for 10, 100,
1000,…, also for 20, 30, 40,…, and others for 200, 300, 400, …, 900.

The Brahmi symbols for 1, 2, and 3 are shown to the right. These
numerals were used all the way up to the fourth century CE, with
variations through time and geographic location.

For example, in the first century CE,

one particular set of Brahmi numerals
took on the following form:

From the fourth century on, you can actually trace several different paths that the Brahmi
numerals took to get to different points and incarnations. One of those paths led to our current
numeral system, and went through what are called the Gupta numerals. HISTORY OF THE
NUMBER SYSTEMS

The Gupta numerals were prominent during a time

ruled by the Gupta dynasty and were spread
throughout that empire as they conquered lands
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
during OFthe
COLLEGE fourth through sixth centuries. They
EDUCATION 61
have theOFfollowing
BACHELOR SECONDARY form:
EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

The Gupta numerals eventually evolved into another

form of numerals called the Nagari numerals, and
these continued to evolve until the eleventh century, at
which time they looked like this:

Note that by this time, the symbol for 0 has appeared! The Mayans in the Americas had a
symbol for zero long before this, however, as we shall see later in the chapter. These numerals
were adopted by the Arabs, most likely in the eighth century during Islamic incursions into the
northern part of India. It is believed that the Arabs were instrumental in spreading them to other
parts of the world.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE HINDU-ARABIC NUMERATION SYSTEM

The place-value system is used in the Bakhshali Manuscript. Although date of the
composition of the manuscript is uncertain, the language used in the manuscript indicates that it
could not have been composed any later than 400. The development of the positional decimal
system takes its origins in Hindu mathematics during the Gupta period. Around 500, the
astronomer Aryabhata uses the word kha ("emptiness") to mark "zero" in tabular arrangements of
digits. The 7th century Brahmagphuta Siddhanta contains a comparatively advanced understanding
of the mathematical role of zero. The Sanskrit translation of the lost 5th century Prakrit Jaina
cosmological text Lokavibhaga may preserve an early instance of positional use of zero.
These Indian developments were taken up in Islamic mathematics in the 8th century, as
recorded in al-Qifti's Chronology of the scholars (early 13th century).
The numeral system came to be known to both
the Persian Muslim mathematician Khwarizmi, who wrote a book, On the Calculation with Hindu
Numerals in about 825, and the Arab mathematician Al-Kindi, who wrote four volumes, On the Use
of the Hindu Numerals around 830. These earlier texts did not use the Hindu numerals. Kushyar ibn
Labban who wrote Kitab fi usul hisab al-hind (Principles of Hindu Reckoning) is one of the
oldest surviving manuscripts using the Hindu numerals. These books are principally responsible for
the diffusion of the Hindu system of numeration throughout the Islamic world and ultimately also to
Europe.
The first dated and undisputed inscription showing the use of a symbol for zero appears on a
stone inscription found at the Chaturbhuja Temple at Gwalior in India, dated 876. In 10th
century Islamic mathematics, the system was extended to include fractions, as recorded in a
treatise by Syrian mathematician Abu'l-Hasan al-Uqlidisi in 952–953.

ADOPTION in EUROPE:
In Christian Europe, the first mention and representation of Hindu-Arabic numerals (from one
to nine, without zero), is in the Codex Vigilanus, an illuminated compilation of various historical
documents from the Visigothic period in Spain, written in the year 976 by three monks of
the Riojan monastery of San Martín de Albelda. Between 967 and 969, Gerbert of
Aurillac discovered and studied Arab science in the Catalan abbeys. Later he obtained from these
places the book De multiplicatione et divisione (On multiplication and division). After
becoming pope Sylvester II in the year 999, he introduced a new model of abacus, the so-
called Abacus of Gerbert, by adopting tokens representing Hindu-Arab numerals, from one to nine.
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 62
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF THE
HISTORY OF NUMBER SYSTEMS

Leonardo Fibonacci brought this system to Europe. His book Liber Abaci introduced
Arabic numerals, the use of zero, and the decimal place system to the Latin world. The numeral
system came to be called "Arabic" by the Europeans. It was used in European mathematics from
the 12th century, and entered common use from the 15th century to replace Roman
numerals. Robert Chester translated the Latin into English.

Leonardo Pisano Bigollo, (1170-1250) also known as Leonardo of Pisa, or,

simply Fibonacci, was an Italian mathematician. Fibonacci is best known to the
modern world for the spreading of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system in Europe,
primarily through the publication in the early 13th century of his Book of
Calculation, the Liber Abaci. Leonardo introduced the Hindu - Arabic numerals to
the west. He wrote in his book at the beginning: “There are nine figures of the
Indian 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9. With these nine figures and the symbol 0, which in
Arabic is called zephirum, any number can be written as ......”

This is the first time a European mathematician described zero. Comparing the calculation of
Roman numerals last section, it is obvious that the Hindu–Arabic numerals has much more
advantages than the Roman one. Nevertheless, more than 700 years ago, people did not think so.
For many years, account books were still kept in Roman numerals. It was believed that the Hindu-
Arabic numerals could be altered too easily, and thus it was risky to depend on them alone in
recording large commercial transaction. In 1298, the city council of Florence, Italy, banned the
use of zero entirely. Sometimes during the 14th century Italian merchants began to use some
Arabic figures in their account books. In La disme (1585), Simon Steven introduced decimal
fractions as part of project to unify the whole system of measurements on a decimal base. It was
one of the great improvements made possible by the general introduction of the Hindu-Arabic
system of numeration.
The familiar shape of the Western Arabic glyphs as now used with the Latin alphabet (0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9) are the product of the late 15th to early 16th century, when they enter
early typesetting. Muslim scientists used the Babylonian numeral system, and merchants used
the Abjad numerals, a system similar to the Greek numeral system and the Hebrew numeral
system. Similarly, Fibonacci's introduction of the system to Europe was restricted to learned circles.
The credit for first establishing widespread understanding and usage of the decimal positional
notation among the general population goes to Adam Ries, an author of the German Renaissance,
whose 1522 Rechenung auff der linihen und federn was targeted at the apprentices of businessmen
and craftsmen.

PROPERTIES OF HINDU-ARABIC NUMERALS

The Hindu-Arabic numeration system evolved around A.D. 800. It is basically the numeration
system that is widely used today. The following lists 4 main attributes of this numeration system
1. It uses 10 digits or symbols that can be used in combination to represent all possible
numbers. The digits are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9.
2. It groups by tens, probably because we have 10 digits on our two hands. Interestingly
enough, the word digit literally means finger or toes. In the Hindu-Arabic numeration system,
ten ones are replaced by one ten, ten tens are replaced by one hundred, ten hundreds are
replaced by one thousand, 10 one thousand are replaced by 10 thousands, and so forth...
3. It uses a place value. Starting from right to left, the first number represents how many ones
there are the second number represents how many tens there are the third number
represents how many hundreds there are the fourth number represents how many
thousands there are and so on...

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 63
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF
HISTORY OF THE
4. The system is additive and multiplicative. The value of a numeral NUMBER
is found by multiplying
SYSTEMS
each place value by its corresponding digit and then adding the resulting products.

THE ADVANTAGES OF HINDU–ARABIC SYSTEM OF NUMERATION

Because it has a zero symbol the advantages are that addition, subtraction, division and
multiplication operations are easier to be carried out than a numeration system that does not have a
zero symbol like the Roman numeral system.
The other advantage of the Arabic system - even more important than the zero (which can
be, and has been, added into the Roman system) is that the Arabic system is a "place system". This
means that the value of a digit depends on where it occurs in a number. This means that 113, 131
and 311 all mean something different, although they have exactly the same digits in them and
exactly the same number of digits. This is because the 3 in the first number (113) means 3 "units"
(just plain "three"). It means 3 tens (or "thirty") in the second number (131) and three hundreds
(which we pronounce "three hundred") in the number 311.
A place system can be seen as putting things into columns. You work from right to left,
putting the number of units in the first column, the number of tens in the next and so on through
hundreds, thousands, tens of thousands and so on.
In fact there is no limit to number of digits you can add. Though after a while there are so
many digits that, even with commas to help, there are too many to be readable, and people who
habitually use very large numbers (like astronomers and physicists) adopt one of a number of
modifications to the standard Arabic system. We have also recently (20th century) had to add extra
names to the Arabic system - like "trillion" to cope with numbers like national debts!
However, the place system with only the numbers we use to count with ("One, two, three,
four" and so on) has a major weakness. Using those numbers means that you have no way of
showing that you have nothing in a particular place - so if you have the number "three hundred and
one" and you are using the Arabic system without a zero you would have to leave a blank and write
three hundred and one as 3 1 - to show that you have 3 hundreds and 1 unit, but no tens. Now 3 1
is easy to mistake for thirty-one or even for three thousand and one.
So, to show that any particular column is blank, we now have the zero sign, so "three
hundred and one" is written 301, and is easy to distinguish from "thirty-one" (31) and three thousand
and one (3001). This is why the zero is so important - it makes the column system really efficient.
Once you have this system you can use a column system for all sorts of arithmetical calculations,
which can be done on paper, or written on sand tables or, of course, on computers.
The so-called Arabic numbering system (really derived from Indian mathematicians) arrived
in Europe in what we now call the late Middle Ages. It made possible more complex operations
involving multiplication and division which were previously the territory only of the skilled abacus
user. It revolutionized not only scientific calculation, but also commercial and financial calculation
and made possible the development of modern book-keeping systems. And there are other uses
and applications of the Hindu-Arabic numeration which are very useful to use at present.

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 64
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF
HISTORY OF THE
NUMBER SYSTEMS

REFERENCES

https://www.britannica.com/science/decimal
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymakermath4libarts/chapter/the-hindu-arabic-number-system/
https://byjus.com/maths/decimal-number-system/
https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/use-hindu-arabic-
numerals-aids-mathematicians-and-stimulates-commerce
https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Applied_Mathematics/Math_in_Society_(Lippman)/
14%3A_Historical_Counting_Systems/14.03%3A_The_Hindu-Arabic_Number_System
https://www.slideshare.net/alfiramitahertanti/history-of-hindu-arabic-numerals
https://www.jstor.org/stable/41183800
https://studylib.net/doc/8706022/roman-and-hindu-arabic-numerals---1.0
https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/historical-about-the-hindu-arabic-numerals-report-examples/
https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/historical-about-the-hindu-arabic-numerals-report-examples/

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 65
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF BINARY SYSTEM &
OTHER BASES

CHAPTER 3
In the number system, each number is represented by its base. If the base is 2 it is a binary
number, if the base is 8 it is an octal number, if the base is 10, then it is called decimal number
system and if the base is 16, it is part of the hexadecimal number system. The conversion of
decimal numbers to any other number system is an easy method. But to convert other base number
systems into decimal numbers requires practice. In this article, let us learn more on the decimal
number system and the conversion from a decimal number system to other systems here in detail.
The fact is that we deal with base numbers all the time when doing math and we don't even
realize we are doing it.
Converting between different number bases is actually fairly simple, but the thinking behind it
can seem a bit confusing at first. And while the topic of different bases may seem somewhat
pointless to you, the rise of computers and computer graphics has increased the need for
knowledge of how to work with different (non-decimal) base systems

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

 Define basic concepts;
 Discuss the importance of binary system and other bases;
 Read and write numerals using binary and other bases;
 Convert decimal numerals to other bases and vice versa.
 Perform the four operations of numbers using different bases.

LEARNING CONTENT

LESSON 1: BASE 2 AND OTHER BASES

Base numbers are the number of units, or numbers, we use in our counting
system, also called a number system. The most common base number is ten because the
digits 0–9 are used in the number system. In other words, whenever we want to tell a
number to someone we don't use any numbers besides 0–9. If it was a base–5 number
system we would only use five different digits, like 0–4.
We can think of base numbers like the basement of a house, it is the 'foundation' of
all of our math work.
In math, a base number is written as a large number with a small 'floating' number
up to the right of the base number. The base number is the large number before the
floating number. The small 'floating' number is called the exponent. The exponent tells us
how many times we should multiply our base number times itself. The number base is also
called a radix.

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 66
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

BINARY SYSTEM &

OTHER BASES

READING & WRITING NUMBERS USING DIFFERENT BASES

BINARY SYSTEM is a system in which information can be expressed by combinations of the
digits 0 and 1.
A single binary digit (like 0 or 1) is called a “bit” which is made up from the words “binary
digit.”
In computer parlance, one binary digit is called a bit, two digits are called a crumb, four digits
are called a nibble, and eight digits are called a byte.
HISTORY OF THE BINARY SYSTEM
The Binary System of numeration is the simplest of all positional number systems. The
base - or the radix - of the binary system is 2, which means that only two digits - 0 and 1 - may
appear in a binary representation of any number. The binary system is of great help in the Nim-like
games: Plainim, Nimble, Turning Turtles, Scoring, Northcott's game, etc. More importantly, the
binary system underlies modern technology of electronic digital computers. Computer memory
comprises small elements that may only be in two states - off/on - that are associated with digits 0
and 1. Such an element is said to represent one bit - binary digit.
The first electronic computer - ENIAC which stood for Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator - was built in 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania, but the invention of the binary
system dates almost 3 centuries back. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), the co-inventor
of Calculus, published his invention in 1701 in the paper Essay d'une nouvelle science des
nombres that was submitted to the Paris Academy to mark his election to the Academy. However
the actual discovery occurred more than 20 years earlier.
` According to the Oxford Encyclopedic Dictionary (see Earliest Known Uses of Some of
the Words of Mathematics), an entry BINARY ARITHMETIC first appeared in English in 1796 in A
Mathematical and Philosophical Dictionary.
Binary numbers are written with only two symbols - 0 and 1. For example, a = 1101. Since
symbols 0 and 1 are also a part of the decimal system and in fact of a positional system with any
base, there's an ambiguity as to what 1101 actually stands for. To avoid confusion, the base is often
written explicitly, like in a = (1101)2 or b = (1101)10. In the decimal system, 1101 is interpreted as 1
thousand 1 hundred 1, which is just a sum of powers of 10 with coefficients that are the digits of the
number. More accurately, (1101)10 = 1·103 + 1·102 + 0·10 + 1.

There are several problems with using more than one number system at the same time.
Should we read (1101)2 as1 thousand 1 hundred 1 in binary? Or, after some mental calculations,
just 13 without mentioning the base? The latter possibility is overtaxing and unreasonable: why to
use a system other than the decimal in writing while depending on the decimal in speech? The
former is inappropriate altogether for etymological reasons. We might say thousand to indicate a 1
in the fourth position from the right regardless of the base of the system in use, but this would
conflict with the etymology of the word thousand, and the same is true of the word hundred. Both
are related to the base 10 and no other.
In Words of Mathematics we find the following entries: hundred (numeral): a native
English compound. The first element, hund, actually means "ten." It comes from dekt-tom, an
extension of the more basic Indo-European root dekm "ten." The second element is from the Old
English rad "number", so that hundred means literally the "tens-number" in the sense that it is ten
times ten and thousand (numeral): actually an English compound, thus-hund. The first component
is related to English thumb and thigh, and means "swollen, large." The Indo-European root
is teu- "to swell." Related borrowings from Latin aretumor and tumulus. The second component is
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 67
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

the root found in hundred (q.v.), which is based on the Indo-European root BINARY
dekm- "ten." The literal
SYSTEM &
meaning of thousand is "a swollen or big hundred" because it is ten times a hundred.
OTHER BASES

How to Show that a Number is Binary

To show that a number is a binary number, follow it with a subscript 2 like this: 101 2. This
way, people won’t think it is a decimal number “101” (one hundred and one).
Position
 In the DECIMAL SYSTEM, there are the Units, Tens, Hundreds, etc.
 In Binary, there are Units, Twos, Fours, etc., like this:

This is 1 × 8 + 1 × 4 + 0 × 2 + 1 + 1 × ( 1/2) + 0 × (1/4) + 1 × (1/8)

= 13.625 in Decimal`
Numbers can be placed to the left or right of the point, to show values
greater than one and less than one. 10.1
The number to the left of the point is a
whole number (such as 10).
As we move further left, every number place
gets 2 times bigger.
The first digit on the right
means halves (½).

As we move further right, every number place

gets 2 times smaller (half as big).
.
READING & WRITING BINARY NUMBERS…
The fact that every number has a unique binary representation tells us that every number
can be represented in a unique way as a sum of powers of 2.

In particular, the naming rules for the binary system appear as:
1. Use binary symbols 1, 0 (in a cyclic order).
2. Binary representations of numbers during their counting change with the right-most
digit changing the fastest.
3. Whenever a digit becomes 0, its neighbor to the left is replaced with its successor in
the sequence of binary symbols. If necessary, this step applies recursively.
4. If need be, i.e. whenever the left-most digit becomes 0, 1 is prepended to the
previous representation.

EXAMPLES: Express each of the following binary numbers in their corresponding decimal numbers.
a. 111012
= (1 x 20) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 22) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 24)
= 1 + 0 + 4 + 8 + 16
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 68
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF
BINARY SYSTEM &
111012 = 29 OTHER BASES

b. 10101012
= (1 x 20) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 24) + (0 x 25) + (1 x 26)
= 1 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 16 + 0 + 64
10101012 = 85
c. 1101111112
= (1 x 2 0) + (1 x 21) + (1 x 22) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 24) + (1 x 25) + (0 x 26) + (1 x 27) + (1 x
8
2)
= 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + 32 + 0 + 128 + 256
1101111112 = 447

d. 111.012
= (1 x 22) + (1 x 21) + (1 x 20) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 22)
= 4 + 2 + 1 + 0 + 0.25
111.012 = 7.25
e. 10001.1112
= (1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (0 x 22) + (0 x 21) + (1 x 20) + (1 x 21) + (1 x 22) + (1 x 23)
= 16 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1 + 0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125
10001.1012 = 17.875
f. 10.110012
= (1 x 21) + (0 x 20) + (1 x 21) + (1 x 22) + (0 x 23) + (0 x 24) + (1 x 25)
= 1 + 0 + 0.5 + 0.25 + 0 + 0 + 0.03125
10.110012 = 1.78125
EXAMPLES: Express each of the following decimal numerals in their corresponding binary
numbers.
a. 235 2. 1, 670
Quotient Remainder Quotient Remainder
235  2 117 1 1 670  2 835 0
117  2 58 1 835  2 417 1
58  2 29 0 417  2 208 1
29  2 14 1 208  2 104 0
14  2 7 0 104  2 52 0
72 3 1 52  2 26 0
32 1 1 26  2 13 0
12 0 1 13  2 6 1
Arranging the remainders from bottom to top: 62 3 0
235 in binary is 111010112 32 1 1
c. 923 12 0 1
Quotient Remainder 1 670 in binary is 110100001102
923  2 461 1
461  2 230 1
230  2 115 0 Remember. . .
115  2 57 1 "There are 102 kinds of
57  2 28 1 people in the world,
28  2 14 0 those who understand
14  2 7 0
binary numbers, and
72 3 1
3  2 UNIVERSITY-CITY
1 1 those who don't."
ISABELA STATE OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE1 OFEDUCATION
2 0 1 69
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
923 in base is 11100110112
 HISTORY OF

BINARY SYSTEM &

OTHER BASES

If the base value of a number system Steps to Convert Decimal to Ternary:

is 3, then this representation is known
1. Divide the number by 3.
as a ternary representation.
2. Get the integer quotient for the next
Ternary is a numeral system with iteration.
base 3. This essentially means it only 3. Get the remainder for the ternary
uses 3 digits to make up its numbers: digit.
0, 1, 2. 4. Repeat the steps until the quotient
is equal to 0.

Decimal to Ternary (Base 3)

Convert 211 to base 3.
Quotient Remainder
211  3 70 1
70  3 23 1
23  3 7 2
73 2 1
23 0 2

211 in ternary is 212113

Ternary is the base 3 numeral system. Analogous to a bit, a ternary digit is a TRIT
(Trinary Digit). One trit contains log2 3 (about 1.58496) bits of information. Although ternary most
often refers to a system which has 3 digits 0, 1, and 2 are all non-negative numbers, the adjective
also lends its name to balanced ternary system, used in comparison logic and ternary computers.
A base-three system is used in Islam to keep track of counting Tasbih to 99 or to 100 on a
single hand for counting prayers (as alternative for the Misbaha).
Ternary is the integer base with the highest radix economy, followed closely
by binary and quaternary. It has been used for some computing systems because of this efficiency.
More than 20 years ago, Paul Erdos and Ronald L. Graham published a conjecture about
the ternary representation of powers of 2. They observed that 22 and 28 can be written in ternary
without any 2s (the ternary numerals are 11 and 100111 respectively). But every other positive
power of 2 seems to have at least one 2 in its ternary expansion; in other words, no other power of
2 is a simple sum of powers of 3. Ilan Vardi of the Institut des hautes études scientifiques has
searched up to 26973568802 without finding a counterexample, but the conjecture remains open.
The base-3 method of counting in which only the digits 0, 1, and 2 are used. Ternary
numbers arise in a number of problems in mathematics, including some problems of weighing.
However, according to Knuth (1998), "no substantial application of balanced ternary notation has
been made" (balanced ternary uses digits -1, 0, and 1 instead of 0, 1, and 2).

QUATERNARY (Base 4)
Quaternary is the base-4 numeral system. It uses the digits 0, 1, 2 and 3 to represent
any real number. In base four, each digit in a number represents the number of copies of that
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 70
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

power of four. That is, the first digit tells you how many ones you have; the second tells you how
many fours you have; the third tells you how many sixteens (that is, how many four-times-fours)
BINARY SYSTEM & you
have; the fourth tells you how many sixty-fours (that is, how many four-times-four-times-fours)
OTHER BASES you
have; and so on.

The methodology for conversion between decimal and base-four numbers is just like
that for converting between decimals and binaries, except that binary digits can be only
"0" or "1", while the digits for base-four numbers can be "0", "1", "2", or "3".

Convert 745 to base 4. Express 3211024 to base 10.

Quotient Remainder 2 x 40 = 2
745  4 186 1 0 x 41 = 0
186  4 46 2 1 x42 = 16
46  4 11 2 1 x 43 = 64
2 x 44 = 512
11  4 2 3
3 x 45 = 3 072
24 0 2 3 206
745 in quaternary is 232214. 3211024 in decimal numerals is 3, 206.
BASE 5 (QUINARY SYSTEM)
QUINARY SYSTEM (BASE 5) is a numeral system with five as the base. A possible
origination of a quinary system is that there are five fingers on either hand. In the quinary place
system, five numerals, from 0 to 4, are used to represent any real number. The base five is stated
from 0–4. According to this method, 5 is written as 105, 25 is written as 1005 and 60 is written as
2205. The main difference between base five numeration system and our familiar base 10
numeration system is that grouping is done in groups of 5 instead of 10.
As five is a prime number, only the reciprocals of the powers of five terminate, although its
location between two highly composite numbers (4 and 6) guarantees that many recurring
fractions have relatively short periods. Each quinary digit has log 25 (approx.
2.321928094887362) bits of information.
Today, the main usage of base 5 is as a bi-quinary system, which is decimal using five as
a sub-base. Another example of a sub-base system, is sexagesimal, base 60, which used 10 as a
sub-base.
Many languages use quinary number systems, including Gumatj, Nunggubuyu, Kuurn Kopan
Noot, Luiseño and Saraveca. Gumatj is a true "5–25" language, in which 25 is the higher group of 5.
The Gumatj numerals are shown below:
A decimal system with 2 and 5 as sub-bases is called BIQUINARY, and is found
in Wolof and Khmer. Roman numerals are a bi-quinary system. The numbers 1, 5, 10, and 50 are
written as I, V, X, and L respectively. Eight is VIII and seventy is LXX. Most versions of
the abacus use a bi-quinary system to simulate a decimal system for ease of calculation. Urnfield
culture numerals and some tally mark systems are also bi-quinary. Units of currencies are
commonly partially or wholly bi-quinary.
A vigesimal system with 4 and 5 as sub-bases is found in Nahuatl and the Maya numerals
and is called QUADQUINARY.
Numbers zero to twenty-five in standard Quinary
Quinary 0 1 2 3 4 10 11 12 13 14 20 21 22
Binary 0 1 10 11 100 101 110 111 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 71
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF BINARY SYSTEM &
OTHER BASES
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Quinary 23 24 30 31 32 33 34 40 41 42 43 44 100

Binary 1101 1110 1111 10000 10001 10010 10011 10100 10101 10110 10111 11000 11001

Decimal 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Express 322 to base 5. Convert 3102425 to base 10.

Quotient Remainder
322  5 64 2 (2 x 50) = 2
64  5 12 4 (4 x 51) = 20
12  5 2 2 (2 x 52) = 50
25 0 2 (0 x 53) = 0
(1 x 54) = 625
(3 x 55) = 9 375
322 in quinary is 24225
10 072
Therefore, 3102425 in decimal numeral is 10, 072.
BASE 8 (OCTAL NUMERAL SYSTEM)
Introducing Base Eight
So what if we had eight fingers, or for some other reason, we decided to start over every
eighth number instead of every tenth? Then we would have "base eight" (also known as "octal")
counting. In this system, there are eight symbols to work with: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7.
We don't need an 8 or a 9 at all: out of just those eight symbols above, we are going to
represent every possible number! So, we start by listing all the symbols after the "zero."
The OCTAL NUMERAL SYSTEM, or OCT for short, is the BASE–8 number system, and
uses the digits 0 to 7. Octal numerals can be made from binary numerals by grouping
consecutive binary digits into groups of three (starting from the right).
The Octal Number System is another type of computer and digital base number system.
The Octal Numbering System is very similar in principle to the previous hexadecimal numbering
system except that in Octal, a binary number is divided up into groups of only 3 bits, with each
group or set of bits having a distinct value of between 000 (0) and 111 ( 4+2+1 = 7 ).
Octal numbers therefore have a range of just “8” digits, (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) making them a
base – 8 numbering system and therefore, q is equal to “8”.
Then the main characteristics of an Octal Numbering System is that there are only 8
distinct counting digits from 0 to 7 with each digit having a weight or value of just 8 starting from the
least significant bit (LSB). In the earlier days of computing, octal numbers and the octal numbering
system was very popular for counting inputs and outputs because as it works in counts of eight,
inputs and outputs were in counts of eight, a byte at a time.
As the base of an Octal Numbers system is 8 (base-8), which also represents the number
of individual numbers used in the system, the subscript 8 is used to identify a number expressed in
octal. For example, an octal number is expressed as: 2378
Just like the hexadecimal system, the “octal number system” provides a convenient way of
converting large binary numbers into more compact and smaller groups. However, these days the
octal numbering system is used less frequently than the more popular hexadecimal numbering
system and has almost disappeared as a digital base number system.

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 72
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF BINARY SYSTEM &
OTHER BASES

Representation of an Octal Number

MSB Octal Number LSB

88 87 86 85 84 83 82 81 80
16M 2M 262k 32k 4k 512 64 8 1

As the octal number system uses only eight digits (0 through 7) there are no numbers or
letters used above 8, but the conversion from decimal to octal and binary to octal follows the same
pattern as we have seen previously for hexadecimal. To count above 7 in octal we need to add
another column and start over again in a similar way to hexadecimal. 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11,
12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21, …, etc.
Again do not get confused, 10 or 20 is NOT ten or twenty it is 1 + 0 and 2 + 0 in octal exactly
the same as for hexadecimal. The relationship between binary and octal numbers is given below.
Octal Numbers
Decimal Number 3-bit Binary Number Octal Number
0 000 0
1 001 1
2 010 2
3 011 3
4 100 4
5 101 5
6 110 6
7 111 7
8 001 000 10 (1 + 0)
9 001 001 11 (1 + 1)
Continuing upwards in groups of three

Then we can see that 1 octal number or digit is equivalent to 3 bits, and with two octal
number, 778we can count up to 63 in decimal, with three octal numbers, 7778 up to 511 in decimal
and with four octal numbers, 77778 up to 4095 in decimal and so on.
While Octal is another type of digital numbering system, it is little used these days instead
the more commonly used Hexadecimal Numbering System is used as it is more flexible.

Express 130658 in decimal numerals. Express 6, 412 octal system.

1 x 84 = 4 096 Quotient Remainder

3 x 83 = 1 536 6 412  801 4
0 x 82 = 0 8
2 x 81 = 16 801  8 100 1
5 x 80 = 5 100  8 12 4
= 5 653 12  8 1 4
18 0 1
130258 in base 10 is 5, 653.
6, 412 in base 8 is 144148

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 73
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF BINARY SYSTEM &
OTHER BASES

ADDITION & MULTIPLICATION OF OCTAL SYSTEM

Base 8 Addition Table
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 3 + 5 = 10. Got it?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11
2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12
3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 4 + 6 = 12. Wonder why?
4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14
5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15
6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 5 + 7 = 14. Got a proof?

7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 20

Base 8 Multiplication Table

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10
2 4 6 8 12 14 16 20
5 x 5 = 31 . . . what a gas!
3 6 11 14 17 22 25 30 Notice it's multiplication by 4
4 10 14 20 24 30 34 40 that gives the nice sequence of
answers alternately ending in 0
5 12 17 24 31 36 43 50 and 4.
6 14 22 30 36 44 52 60
7 16 25 34 43 52 61 70
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 100

SENARY: BASE 6
In mathematics, a senary numeral system is a base-6 numeral system. The name heximal
is also valid for such a numeral system, but is deprecated to avoid confusion with the more often
used hexadecimal number base, colloquially known as 'hex'.Senary may be considered useful in the
study of prime numbers since all primes other than 2 and 3, when expressed in base-six, have 1 or
5 as the final digit.

Convert 532416 to base 10. Express 12, 894 to base 6.

1
4
2
3
5

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 74
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 BINARY SYSTEM &
HISTORY OF OTHER BASES

Most parents know the difficulty with which children learn their base ten multiplication tables,
so it seems foolish to replace this with something that seems even more complicated (owing to its
unfamiliarity). But the base six multiplication table is trivial to learn. Let's have a look.
0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 2 3 4 5
2 0 2 4 10 12 14
3 0 3 10 13 20 23
4 0 4 12 20 24 32
5 0 5 14 23 32 41

SEPTENARY: BASE 7
The septenary numeral system is the base-7 number system. A septenary number uses
only these 7 digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. Septenary is a very good numeral system for repeating
fractions, but poor for terminating fractions.

Convert 42637 to base 10. Express 35, 712 to base 7.

1
4
2
3
BASE 12 SYSTEM (DUODECIAMAL/DOZENAL SYSTEM)
Interestingly, base-10 is not universal across human societies. The Mayans were known to
use a base 20-system, and the Babylonians developed a system using sets of 60. Base-8 and base-
16 (the hexadecimal system) have also been used, mostly for computational reasons (quarters and
eighths are simplified).
But these alternative sets are still not ideal for day-to-day, human applications. Base-20 is
not great for finger counting; many of us wear shoes when we're doing math, nor can we move our
toes with any kind of dexterity. Base-8 is simply too small, and base-16 and base-60 are too
unwieldy.
Luckily, there's a base that sits in between these - - - a numbering system that has a
plethora of characteristics that simply make it the best choice for counting and calculating.

Introducing the Dozenal System

Dozenal System also called the duodecimal system, this system was initially popularized in
the 17th century when mathematicians began to recognize the limitations of base-10.
Later, during the 1930s, F. Emerson Andrews published a book, New Numbers: How
Acceptance of a Duodecimal Base Would Simplify Mathematics, in which he cogently argued
for the change. He noticed that, due to the myriad occurrences of 12 in many traditional
BINARY SYSTEMunits&of
weight and measures, many of the advantages claimed for the metric system could also be
OTHER BASES adopted
by the dozenal system.

Indeed, examples of base–12 systems abound. A carpenter's ruler has 12 subdivisions,

grocers deal in dozens and grosses (12 dozen equals a gross), pharmacists and jewelers use the
12 ounce pound, and minters divide shillings into 12 pence. Even our timing and dating system
depends on it; there are 12 months in the year, and our day is measured in 2 sets of 12.
Additionally, in geometry, a circle is replete with subsets and supersets of 12 - - - what's measured
in degrees (a 360 degree circle consists of 30 sets of 12).
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 75
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

It's also obvious that someone in our history was thinking along these lines. It's the largest
number with a single-morpheme name in English (i.e. the word "twelve"). After that, we hit thirteen,
fourteen, fifteen, and so on - - - derivatives of three, four and five. Clearly, it was natural to think in
terms of dozens.
Since the time of Andrews and Aitken, the dozenal movement has garnered a number of
enthusiastic supporters, including the advent of the Dozenal Society of America and the Dozenal
Society of Great Britain. The basic argument from these so-called dozenalists is that it makes
mathematics easier to conceptualize and understand, especially for children and students. Here's
why they're right.

It's All About the Factors

First and foremost, 12 is a highly composite number - - - the smallest number with exactly
four divisors: 2, 3, 4, and 6 (six if you count 1 and 12). As noted, 10 has only two. Consequently, 12
is much more practical when using fractions - - - it's easier to divide units of weights and measures
into 12 parts, namely halves, thirds, and quarters.
Moreover, with base-12, we can use these three most common fractions without having to
employ fractional notations. The numbers 6, 4, and 3 are all whole numbers. On the other hand,
with base-10, we have to deal with unwieldy decimals, ½ = 0.5, ¼ = 0.25, and worst of all, the highly
problematic ⅓ = 0.333333333333333333333.
And similar to the base-16 hexadecimal system, the dozenal system is exceptionally friendly
to computer science. The number 12 has two factors that are prime numbers, 2 and 3. This means
that the reciprocals of all smooth numbers (a number which factors completely into small prime
numbers), such as 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, have a terminating representation in duodecimal. Twelve just
happens to be the smallest number with this feature, thus making it an extremely efficient number
for encryption purposes and for computing fractions — and this includes the decimal, vigesimal,
binary, octal, and hexadecimal systems.
Interestingly, the dozenal system would also make it easier
to tell time. Five minutes is a 12th of an hour, so instead of
saying "five past one," we could say "one and a twelfth"
hours. Ten past one would be 1;2, a quarter past one 1;3,
and so on (the symbol ";" is used as the fractional point).
But this would require a new clock. For it to work, both the
hour hand and the minute hand would point to the precise
time. In the conventional decimal clock, the minute hand
awkwardly points to a number that has to be multiplied by
five.
NOTATION AND PRONUNCIATION
Recognizing the advantages of a base–12 system, Andrews designed a new notation to
account for two new numbers. Instead of using "A" and "B" for 10 and 11 (as per the hexadecimal
system), Andrews suggested a script X (U+1D4B3) and E (U+2130), with 10 duodecimal
representing 12 decimal. So the first 12 numbers would look like 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, , Ɛ, 10

Others have suggested that 10 could be written as "T" and the numberSYSTEM
BINARY eleven &
"E."
Mathematician Isaac Pitman wanted to use a rotated " " for ten and a reversed " " forBASES
OTHER eleven (as
per the clock above).
In terms of pronunciation, Donald P. Goodman, president of the Dozenal Society of America,
says that  should be called "ten", Ɛ called "elv" and 10 pronounced "unqua." So, when counting,
we'd say, "...eight, nine, ten elv, unqua."

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 76
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

Interestingly, in the 1973 episode "Little Twelvetoes" of the Schoolhouse Rock! television
series, an alien child uses a base-12 system and pronounces the last three numbers "dek," "el" and
"doh." "Dek" was derived from the prefix "deca", while "el" was short for "eleven," and "doh" a
shortening of "dozen." Many dozenalists have adopted this particular pronunciation system.
Now, to pronounce numbers greater than 12, like duodecimal 15, we would say doh-five, which
is a compound of doh, which is twelve, and five. We can extend this for other numbers such as
duodecimal 64, which would be pronounced as six-doh-four. If we were to reach and surpass the
number EE, (el-doh-el), we need a new word for the digits in the third column over.
The word for 144 decimal, or 100 dozenal, is called "gros" (the ‘s' is silent) So, a three-digit
dozenal number, such as 25X, would be pronounced as "two-gros-five-doh-dek." In decimal, this
number is 358.

Counting Fingers
 Critics of the dozenal system say that it would undermine the benefits of finger counting.
But as dozenalists are happy to point out, each finger consists of three
parts. So, starting with the index finger, and using the thumb as a
pointer, we can immediately denote the first three digits (working our
way from bottom to the top of the finger). Then, the middle finger can
denote 4, 5, 6, the middle finger, 7, 8, 9, and so on. Using this system,
our two hands gives us a total of 24 numbers to work with. Some
finger-counters work their way from left to right, designating the tips of
their fingers 1, 2, 3, 4.
Duodecimal (or dozenal) is a counting system based on the number 12, and it has some
advantages over the base-10 decimal method of counting. One of them is a lower abundance of
repeating decimals for simpler fractions; another is the high divisibility of 12. Larger numbers would
also take up less space, and duodecimal is easier to convert into binary, octal, and hexadecimal
should the need arise. The benefits of decimal are only that we have ten fingers and its widespread
use - two benefits that would be rendered moot only with a bit of effort and some genetic
engineering.
Duodecimal has found its way into several aspects of language. Early English had a
duodecimal counting system - - - which is why the "teens" start at thirteen, and eleven and twelve
have non-derived names. Then there is the dozen itself - and twelve inches in a foot. The metric
system would be useful, since it is standardized. Unfortunately, it is based on decimal. A standard
metric system based on twelve would offer many more conveniences.
The base–12 number system composed of the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, , Ɛ. Such a
system has been advocated by no less than Herbert Spencer, John Quincy Adams, and George
Bernard Shaw (Gardner 1984). In fact, duodecimal still has its advocates, some of whom term it
"dozenal."
REMEMBER. . .
The number twelve, a superior highly composite number, is the smallest
number with four non-trivial factors (2, 3, 4, 6), and the smallest to include
as factors all four numbers (1 to 4) within the subtilizing range.

BINARY SYSTEM &

OTHER BASES

Convert 128Ɛ5X12 to base 10.

Convert 15, 211 to base 12.
 x 12
ISABELA STATE
0
= 10
UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
1
5 xEDUCATION
12 = 60 Quotient Remainder
COLLEGE OF 77
BACHELORƐOF SECONDARY
x 12 2
= 1 584EDUCATION 15 210  12 1267 6
8 x 123 = 13 824 1 267  12 105 7
2 x 124 = 41 472 105  12 8 9
1 x 125 = 248 832 8  12 0 8
= 305 782
 HISTORY OF

BASE 16 (HEXADECIMALSYSTEM)
Hexadecimal --- also known as hex or base 16 --- is a system we can use to write and
share numerical values. In that way it's no different than the most famous of numeral systems (the
one we use every day): decimal. Decimal is a base 10 number system (perfect for beings with 10
fingers), and it uses a collection of 10 unique digits, which can be combined to positionally represent
numbers.
Hex, like decimal, combines a set of digits to create large numbers. It just so happens that
hex uses a set of 16 unique digits. Hex uses the standard 0-9, but it also incorporates six digits
you wouldn't usually expect to see creating numbers: A, B, C, D, E, and F.

DEFINITION. . .
Hexadecimal (or hex) is a base 16 system used to simplify
how binary is represented. A hex digit can be any of the following 16
digits: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F.
Each hex digit reflects a 4–bit binary sequence.

Hex, along with decimal and binary, is one of the most commonly encountered numeral
systems in the world of electronics and programming. It's important to understand how hex works,
because, in many cases, it makes more sense to represent a number in base 16 than with binary or
decimal.
Convert 5, 234 to base 16.
Express 14A3F16 to base 10.
Quotient Remainder
0
15 x 16 = 15 5 234  327 2
1
3 x 16 = 48 16
10 x 162 = 2 560 327  16 20 7
3
4 x16 = 16 384 20  16 1 4
4
1 x 16 = 65 536 1  16 0 4
= 84 547
14A3F in decimal numerals is 84, 547. Convert 851, 915 to base 16.
Quotient Remainder
Express 59C7EB16 to base 10.

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 78
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 BINARY SYSTEM &
HISTORY OF OTHER BASES

Base–20 (VIGESIMAL NUMERATION SYSTEM)

The vigesimal or base 20 numeral system is based on twenty. A base-20 number system
was used by the Aztecs and Mayans. The Mayans compiled extensive observations of planetary
positions in base-20 notation. Vigesimal is derived from the Latin adjective vicesimus, meaning
'twentieth'.
The digits used to represent numbers using vigesimal notation are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and J.
Decimal Numerals 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 11 12 1 14 15 1 17 18 19
0 3 6
Vigesimal Numerals 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F G H I J

LET’S DO THESE. . .
Convert 32B4J20 to base 10.
Convert 98, 613 to base 20.
J
4 Quotient Remainder
B 98 613  20
2  20
3  20
 20

MULTIPLICATION TABLE FOR VIGESIMAL SYSTEM

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 79
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F G H I J
2 4 6 8 A C E G I 10 12 14 16 18 1A 1C 1E 1G 1I
3 6 9 C F I 11 14 17 1A 1D 1G 1J 22 25 28 2B 2E 2H
1
4 8 C G 10 14 18 1C 20 24 28 2C 2G 30 34 38 3C 3G
G
5 A F 10 15 1A 1F 20 25 2A 2F 30 35 3A 3F 40 45 4A 4F
1
6 C I 14 1A 22 28 2E 30 36 3C 3I 44 4A 4G 52 58 5E
G
7 E 11 18 1F 22 29 2G 33 3A 3H 44 4B 4I 55 5C 5J 66 6D
8 G 14 1C 20 28 2G 34 3C 40 48 4G 54 5C 60 68 6G 74 7C
1
9 I 17 25 2E 33 3C 41 4A 4J 58 5H 66 6F 74 7D 82 8B
G
A 10 1A 20 2A 30 3A 40 4A 50 5A 60 6A 70 7A 80 8A 90 9A
B 12 1D 24 2F 36 3H 48 4J 5A 61 6C 73 7E 85 8G 97 9I A9
7
C 14 1G 28 30 3C 44 4G 58 60 6C 74 88 90 9C A4 AG B8
G
D 16 1J 2C 35 3I 4B 54 5H 6A 73 7G 89 92 9F A8 B1 BE C7
2
E 18 22 3A 44 4I 5C 66 70 7E 88 92 9G AA B4 BI CC D6
G
BINARY SYSTEM &
F 1A 25 30 3F 4A 55 60 6F 7A 85 90 9F AA B5 C0 CF DA E5
OTHER BASES
4 C
G 1C 28 34 40 5C 68 74 80 8G 9C A8 B4 C0 DC E8 F4
G G
BASE
60 H 1E 2B 38 45 52 5J 6G 7D 8A 97 A4 B1 BI CF DC E9 F6 G3
B
I 1G 2E 3C 4A 58 66 74 82 90 9I AG CC DA E8 F6 G4 H2
E
3
J 1I 2H 4F 5E 6D 7C 8B 9A A9 B8 C7 D6 E5 F4 G3 H2 I1
G
(SEXAGESIMAL SYSTEM)
Sexagesimal, also known as base 60 or sexagenary, is a numeral system with sixty as its
base. In base 60, each digit in a number represents the number of copies of that power of 60.

LET’S DO THESE. . .
Convert 2,34,47,5360 to base
10. Convert 89, 796 to base 60.

Quotient Remainder
89 796  60
 60
 60
 60

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 80
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

Convert 1,18,27,33,12,560 to
base 10. Convert 175, 511 to base 60.

Quotient Remainder
175 511 
60
 60
 60
 60

REMEMBER. . .

To convert base 10 to a given base,

First, divide the number by the base to get
the remainder. This remainder is the first, ie
least significant, digit of the new number in To convert numbers to
the other base a given base to base
Then repeat the process by dividing the 10, just multiply the
quotient of step 1, by the new base. This digits used in the
time, the remainder is the second digit, ie numeral with powers
the second least significant. of given base.

Repeat this process until your quotient

becomes less than the base. This quotient
is the last digit, ie the most significant digit.

BINARY SYSTEM &

OTHER BASES

BINARY SYSTEM &

OTHER BASES

REFERENCES

https://www.mathsisfun.com/numbers/bases.html
https://www.purplemath.com/modules/numbbase.htm
https://www.expii.com/t/base-binary-numbers-9192
https://www.thoughtco.com/changing-from-base-10-to-base-2-2312136
ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 81
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
 HISTORY OF

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/math4libarts/chapter/binary-octal-and-hexadecimal/
https://www.varsitytutors.com/hotmath/hotmath_help/topics/different-bases
https://code.tutsplus.com/articles/number-systems-an-introduction-to-binary-hexadecimal-and-more--active-
10848
http://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/math111/chapter/other-bases/
https://betterexplained.com/articles/numbers-and-bases/
https://www.theproblemsite.com/reference/mathematics/number-theory/bases/working-in-other-bases
https://www.cimt.org.uk/projects/mepres/book9/bk9i1/bk9_1i4.html
https://artofproblemsolving.com/wiki/index.php/Base_numbers
https://hcmop.wordpress.com/2012/04/17/interesting-problems-involving-numbers-of-different-bases/
https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-a-base-number.html

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY-CITY OF ILAGAN CAMPUS

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 82
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION