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CHAPTER 6
6. DEFLECTION OF STRUCTURES
6.1 Introduction
Structures, like all other physical bodies, deform and change shape when subjected to forces.
Other common causes of deformations of structures include temperature changes and support
settlements. If the deformations disappear and the structure regains its original shape when
the actions causing the deformations are removed, the deformations are termed elastic
deformations. The permanent deformations of structures are referred to as inelastic, or
plastic, deformations. In this chapter, we will focus our attention on linear elastic
deformations. Such deformations vary linearly with applied loads (for instance, if the
magnitudes of the loads acting on the structure are doubled, its deformations are also
doubled, and so forth). The principle of superposition is valid for such structures.
For most structures, excessive deformations are undesirable, as they may impair the
structure’s ability to serve its intended purpose. Structures are usually designed so that their
deflections under normal service conditions will not exceed the allowable values specified in
building codes.
The methods that have been developed for computing deflections can be broadly classified
into two categories, (1) geometric methods and (2) work-energy methods. As these names
imply, geometric methods are based on a consideration of the geometry of the deflected
shapes of structures, whereas the work-energy methods are based on the basic principles of
work and energy.
Deflection of beams and frames is the deviation of the configuration of beams and frames
from their un-displaced state to the displaced state, measured from the neutral axis of a beam
or a frame member. It is the cumulative effect of deformation of the infinitesimal elements of
a beam or frame member. As shown in the figure below, an infinitesimal element of width dx
can be subjected to all three actions, thrust, T, shear, V, and moment, M. Each of these actions
has a different effect on the deformation of the element.

6.2 DIRECT INTEGRATION METHOD

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Linear Flexural Beam theory—Classical Beam Theory
The classical beam theory is based on the following assumptions:
(1) Shear deformation effect is negligible.
(2) Transverse deflection is small (<< depth of beam).
(3) The normal to a transverse section remains normal after deformation.
(4) The arc length of a deformed beam element is equal to the length of the beam element
before deformation.

Fig. 6.1: Beam element deformation and the resulting curvature of the neutral axis (n.a).

From Fig.6.1, it is clear that the rotation of a section is equal to the rotation of the neutral
axis. The rate of change of angle of the neutral axis is defined as the curvature. The reciprocal
of the curvature is called the radius of curvature, denoted by ρ.
The strain in arc 𝑑𝑠, located at a position y from the neutral axis is:
(𝑑𝑠 − 𝑑𝑠 ′ )
𝜀=
𝑑𝑠
However,
𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜌 𝑑𝜃 and 𝑑𝑠 ′ = (𝜌 − 𝑦)𝑑𝜃
𝜌𝑑𝜃 − (𝜌 − 𝑦)𝑑𝜃 1 𝜀
𝜀= 𝑜𝑟 =
𝜌𝑑𝜃 𝜌 𝑦

For a beam made of linearly elastic materials, 𝜀 = 𝜎/𝐸. Also flexure formula 𝜎 = 𝑀𝑦/𝐼
applies. Combining these equations and substituting into the above equations:
1 𝑀
=
𝜌 𝐸𝐼
This equation is applicable to all beams made of linearly elastic materials and is independent
of any coordinate system. In order to compute any beam deflection, measured by the
deflection of its neutral axis, however, we need to define a coordinate system as shown in

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Fig.6.2 below. Henceforth, it is understood that the line or curve shown for a beam represents
that of the neutral axis of the beam.

Fig.6.2: Deflection curve and the coordinate system

In Fig.6.2, u and v are the displacements of a point of the neutral axis in the x and y-direction,
respectively. As explained earlier, the axial displacement, u, is separately considered and we
shall concentrate on the transverse displacement, v. At a typical location, x, the arc length, ds
and its relation with its x- and y-components is depicted in the figure below.

Fig.6.3: Arc length, its x- and y-component, and the angle of rotation
The small deflection assumption of the classical beam theory allows us to write

𝑑𝜃 1 𝑑𝜃
= = = 𝜃 ′ = 𝑣 ′′
𝑑𝑠 𝜌 𝑑𝑥
This in turn leads to:

This last equation is the basis for the solution of the deflection curve.

By direct Integration:
Slope (Rotation) is Deflection:

6.3 MOMENT-AREA METHOD

The method is based on two theorems, called the moment-area theorems, relating the
geometry of the elastic curve of a beam to its M/EI diagram, which is constructed by dividing
the ordinates of the bending moment diagram by the flexural rigidity EI. The method utilizes
graphical interpretations of integrals involved in the solution of the deflection differential
equation in terms of the areas and the moments of areas of the M/EI diagram. Therefore, it is

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more convenient to use for beams with loading discontinuities and the variable EI, as
compared to the direct integration method described previously. To derive the moment-area
theorems, consider a beam subjected to an arbitrary loading as shown in Fig. below. The
elastic curve and the M/EI diagram for the beam are also shown in the figure. Focusing our
attention on a differential element dx of the beam, we recall from the previous section that
dθ, which represents the change in slope of the elastic curve over the differential length dx, is
given by:

Note that the term (M/EI) dx represents an infinitesimal area under the M/EI diagram, as
shown in Fig. below. To determine the change in slope between two arbitrary points A and B
on the beam, we integrate Eq. below from A to B to obtain

Or

The mathematical expression of the first moment-area theorem can be stated as follows:
The change in slope between the tangents to the elastic curve at any two points is equal to the
area under the M/EI diagram between the two points, provided that the elastic curve is
continuous between the two points.
This theorem applies only to those portions of the elastic curve in which there are no
discontinuities due to the presence of internal hinges. In applying the first moment-area
theorem, if the area of the M/EI diagram between any two points is positive, then the angle

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from the tangent at the point to the left to the tangent at the point to the right will be
counterclockwise, and this change in slope is considered to be positive; and vice versa.
Considering again the beam shown in Fig., we observe that the deviation d∆ between the
tangents drawn at the ends of the differential element dx on a line perpendicular to the
undeformed axis of the beam from a point B is given by

Note that the term on the right-hand side of Eq. above represents the moment of the
infinitesimal area corresponding to dx about B. Integrating Eq. between any two arbitrary
points A and B on the beam, we obtain

The mathematical expression of the second moment-area theorem can be stated as follows:
The tangential deviation in the direction perpendicular to the undeformed axis of the beam of
a point on the elastic curve from the tangent to the elastic curve at another point is equal to
the moment of the area under the M/EI diagram between the two points about the point at
which the deviation is desired, provided that the elastic curve is continuous between the two
points.
It is important to note the order of the subscripts used for ∆ in Eq. above. The first subscript
denotes the point where the deviation is determined and about which the moments are
evaluated, whereas the second subscript denotes the point where the tangent to the elastic
curve is drawn. Also, since the distance in Eq. above is always taken as positive, the sign of
∆BA is the same as that of the area of the M/EI diagram between A and B. If the area of the
M/EI diagram between A and B is positive, then ∆BA is also positive, and point B lies above
(in the positive y direction) the tangent to the elastic curve at point A and vice versa.
Procedure for Analysis
In order to apply the moment-area theorems to compute the slopes and deflections of a beam,
it is necessary to draw a qualitative deflected shape of the beam using its bending moment
diagram. In this regard, a positive bending moment bends the beam concave upward, whereas
a negative bending moment bends it concave downward. Also, at a fixed support, both the
slope and the deflection of the beam must be zero; therefore, the tangent to the elastic curve
at this point is in the direction of the undeformed axis, whereas at a hinged or a roller support,
the deflection is zero, but the slope may not be zero. Instead of adopting a formal sign

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convention, it is common practice to use an intuitive approach in solving problems using the
moment area method. In this approach, the slopes and deflections at the various points are
assumed to be positive in the directions shown on the sketch of the deflected shape or elastic
curve of the structure. Any area of the M/EI diagram that tends to increase the quantity under
consideration is considered to be positive and vice versa. A positive answer for a slope or
deflection indicates that the sense of that quantity as assumed on the elastic curve is correct.
Conversely, a negative answer indicates that the correct sense is opposite to that initially
assumed on the elastic curve.
In applying the moment-area theorems, it is important to realize that these theorems in
general do not directly provide the slope and deflection at a point with respect to the
undeformed axis of the beam (which are usually of practical interest); instead, they provide
the slope and deflection of a point relative to the tangent to the elastic curve at another point.
Therefore, before the slope or deflection at an arbitrary point on the beam can be computed, a
point must be identified where the slope of the tangent to the elastic curve is either initially
known or can be determined by using the support conditions. Once this reference tangent has
been established, the slope and deflection at any point on the beam can be computed by
applying the moment-area theorems. In cantilever beams, since the slope of the tangent to the
elastic curve at the fixed support is zero, this tangent can be used as the reference tangent. In
the case of beams for which a tangent with zero slope cannot be located by inspection, it is
usually convenient to use the tangent at one of the supports as the reference tangent. The
slope of this reference tangent can be determined by using the conditions of zero deflections
at the reference support and an adjacent support.
The magnitudes of the slopes and deflections of structures are usually very small, so from a
computational viewpoint it is usually convenient to determine the solution in terms of EI and
then substitute the moment of inertia varies along the length of a beam, it is convenient to
express the moments of inertia of the various segments of the beam in terms of a single
reference moment of inertia, which is then carried symbolically through the analysis.

6.4 CONJUGATE-BEAM METHOD

The conjugate-beam method is based on the analogy between the relationships among load,
shear, and bending moment and the relationships among M/EI, slope, and deflection. The
slope and deflection can be determined from M/EI by the same operations as those performed
to compute shear and bending moment, respectively, from the load. Furthermore, if the M/EI
diagram for a beam is applied as the load on a fictitious analogous beam, then the shear and
bending moment at any point on the fictitious beam will be equal to the slope and deflection,
respectively, at the corresponding point on the original real beam. The fictitious beam is
referred to as the conjugate beam, and it is defined as follows:
A conjugate beam corresponding to a real beam is a fictitious beam of the same
length as the real beam, but it is externally supported and internally connected such
that if the conjugate beam is loaded with the M/EI diagram of the real beam, the
shear and bending moment at any point on the conjugate beam are equal,
respectively, to the slope and deflection at the corresponding point on the real beam.

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Supports for Conjugate Beams

Sign Convention
If the positive ordinates of the M/EI diagram are applied to the conjugate beam as upward
loads (in the positive y direction) and vice versa, then a positive shear in the conjugate beam
denotes a positive (counterclockwise) slope of the real beam with respect to the undeformed
axis of the real beam; also, a positive bending moment in the conjugate beam denotes a
positive (upward or in the positive y direction) deflection of the real beam with respect to the
undeformed axis of the real beam and vice versa.
Procedure for Analysis
The following step-by-step procedure can be used for determining the slopes and deflections
of beams by the conjugate-beam method.

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1. Construct the M/EI diagram for the given (real) beam subjected to the specified (real)
loading. If the beam is subjected to a combination of different types of loads (e.g.,
concentrated loads and distributed loads), the analysis can be considerably expedited by
constructing the M/EI diagram by parts, as discussed in the preceding section.
2. Determine the conjugate beam corresponding to the given real beam. The external supports
and internal connections for the conjugate beam must be selected so that the shear and
bending moment at any point on the conjugate beam are consistent with the slope and
deflection, respectively, at that point on the real beam.
3. Apply the M/EI diagram (from step 1) as the load on the conjugate beam. The positive
ordinates of the M/EI diagram are applied as upward loads on the conjugate beam and vice
versa.
4. Calculate the reactions at the supports of the conjugate beam by applying the equations of
equilibrium and condition (if any).
5. Determine the shears at those points on the conjugate beam where slopes are desired on the
real beam. Determine the bending moments at those points on the conjugate beam where
deflections are desired on the real beam. The shears and bending moments in conjugate
beams are considered to be positive or negative in accordance with the beam sign convention.
6. The slope at a point on the real beam with respect to the undeformed axis of the real beam
is equal to the shear at that point on the conjugate beam. A positive shear in the conjugate
beam denotes a positive or counterclockwise slope of the real beam and vice versa.
7. The deflection at a point on the real beam with respect to the undeformed axis of the real
beam is equal to the bending moment at that point on the conjugate beam. A positive bending
moment in the conjugate beam denotes a positive or upward deflection of the real beam and
vice versa.

6.5 WORK–ENERGY METHODS

WORK
The work done by force acting on a structure is simply defined as the force times the
displacement of its point of application in the direction of the force. Work is considered to be
positive when the force and the displacement in the direction of the force have the same sense
and negative when the force and the displacement have opposite sense. Let us consider the
work done by a force P during the deformation of a structure under the action of a system of
forces (which includes P), as shown in Fig. (a) below. The magnitude of P may vary as its
point of application displaces from A in the undeformed position of the structure to 𝐴′ in the
final deformed position. The work dW that P performs as its point of application undergoes
an infinitesimal displacement, d∆ can be written as:
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃(𝑑∆)
The total work W that the force P performs over the entire displacement ∆ is obtained by
integrating the expression of dW as:

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The work is equal to the area under the force-displacement diagram as shown in Fig. (b). In
this topic, we are focusing our attention on the analysis of linear elastic structures, so an
expression for work of special interest is for the case when the force varies linearly with
displacement from zero to its final value, as shown in Fig. (c). The work for such a case is
given by the triangular area under the force-displacement diagram and is expressed as

Another special case of interest is depicted in Fig. (d). In this case, the force remains constant
at P while its point of application undergoes a displacement ∆ caused by some other action
independent of P. The work done by the force P in this case is equal to the rectangular area
under the force-displacement diagram and is expressed as

It is important to distinguish between the two expressions for work. Note that the expression
for work for the case when the force varies linearly with displacement contains a factor of
1/2, whereas the expression for work for the case of a constant force does not contain this
factor.
The expressions for the work of couples are similar in form to those for the work of forces.
The work done by a couple acting on a structure is defined as the moment of the couple times
the angle through which the couple rotates. The work dW that a couple of moment M
performs through an infinitesimal rotation dθ is given by:

Therefore, the total work W of a couple with variable moment M over the entire rotation θ
can be expressed as:

When the moment of the couple varies linearly with rotation from zero to its final value, the
work can be expressed as

and, if M remains constant during a rotation θ, then the work is given by:

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 PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL WORK

The method of virtual work is based on the principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies
which can be rewritten as:

or, more specifically, as

in which the terms forces and displacements are used in a general sense and include moments
and rotations, respectively. Note that because the virtual forces are independent of the actions
causing the real deformation and remain constant during the real deformation, the expressions
of the external and internal virtual work in Eq. above do not contain the factor 1/2.
DEFLECTIONS OF TRUSSES BY THE VIRTUAL WORK METHOD
To develop the expression of the virtual work method that can be used to determine the
deflections of trusses, consider an arbitrary statically determinate truss as shown in Fig.
below.

Let us assume that we want to determine the vertical deflection, ∆, at joint B of the truss due
to the given external loads P1 and P2. The truss is statically determinate, so the axial forces in
its members can be determined from the method of joints. If F represents the axial force in an
arbitrary member j (e.g., member CD in Fig. (a) above) of the truss, then (from mechanics of
materials) the axial deformation, δ, of this member is given by:

in which L, A, and E denote, respectively, the length, cross-sectional area, and modulus of
elasticity of member j.
To determine the vertical deflection, ∆, at joint B of the truss, we select a virtual system
consisting of a unit load acting at the joint and in the direction of the desired deflection, as

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shown in Fig. (b) above. The virtual external work performed by the virtual unit load as it
goes through the real deflection ∆ is equal to:

To determine the virtual internal work, let us focus our attention on member j (member CD in
Fig. above). The total virtual internal work done on all the members of the truss can be
written as:

By equating the virtual external work to the virtual internal work in accordance with the
principle of virtual forces for deformable bodies, we obtain the following expression for the
method of virtual work for truss deflections:

Temperature Changes and Fabrication Errors

The axial deformation of a truss member j of length L due to a change in temperature (∆T) is
given by:

in which 𝛼 denotes the coefficient of thermal expansion of member j.

Truss deflections due to temperature changes can be determined by:

Procedure for Analysis

The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine the deflections of trusses by
the virtual work method.
1. Real System If the deflection of the truss to be determined is caused by external loads, then
apply the method of joints and/or the method of sections to compute the (real) axial forces (F)
in all the members of the truss. Tensile member forces are considered to be positive and vice
versa. Similarly, increases in temperature and increases in member lengths due to fabrication
errors are considered to be positive and vice versa.
2. Virtual System Remove all the given (real) loads from the truss; then apply a unit load at
the joint where the deflection is desired and in the direction of the desired deflection to form
the virtual force system. By using the method of joints and/or the method of sections,
compute the virtual axial forces (Fv) in all the members of the truss. The sign convention used
for the virtual forces must be the same as that adopted for the real forces in step 1; that is, if
real tensile forces, temperature increases, or member elongations due to fabrication errors
were considered as positive in step 1, then the virtual tensile forces must also be considered
to be positive and vice versa.
3. The desired deflection of the truss can now be determined by applying the above equation.
DEFLECTIONS OF BEAMS BY THE VIRTUAL WORK METHOD
To develop an expression for the virtual work method for determining the deflections of
beams, consider a beam subjected to an arbitrary loading, as shown in Fig. (a) below. Let us

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assume that the vertical deflection, ∆, at a point B of the beam is desired. To determine this
deflection, we select a virtual system consisting of a unit load acting at the point and in the
direction of the desired deflection, as shown in Fig. (b). Now, if we subject the beam with the
virtual unit load acting on it to the deformations due to the real loads (Fig. (a)), the virtual
external work performed by the virtual unit load as it goes through the real deflection ∆ is
𝑊𝑣𝑒 = 1(∆).
To obtain the virtual internal work, we focus our attention on a differential element dx of the
beam located at a distance x from the left support A, as shown in Fig. (a) and (b).

The virtual internal work done on the element dx is given by:

Note that because the virtual moment M v remains constant during the real rotation dθ, does
not contain a factor of 1/2. Recall that the change of slope dθ over the differential length dx
can be expressed as:

in which M = bending moment due to the real loading causing the rotation dθ. By
substituting:

The total virtual internal work done on the entire beam can now be determined by integrating
Eq. over the length L of the beam as:

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By equating the virtual external work, Wve = 1(∆), to the virtual internal work, we obtain the
following expression for the method of virtual work for beam deflections:

If we want the slope θ at a point of the beam we use a virtual system consisting of a unit
couple acting at the point. When the beam with the virtual unit couple is subjected to the
deformations due to the real loading, the virtual external work performed by the virtual unit
couple, as it undergoes the real rotation θ, is Wve = 1(θ). The expression for the internal
virtual work remains the same as given in Eq. above, except that Mv now denotes the
bending moment due to the virtual unit couple. The expression for the method of virtual work
for beam slopes:

In the derivation of Eq. for virtual internal work, we have neglected the internal work
performed by the virtual shear forces acting through the real shear deformations. Therefore,
the expressions of the virtual work method as given by Eqs. above do not account for the
shear deformations of beams. However, for most beams (except for very deep beams), shear
deformations are so small as compared to the bending deformations that their effect can be
neglected in the analysis.
Procedure for Analysis
The following step-by-step procedure can be used to determine the slopes and deflections of
beams by the virtual work method.
1. Real System: Draw a diagram of the beam showing all the real (given) loads acting on it.
2. Virtual System: Draw a diagram of the beam without the real loads. If deflection is to be
determined, then apply a unit load at the point and in the direction of the desired deflection. If
the slope is to be calculated, then apply a unit couple at the point on the beam where the slope
is desired.
3. By examining the real and virtual systems and the variation of the flexural rigidity EI
specified along the length of the beam, divide the beam into segments so that the real and
virtual loadings as well as EI are continuous in each segment.
4. For each segment of the beam, determine an equation expressing the variation of the
bending moment due to real loading (M) along the length of the segment in terms of a
position coordinate x. The origin for x may be located anywhere on the beam and should be
chosen so that the number of terms in the equation for M is minimum. It is usually convenient
to consider the bending moments as positive or negative in accordance with the beam sign
convention.
5. For each segment of the beam, determine the equation for the bending moment due to
virtual load or couple (Mv) using the same x coordinate that was used for this segment in step
4 to establish the expression for the real bending moment, M. The sign convention for the

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virtual bending moment (Mv) must be the same as that adopted for the real bending moment
in step 4.
6. Determine the desired deflection or slope of the beam by applying the appropriate virtual
work expression. If the beam has been divided into segments, then the integral on the right-
hand side of Eq. can be evaluated by algebraically adding the integrals for all the segments of
the beam.

DEFLECTIONS OF FRAMES BY THE VIRTUAL WORK METHOD

Application of the virtual work method to determine the slopes and deflections of frames is
similar to that for beams. To determine the deflection, ∆, or rotation, θ, at a point of a frame,
a virtual unit load or unit couple is applied at that point. When the virtual system is subjected
to the deformations of the frame due to real loads, the virtual external work performed by the
unit load or the unit couple is Wve = 1(∆), or Wve = 1(θ). As portions of the frame may
undergo axial deformations in addition to the bending deformations, the total virtual internal
work done on the frame is equal to the sum of the internal virtual work due to bending and
that due to axial deformations.
The virtual internal work due to bending for the entire frame can then be obtained by
summing the work for the individual segments; that is,

The virtual internal work due to axial deformations for the entire frame can be expressed as:

The total internal virtual work for the frame due to both bending and axial deformations as:

By equating the virtual external work to the virtual internal work, we obtain the expressions
for the method of virtual work for deflections and rotations of frames, respectively, as:

The axial deformations in the members of frames composed of common engineering

materials are generally much smaller than the bending deformations and are, therefore,
usually neglected in the analysis. The virtual work expressions considering only the bending
deformations of frames can be obtained by simply omitting the first term on the right-hand
sides of Eqs. which are thus reduced to:

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 CASTIGLIANO’S SECOND THEOREM
This method, which can be applied only to linearly elastic structures, is commonly known as
Castigliano’s second theorem. Castigliano’s second theorem can be stated as follows:
For linearly elastic structures, the partial derivative of the strain energy with respect
to an applied force (or couple) is equal to the displacement (or rotation) of the force
(or couple) along its line of action.
In mathematical form, this theorem can be stated as:

in which U = strain energy; ∆i = deflection of the point of application of the force Pi in the
direction of Pi; and θi = rotation of the point of application of the couple in the direction of
couple.
The energy of a structure can be simply defined as its capacity for doing work. The term
strain energy is attributed to the energy that a structure has because of its deformation. The
relationship between the work and strain energy of a structure is based on the principle of
conservation of energy, which can be stated as follows:
The work performed on an elastic structure in equilibrium by statically (gradually)
applied external forces is equal to the work done by internal forces, or the strain
energy stored in the structure.
This principle can be mathematically expressed as:
We = U
The explicit expression for the strain energy of a structure depends on the types of internal
forces that can develop in the members of the structure. Such expressions for the strain
energy of trusses, beams, and frames are derived in the following.

Strain Energy of Trusses

Consider the arbitrary truss shown below. The truss is subjected to a load P, which increases
gradually from zero to its final value, causing the structure to deform as shown in the figure.
Because we are considering linearly elastic structures, the deflection of the truss ∆ at the
point of application of P increases linearly with the load; therefore, the external work
performed by P during the deformation ∆ can be expressed as:

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To develop the expression for internal work or strain energy of the truss, let us focus our
attention on an arbitrary member j (e.g., member CD in Fig. above) of the truss. If F
represents the axial force in this member due to the external load P, then, the axial
deformation of this member is given by δ = (FL)/(AE). Therefore, internal work or strain
energy stored in member j, Uj, is given by

The strain energy of the entire truss is simply equal to the sum of the strain energies of all of
its members and can be expressed as

Strain Energy of Beams

To develop the expression for the strain energy of beams, consider an arbitrary beam, as
shown in Fig. below. As the external load P acting on the beam increases gradually from zero
to its final value, the internal bending moment M acting on a differential element dx of the
beam (Fig.(a) and (b) below) also increases gradually from zero to its final value, while the
cross sections of element dx rotate by an angle dθ with respect to each other. The internal
work or the strain energy stored in the element dx is, therefore, given by

The change in slope, dθ, can be expressed in terms of the bending moment, M, by the
relationship dθ = (M/EI)dx
Thus,

The expression for the strain energy of the entire beam can now be obtained by integrating
Eq. above over the length L of the beam:

Strain Energy of Frames

The portions of frames may be subjected to axial forces as well as bending moments, so the
total strain energy (U) of frames is expressed as the sum of the strain energy due to axial
forces (Ua) and the strain energy due to bending (Ub); that is,

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The strain energy due to axial forces for the entire frame can be expressed as

The strain energy due to bending for the entire frame is equal to the sum of strain energies of
bending of all the segments of the frame and can be expressed as

We obtain the following expression for the strain energy of frames due to both the axial
forces and bending:

The axial deformations of frames are generally much smaller than the bending deformations
and are usually neglected in the analysis. The strain energy of frames due only to bending is
expressed as:

Application to Trusses
Application to Beams

Application to Frames

When the effect of axial deformations of the members of frames is neglected in the analysis:

6.6 BETTI’S LAW AND MAXWELL’S LAW OF RECIPROCAL DEFLECTIONS

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Maxwell’s law of reciprocal deflections states that for a linearly elastic structure, the
deflection at a point i due to a unit load applied at a point j is equal to the deflection at j due
to a unit load at i.

Strength of Materials Page 18