SCSVMV UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

COURSE MATERIAL
for

MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

Prepared by

Mr. L.Sathish Kumar, M.Tech, (Ph.D)

AP, ECE, SCSVMV.

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 UNIT – 1

1.1 GALVANOMETERS
A galvanometer is an instrument used for detecting presence of small currents or voltages in a
circuit. They can also be used to measure the magnitude of these small voltages or currents.

1.1.1 Principle of operation:

Galvanometers are based on the principle of magnetic effect. According to this principle, when a
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force is experienced on the
conductor, which tends to move the conductor in a direction given by Fleming‟s left hand rule.
1.1.2 Types of Galvanometers:
Galvanometers are of various types such as the:
 D’Arsonval type
 Ballistic type and
 Vibration type
1.1.3 Applications of Galvanometers:

1. In bridge circuits to indicate null deflection (zero current)

2. In potentiometers to indicate null deflection
1.2 D’ARSONVAL GALVANOMETER

D’Arsonval galvanometer is an instrument used to detect and sometimes measure the presence of small
currents or voltages in a circuit.

1.2.1 Principle of operation:

When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force is experienced on
the conductor, which tends to move the conductor in a direction given by Fleming’s left hand rule.

2
1.2.2 Construction:

The construction of D’Arsonval galvanometer is as shown fig.1.

Upper
Suspension
Moving
Coil Mirror
Iron Core
(Stationary)

N l S
Permanent
Magnet
d
Former
Lower
Suspension

Fig.1. D’Arsonval Galvanometer

The description of various parts is as follows:

Moving Coil

It is the current carrying element. It is either rectangular or circular in shape and consists of a number of
turns of fine wire. The coil is suspended so that it is free to turn about its vertical axis of symmetry. It is
arranged in a uniform, radial, horizontal magnetic field in the air gap between pole pieces of permanent
magnet and iron core.

Iron core

The iron core is spherical in shape if the coil is circular and cylindrical if the coil is rectangular. The iron
core is used to provide a flux path of low reluctance and hence provides a strong magnetic field for the
coil to move in. This increases the deflecting torque and hence the sensitivity of galvanometer.

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Metal Former
The moving coil is mounted on the metal former. The metal former provides the required damping
torque. The damping torque is produced due to the eddy currents developed in the metal former.
Damping can also be achieved by connecting a low resistance across the galvanometer terminals.

Suspension

The coil is supported by a flat ribbon suspension, which carries the current to coil. The other current
connection is a coiled wire, also called the lower suspension. The galvanometer must be leveled
carefully so that the coil hangs straight and centrally without rubbing the poles or the soft iron cylinder.

The upper suspension consists of gold or copper wire of nearly 0.0125 or 0.025 mm diameter,
rolled into the form of ribbon.

The controlling torque is usually provided by these suspensions.

Indication

The upper suspension carries a small mirror upon which a beam of light is cast. The beam of light is
reflected on to a scale upon which the deflection is measured. The scale is usually about 1m away from
the instrument.

Zero setting

A torsion head is provided for adjusting the position of the coil and also for zero setting.

1.2.3 Torque equation

Let

l be the length of the coil in meters

d be the width of the coil in meters

N be the number of turns of the coil

B be the flux density in the air gap in wb/m2

i be the current through the coil in Amperes

k be the spring constant of suspension in Nm/rad

θf be the final steady state deflection of moving coil in Radians

Force on the moving coil,

Where, α is the angle between direction of magnetic field and the conductor

Here α = 90˚,

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5
1.2.4 Damping in D’Arsonval Galvanometer

Damping is the dissipation of energy of rotation. Damping is achieved in D’Arsonval galvanometers by

two methods:

 Mechanical damping and

 Electro-magnetic damping
Mechanical damping

Mechanical damping is due to the friction produced due to the movement of moving coil in the air
between the magnets. The damping torque due to mechanical effects is given by: , where
Dm is the damping constant.

Electromagnetic damping

The electromagnetic damping is due to:

 Eddy currents produced in metal former and

 Current circulated in the coil circuit by emf generated in the coil when it rotates
The electromagnetic damping may be classified as open circuit damping and damping due to coil circuit
resistance.

The damping effects produced by friction, elastic hysteresis, and eddy currents in metal former
are always present whether the galvanometer circuit is closed or not and hence the damping produced
by these effects is called open circuit damping.

The damping effect produced by current flowing in the coil is present only when the circuit is
closed.

Let,

Where

R is the Resistance of galvanometer circuit when closed

Rg is the Resistance of galvanometer coil

Re is the External resistance required for damping

The voltage induced in coil due to its motion is given by:

6
The current in the circuit due to the e.m.f ‘e’ is

The torque produced due to this current is,

But

Hence, the Damping constant due to resistance of circuit,

Now the damping torque produced by former is:

Hence the Damping constant due to resistance of former,

Total electromagnetic damping torque,

Hence the damping constant due to electromagnetic damping is,

7
Total Damping

1.2.5 Critical Resistance

It is defined as the resistance of the galvanometer circuit to ensure that the system is critically damped.

The mechanical damping effects are small compared to electromagnetic damping, and hence can be
neglected.

The damping due to metal former is small and hence can be neglected,

For critical damping, the damping constant (D) should be equal to

1.2.6 Sensitivity of galvanometer:

The sensitivity of galvanometer is expressed in many ways, such as:

 Current sensitivity,
 Voltage sensitivity and
 Mega ohm sensitivity
1.2.6.1 Current Sensitivity

The current sensitivity of a galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced by unit current.

8
 Current sensitivity,

But,

Usually it is expressed as

But

1.2.6.2 Voltage Sensitivity

The voltage sensitivity is the deflection per unit voltage.

But

1.2.6.3 Mega-ohm Sensitivity

It is the resistance of the circuit (MΩ) so that the deflection will be 1 scale division with 1 volt supplied to
the circuit.

Mega-ohm sensitivity,

9
The scale divisions are usually in mm, so

A sensitive galvanometer should produce a large deflection for small current. But as , for good
sensitivity, ‘G’ should be high and ‘k’ should be small. For ‘G’ to be high, either the number of turns (N)
or flux density (B) or Area (A) should be high. So, for high sensitivity, the moving coil should be wound
with large number of turns of thin wire.

1.2.7 Galvanometer Shunts:

When a highly sensitive galvanometer is used for balancing of the bridge or for potentiometer
measurements, a high potential appears across the galvanometer, which in turn leads to the damage of
the coil or suspension. This problem of coil damage can be overcome by one of the two procedures
listed below:

 Use of a high resistance in series with galvanometer, so that it limits the current
 Use of a low resistance in parallel to the galvanometer, so that most of the current will be by-
passed. The drawback of this method however is that sensitivity of the galvanometer gets
reduced and also the response becomes sluggish.
Usually a combination of series and parallel resistances is used as both the above-mentioned methods
lead to sluggish response of the meter. Such an arrangement is the “Ayrton Universal Shunt.” The Ayrton
Universal Shunt arrangement is as shown in fig.2.(a)

Key
a

b G Rg
Rsh

Fig.2. (a) Schematic diagram of Ayrton Universal shunt

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 I Ig
1
2

3
Rsh G Rg
R3
4
R2
R1

Fig.2. (b) Switching arrangement of Ayrton shunt

From the fig.2. (a), it is clear that the lower part of the resistance (bc) is in parallel and the upper part
(ab) is in series to the galvanometer. When the sliding contact is in lower portion, only a small resistance
is in parallel to the meter and high resistance is in series with the meter. So, this limits the current
through the meter and hence protects the coil form damage. As the contact is moved up, the series
resistance decreases and the shunt resistance increases, thus increasing the sensitivity of the meter.

The fig.2. (b) Shows the Ayrton shunt with the switching arrangement.

The current through the galvanometer at pos.1,

The current through the galvanometer at pos.2,

Now the relative current is,

From the above equation, it is clear that the relative current is independent of the galvanometer being
used (as no Rg term is present), hence it is called an universal shunt.

1.3 Permanent Magnet Moving Coil instrument (PMMC)

The PMMC instrument is the most accurate type for D.C measurement.

1.3.1 Principle:

When a current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a mechanical force is experienced on
the conductor, which tends to move the conductor in a direction given by Fleming’s left hand rule.

11
 The difference between the galvanometer and PMMC instrument is that instead of the light and
mirror arrangement, here pointer and scale arrangement is provided for direct reading of the quantity
being measured.

1.3.2 Construction:

The construction of PMMC instrument is as shown in fig.3.

Fig.3. Construction of PMMC instrument

Moving coil:

The moving coil is wound with many turns of enameled or silk covered copper wire. The coil is mounted
on a rectangular aluminum former which is pivoted on jewel bearings. The coil moves freely in the field
of a permanent magnet. The voltmeter coils provide the required electro-magnetic damping. Most
ammeter coils, however are wound on non-magnetic formers because coil turns are effectively shorted
by the ammeter shunt.

Magnet systems:

Old systems consisted of long U shaped permanent magnets having soft iron pole pieces. Due to
development of materials such as Alnico and Alcomax, which have a high coercive force, these are
replaced by smaller magnets. The flux densities used in PMMC instruments vary from 0.1 wb/m2 to 1

12
wb/m2. Thus in small instruments, it is possible to use a small coil having small number of turns and
hence reduction of volume is achieved.

Concentric magnetic construction is employed to obtain larger movement of pointer and long
angular swing of coil.

To protect the system from external magnetic fields, core magnetic construction is used, where
the magnet itself acts as core. This construction also eliminates the magnetic shunting effects. This
construction also eliminates the need for magnetic shielding in the form of cases.

Control:

The control torque is provided by two phosphor bronze hair springs. These springs also act as current
carrying element to the moving coil.

Damping:

Damping torque is provided by movement of the ‘Al’ former in the magnetic field of the permanent
magnet.

Pointer and scale:

The pointer is carried by spindle and moves over a graduated scale. The pointer is of lightweight
construction, and is often twisted to form a fine blade. This helps to reduce the parallax errors in the
reading.

1.3.3 Torque equation:

Let

l be the length of the coil in meters

d be the width of the coil in meters

N be the number of turns of the coil

B be the flux density in the air gap in wb/m2

i be the current through the coil in Amperes

k be the spring constant of suspension in Nm/rad

θf be the final steady state deflection of moving coil in Radians

Force on the moving coil,

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Where, α is the angle between direction of magnetic field and the conductor

Here α = 90˚,

Deflecting Torque,

Now let , where G is the displacement constant of galvanometer.

Controlling torque exerted by suspension at deflection θf is

For steady state deflection,

Or

1.3.4 Ammeter shunts for extension of range of ammeters:

The basic PMMC instrument is useful for measuring only small currents. To measure heavy currents,
major part of current is bypassed through a low resistance called a “shunt”. The construction of such a
system is as shown:

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 I
Ish Im

Rsh Rm

Let

Rm be the internal resistance of movement (coil) in ohms

Rsh be the resistance of shunt in ohms

Im = Ifs = full scale deflection current of movement in Amps

Ish = shunt current in Amps

I = current to be measured in Amps

Now, from the above fig,

But,

Where,

The general requirements for shunts are:

 The temperature co-efficient of shunt and the instrument should be low and should be same.
 The resistance of shunt should not vary with time.
 They should carry the current without excessive temperature rise.
Manganin is generally used for shunts.

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1.3.5 Effect of temperature changes:

As the temperature changes, the resistance of the coil changes, leading to errors in the readings. To
overcome this problem, the following arrangement is used:

I
Ish Im

Rsh Rm

Rsw

Here a ‘swamping resistance’ (Rsw) of Manganin (negligible temperature coefficient) having a resistance
20 to 30 times the coil resistance is connected in series with the coil and a shunt of Manganin is
connected across this combination. As copper (moving coil material) forms only a small portion of the
series combination, the current division doesn’t get affected by change in temperature.

1.3.6 Multi-range ammeters:

The current range can be extended by using many shunts in parallel to the movement. Depending on
range, the shunt required can be selected by a range switch.

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 Rsh1 Rsh2 Rsh3 Rsh4
Rm

Switch (S)

Let m1, m2, m3 and m4 be the shunt multiplying power for currents I1, I2, I3 and I4 respectively. Then,

Another arrangement used for extension of range of ammeter is the Universal Ayrton Shunt shown
below:

I Im

1 I1

2
G Rg
R1
3
R2
R3

Fig.4. Ayrton Shunt

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When the switch is at position 1,

For switch at position 2,

For switch at position 3,

Where

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1.3.7 PMMC Voltmeter

A D‟Arsonval basic movement is converted into a voltmeter by connecting a series resistance

with it. This series resistance is known as a multiplier. The combination of meter movement and
multiplier is put across the circuit whose voltage is to be measured.
Im
v

Supply Rm
Load
Voltage (V)

Rs (Multiplier)

Let

Im = Ifs = full scale deflection current of meter

Rm = meter resistance

Rs = multiplier resistance

V = full range voltage of instrument

v = voltage across meter for current Im

From the figure,

Let

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The essential requirements of multiplier are:

 Their resistance should not vary with time

 Change in resistance with temperature should be small
Usually Manganin and Constantan are used for multipliers.

1.3.8 Multi-range D.C voltmeters:

The voltmeters can be used for multi-ranges by any one of the methods described below:

 Use of individual multipliers

 Use of potential divider arrangement.

1.3.8.1 Individual multipliers

Rs1 Rs2 Rs3 Rs4

Switch (S)

Rm

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1.3.8.2 Potential divider arrangement

V4
R4
V3
R3
V2
R2
V1 Load
R1

v Rm

(1)

(2)

Similarly,

The advantage with this system is that all resistances except R1 are standard ones and are available
commercially. Only R1 needs to be manufactured specially to meet the requirements.

1.3.9 Sensitivity of PMMC voltmeter

Sensitivity of PMMC instruments can be expressed as:

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 1. Current sensitivity
2. Voltage sensitivity
Current sensitivity

It is defined as the deflection per unit current.

Voltage sensitivity

The value of resistors in the potential divider arrangement in terms of the voltage sensitivity can be re –
written as:

1.3.10 Errors in PMMC instruments:

The errors that usually occur in PMMC instrument are as follows:

 Frictional errors
 Temperature error
 Error due to weakening of permanent magnet and
 Thermo-electric error
Frictional error:

Increasing the torque to weight ratio can reduce the errors caused by friction. Proper pivoting and
balancing of the coil can achieve this.

Temperature error:

The change of temperature leads to change in resistance and hence to wrong readings. This error is
overcome in ammeters by placing a high resistance (Swamping Resistance) in series with the meter.
However, the problem of temperature change is not present with voltmeters.

Error owing to weakening of permanent magnet:

This error is because of weakening of permanent with the time of usage. In good magnets, this occurs
slowly, but in instruments liable to vibration, change of position, and stray magnetic fields, the
demagnetization gets accelerated. Treating the magnet to high temperatures and vibrations can

22
eliminate this problem. However this would result in an initial loss of magnetism but the remaining
magnetism will be retained for a long time.

Stray magnetic field error:

External fields usually don’t affect the operation of PMMC instruments as they operate at strong fields.
Errors occurring, if any, can be avoided by using iron cases.

1.3.11 Advantages of PMMC instruments:

Uniform scale
Low power consumption (25 – 200µW)
No hysteresis loss
Effective and reliable eddy – current damping
High torque – weight ratio resulting in high accuracy
Can be used for both current and voltage measurements by use of shunts and multipliers
Not affected by stray magnetic fields as the radial field is used
Due to self – shielding property of core magnets, these can be used for air-craft and aerospace
applications that require mounting of meters in close proximity.
1.3.12 Disadvantages of PMMC instruments:

 Can be used for D.C measurements only

 Costly compared to moving iron instruments
 Affected by friction and temperature errors
 Affected by ageing of magnets and springs.
1.4 Moving Iron (MI) instruments

The most common ammeters and voltmeters for laboratory and switchboard at commercial frequencies
are the moving iron instruments. These are cheaper in cost, robust in construction and can be
manufactured with required accuracy.

1.4.1 Classification of MI instruments:

MI instruments can be classified as:

 Attraction type and

 Repulsion type
1.4.2 Attraction type of MI instruments:

1.4.2.1 Principle

A plate or vane of soft iron or of high permeability steel forms the moving element of the system. This
iron vane is situated in such a fashion that it can move in a magnetic field produced by a stationary coil.
When current or voltage excites the coil, it becomes an electromagnet and the iron vane is pulled inside

23
the coil. This force of attraction is proportional to the strength of the field inside the coil, which in turn is
proportional to the strength of current.

1.4.2.2 Construction

Pointer Air – damping

chamber

Coil
winding

Moving
Balance iron
weight
Control
weight

Fig. Attraction type moving iron instrument

The figure above shows the construction of an attraction type moving iron instrument. The coil is flat
and has a narrow slot like opening. The moving iron is a flat disc or sector eccentrically mounted. When
the current flows through the coil, a magnetic field is produced and the moving iron moves into the field
i.e. the iron gets attracted. The controlling torque is provided by springs but gravity control can also be
used for pane type instruments as they are vertically mounted. Damping is provided by air friction with
the help of a light Aluminium piston that moves in a fixed chamber closed at one end.

1.4.2.3 Torque equation

From principle of conservation of energy,

Electrical energy supplied = Change in stored energy + mechanical work done (1)

When there is a small increment in current supplied to instrument, there will be a small
deflection dθ and some mechanical work will be done. Let Td be the deflecting torque. The mechanical
work done is given by:

Mechanical work done (2)

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Suppose the initial current is I, the instrument inductance L and the deflection is θ. If the current
increases by dI, then the deflection changes by dθ and the inductance by dL. To cause an increment dI in
current, the applied voltage must be increased by

The Electrical energy supplied is given by:

Hence the electrical energy supplied is (3)

The energy stored is given by

Energy stored

The energy due to change in I and L is given by

The change in energy stored is:

Neglecting the higher order terms, we get,

(4)

Substituting (2), (3) & (4) in (1), we get,

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As spring control is used here,

At balance,

Hence the deflection is proportional to square of the rms value of current. The deflection torque is
hence unidirectional whatever the polarity of current may be.

1.4.3 Repulsion type MI instruments:

1.4.3.1 Principle

There are two vanes inside the coil: one fixed and other movable. These are similarly magnetized when
current flows through the coil and there is a force of repulsion between the two vanes resulting in the
moving vane’s movement.

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1.4.3.2 Construction

There are two different types of design:

1. Radial vane type and

2. Co – axial vane type
1.4.3.2.1 Radial vane type:

Movable vane Fixed vane

Coil

In this type, the vanes are radial strips of iron. The strips are placed within the coil as shown in the
figure. The fixed vane is attached to the coil and the movable one to the spindle of the instrument. The
controlling torque is provided by springs. Gravity control can also be used in vertically mounted
instruments. The damping torque is provided by air friction as in attraction type.

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1.4.3.2.2 Coaxial Vane Type
Movable Spindle
vane

Coil Fixed vane

Movable vane Spring

In this type of instrument, the fixed and moving vanes are sections of co-axial cylinders. The controlling
system and the damping systems are the same as in the radial vane type.

1.4.3.3 Torque Equation:

From principle of conservation of energy,

Electrical energy supplied = Change in stored energy + mechanical work done (1)

When there is a small increment in current supplied to instrument, there will be a small
deflection dθ and some mechanical work will be done. Let Td be the deflecting torque. The mechanical
work done is given by:

Mechanical work done (2)

Suppose the initial current is I, the instrument inductance L and the deflection is θ. If the current
increases by dI, then the deflection changes by dθ and the inductance by dL. To cause an increment dI in
current, the applied voltage must be increased by

The Electrical energy supplied is given by:

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Hence the electrical energy supplied is (3)

The energy stored is given by

Energy stored

The energy due to change in I and L is given by

The change in energy stored is:

Neglecting the higher order terms, we get,

(4)

Substituting (2), (3) & (4) in (1), we get,

As spring control is used here,

At balance,

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Hence the deflection is proportional to square of the rms value of current. The deflection torque is
hence unidirectional whatever the polarity of current may be.

1.4.3.4 Shunts for MI instruments:

MI instruments can be built for a range up to 50 A since in these instruments moving parts don’t carry
any current. Hence shunts are usually not necessary, except for very high currents.

If however, shunts are required, then

It is clear that the ratio of current depends upon frequency. To ensure that the ratio is independent of

frequency,

1.4.3.5 MI Voltmeter:

As in PMMC instruments, the voltage range of MI instruments may be extended by use of series
resistance (multiplier) with the working coil as shown in fig.

Im

Rs

Meter
(R, L)
v

30
For operation on A.C, where frequency is likely to change, it is necessary that the total impedance of the
voltmeter circuit should remain substantially constant over a large frequency range. Since the series
resistance forms a major portion of the total impedance of the circuit, it is desirable that this resistor be
either of non-inductive type or has as small inductance as possible.

Let R and L be the resistance and inductance of the meter respectively. Let Im be the full – scale
deflection current and let ω be the angular frequency.

Now the voltage drop across the meter for full-scale deflection,

Let V be the voltage to be measured and Rs the resistance of non – inductive multiplier

Total resistance of circuit = and

Total impedance of circuit = L

And the current in the meter is

Or

The multiplying power,

Form the above equation it is evident that the multiplying power will change with change in frequency.
To overcome this problem, the multiplier may be shunted by a capacitor.

1.4.3.6 Comparison of Attraction and Repulsion type of MI instruments:

31
  An attractive type instrument usually has a lower inductance comparatively, and hence the
voltmeters are accurate over a wide range of frequencies and ammeters with shunts are
possible.
 Repulsion type instruments are more suitable for economical production in manufacturing and a
nearly uniform scale is more easily obtained and is hence more common compared to attraction
type.
1.4.3.7 Errors in MI instruments:

Errors with both A.C and D.C measurements

1. Hysteresis error:
This error occurs, as the value of flux density is different for the same current for ascending and
descending values. The value of flux density is usually higher for descending values of current
and therefore, the instrument tends to read higher for descending values of current (and
voltage) than for ascending values.

This error can be minimized by making the iron parts small so that they demagnetize
themselves quickly. Another way of overcoming the problem is to operate them at low flux
density values.

2. Temperature error:
 This error arises due to temperature coefficient of spring. This error is around 0.02% /
degree Celsius change in temperature.
 In voltmeters, errors are caused due to self-heating of coil and series resistance, leading
to decrease of current for given voltage, causing a decreased deflection. To overcome
this problem, series resistance should be made of manganin which has small
temperature coefficient. The value of series resistance should be very large as compared
with coil resistance in order to minimize errors due to self-heating.
3. Errors due to stray magnetic fields:
The errors due to stray magnetic fields are dominated here, as the operating field is weak
(0.006 to 0.0075 Wb/m2). Such errors depend upon the direction of the stray magnetic field
relative to the field of the instrument.

These errors can be minimized by using an iron case or a thin iron shield over the
working parts.

Errors with A.C measurements only:

 Frequency errors
Changes in frequency may cause errors due to:

 Change of reactance of the moving coil and

 Change of magnitude of eddy currents set up in the metal parts of the instrument.

32
Effect of change of reactance of coil
As discussed already, current through the meter is given by:

It is clear that the deflection will be less at high frequency than at low frequency, for a given
voltage. This problem can be overcome by connecting a capacitor ‘c’ across Rs as shown:

As the resistance of meter, R is small compared to Rs, the total impedance ‘Z’ is:

If the term is neglected, then,

In order that the A.C calibration at all frequencies and the D.C calibration is same, Z2 should be
equal to Rs2 and the imaginary part should be zero

If the term

33
 Solving for L, we get

Effect of change of eddy currents

I
90°
θe
Ie
IeRe

IeωLe Ee

These errors are caused by eddy currents induced in the iron parts of the instruments.
Let,

M be the mutual inductance between the coil and iron parts

E be the induced voltage (lags current by 90 degrees)

As a result of this induced voltage E, an eddy current Ie flows and its magnitude is given by
, where Re and Le are the resistance and inductance of the eddy current path

respectively.

34
The current Ie lags Ee by an angle

A component of this current I e1  I ecos(90  )e  I sin

e  e opposes the instrument current I, and
sets up an opposing field, thus reducing the torque on moving system. From the phasor diagram,

As at low frequencies,

As at high frequencies,

So from (A) and (B) we can conclude that:

 At low frequencies, error due to eddy current varies as square of frequency

 At high frequencies, error is constant
To reduce the eddy current errors, metal parts are placed

1.4.3.8 Advantages of MI instruments:

 These instruments can be used in D.C as well as in A.C circuits.

 These instruments are robust, due to simple construction of moving parts.
 Friction errors are less due to high torque-weight ratio.
 Low cost
 Accurate
 Can withstand overload
1.4.3.9 Disadvantages of MI instruments:

 Scale is not uniform, and is cramped at the starting end of scale. So it is difficult to take the
readings in the lower range of the meter.
 Power consumption is high for low voltage ranges.
 Temperature error affects the performance.
 Affected by hysteresis error
 Affected by frequency errors
 There is difference between D.C and A.C calibration because of inductance effect of the
instrument and eddy currents on A.C. Thus the instrument should be calibrated for the
frequency at which it is to be used.

35
1.5 ELECTRODYNAMOMETER (Dynamometer or electro – dynamic instruments)

An electrodynamometer is a transfer instrument. A transfer instrument is one that may be calibrated

with a D.C source and then used without modifications to measure A.C.

1.5.1 Applications:

 Can be used as A.C voltmeters and ammeters both in the range of power frequency and lower
part of audio frequency.
 Used as wattmeter
 Used as voltmeter
 Can be used as power factor meter
 Can be used as frequency meter
1.5.2 Principle:

When A.C is applied to PMMC instruments, with the reversal of current, the torque also reverses
direction, resulting in no deflection.

The electrodynamometers are based on the principle that with reversal of current, the flux
direction is also made to reverse, resulting in a unidirectional torque. Thus these instruments show
deflection when used on A.C.

1.5.3 Construction:

The construction of electrodynamometer is as shown below:

Scale Movable coil

Fixed coil

Fixed coils

36
The field is produced by fixed coil. This coil is divided into two sections to give a more uniform field near
the center and to allow passage of the instrument shaft. These are wound with fine wire for applications
as voltmeter. For application as ammeter and wattmeter, these are wound with heavy wire. They can
also be stranded to reduce the eddy current losses in conductors. The coils are usually varnished and
baked to form a solid assembly. These are air-cored.

Moving coil

The moving coil is wound either as a self-sustaining coil or else on a non-metallic former. Metallic
formers cannot be used, as the eddy currents would be induced in it while operating on A.C. Light but
rigid construction is used for the moving coil. These are also air-cored.

Control

The controlling torque is provided by control springs. The springs also act as leads to the moving coil.

Moving system

The moving coil is mounted on an Aluminium spindle. The moving system also carries the counter
weights and pointer. In case a high sensitivity is desired, suspensions can be used.

Damping

Air-friction damping is employed for these instruments and is provided by a pair of aluminium vanes
attached to the spindle at the bottom. These vanes move in a sector-shaped chamber. Eddy current
damping cannot be used here, as the operating field is weak [(0.005 to 0,006) wb/m 2] and permanent
magnet introduced if any for damping would distort the operating field of the instrument.

Shielding

As the operating field is weak, the instrument needs to be protected from external fields. Usually this is
done by enclosing the instrument in a casing of high permeability alloy.

1.5.4 Torque Equation

Let

i1 instantaneous value of current in fixed coils (Amps)

i2 instantaneous value of current in moving coil (Amps)

L1 self-inductance of fixed coils (Henry)

L2 self-inductance of moving coil (Henry)

M Mutual inductance between fixed and moving coil (Henry)

37
 i1 i2

e1 L1 L2 e2

From the figure,

Flux linkage of coil 1, (1)

Flux linkage of coil 2, (2)

Electrical input energy (3)

But

From (3) and (4),

Electrical input energy

(5)

Energy stored in magnetic field

Hence the change in energy stored in magnetic field

From the principle of conservation of energy,

Total electrical input energy = change in energy stored + mechanical energy

38
But as L1and L2 are constant, dL1 and dL2 are zero.

Suppose Ti is the instantaneous deflecting torque and dθ is the change in deflection, then,

Mechanical Energy

From (7) and (8),

Operation with D.C:

Let

I1 current in fixed coils (Amps)

I2 current in moving coil (Amps)

Then from (9),

For steady state deflection,

Operation with A.C:

From (9), instantaneous torque,

The average deflecting torque over a complete cycle is

39
Now suppose

The RMS values of currents is given by

At equilibrium,

40
1.5.5 Electrodynamometer Ammeter

The basic arrangement can be used only for currents up to 100 mA. The arrangement of an
electrodynamometer ammeter of higher capacity is as shown below:

Fixed coil
Moving coil
I = I1

Shunt
L
o
Supply
a
d

Fig. Electrodynamometer Ammeter

As the fixed and moving coils are connected in series, the currents through them are the same,
therefore,

At steady state,

41
In the above arrangement, the moving coil is shunted by a low resistance to limit the current through
the moving coil to 100 mA. Thus, there are two separate parallel branches for fixed and moving coils. In
order that the ammeter may indicate correctly at all frequencies, the time constant L / R of the two
branches should be equal.

1.5.6 Electrodynamometer Voltmeter

The electrodynamometer movement is used as a voltmeter by connecting the fixed and moving coils in
series with a highly non – inductive resistor. The arrangement is as shown below:

Moving coil I2

I1 Highly non –
Fixed inductive
coils resistance
Supply

Fig. Electrodynamometer Voltmeter

42
Here,

At equilibrium,

Electrodynamometer type voltmeter is the most accurate type of a.c voltmeter, but it has low sensitivity
(10 to 30 Ω / V)

1.5.7 Errors in Electrodynamometer instruments:

 Friction error:
As the operating field is low and the current is limited, the only way to increase the
torque is to increase the number of turns, which results in increased weight of the system.
This results in a low torque – weight ratio and hence the error due to friction is high.
 Frequency error:
This error is mainly due to variation of self – reactance of the coils with frequency.
For a voltmeter, , where
Hence Z increases with frequency and the voltmeter tends to read low as the frequency
increases. To reduce this error, the coil winding is made a very small part of the circuit.

To reduce this error in ammeters, the ratio of currents in the fixed and moving coils
should be independent of frequency.

i.e.

It is clear from above equation that the ratio of currents is dependent on frequency. To make it
independent of frequency, the time constants of the fixed and moving coils should be the same.
i.e.

43
 Hence the error due to frequency in ammeters is eliminated by having equal time constants for
the fixed and moving coils.

 Eddy current errors

Eddy currents are induced in the metal parts of the instrument and develop a torque because
of coupling between the moving coil and neighboring metal parts. This error can be reduced
by keeping the metal in the supports of the coil and other parts to the minimum possible.
 Error due to stray magnetic fields
Since the operating field is weak, these instruments must be protected from external magnetic
fields. Portable instruments use metal shields that serve to isolate the coils form these fields.
Precision type of instruments are not usually shielded, as the eddy currents are induced in
the metal shields introducing errors. This error is minimized by using Astatic System.
An astatic electrodynamometer is constructed with two similar sets of fixed and moving
coils mounted on the same shaft as shown below. The two pairs of fixed coils are connected
in a fashion such that their fields are in opposition. The currents in the moving coils are also
opposed, and in consequence, the Td applied to the moving coil acts in the same direction.
Since the fields in the two coils are opposed, the effect of external field will also be opposite.
(i.e. on one coil it increases whereas in another one it decreases)
Therefore the deflecting torque produced due to external field by one coil increases,
whereas that in the other decreases, and thus the net torque is zero.

 Temperature changes
This error is due to self-heating of coils. Highly accurate instruments contain temperature-
compensating resistors, which neutralize the effects of temperature changes.
1.5.8 Advantages:

o As the instrument has square law response, it can be used both on A.C
and D.C.
o As the coils are air – cored, (instead of iron – cored) the instrument is free from hysteresis and
eddy current errors.
o Ammeters up to 10 A, voltmeters up to 600 V can be constructed with precision grade accuracy.
o Dynamometer type voltmeters are very useful for accurate measurement of R.M.S values of
voltage irrespective of waveforms.
o They can be used as calibration and transfer instruments due to its high accuracy and same
calibration for D.C and A.C.
1.5.9 Disadvantages:

o Scale is not uniform

o Frictional errors are high due to low torque-weight ratio

44
 o More expensive than PMMC and MI instruments
o Sensitive to overloads and mechanical impacts
o Power consumption is comparatively high
o Measurements at low frequencies (5-15 Hz) is impractical
o Sensitivity of the instrument is low
1.6 Induction type instruments

These instruments are suitable for A.C measurements only, as their working depends on
induced current due to an alternating flux.
1.6.1 Applications:

o Measurement of A.C voltage

o Measurement of A.C current
o Measurement of energy
o Measurement of power
1.6.2 Principle

These are based on the principle that “A torque is produced by the reaction between a flux,
whose magnitude is dependent on the value of current or voltage to be measured, and the eddy
currents induced in a metal disc or drum by another flux, whose value is again dependent on the current
or voltage to be measured.”

Let the instantaneous flux and eddy current be given

by , where α is the
phase angle between eddy current and flux.

The mean torque is given by

45
The RMS values of flux and current are given by

From (1), it is clear that, if the phase angle between eddy current and flux (α) is 90°, the torque is zero.
Therefore to get a resulting torque, the phase angle should not be equal to 90°.

1.6.3 Types of induction instruments:

 Shaded pole type and

 Ferraris type (two pole type)
1.6.3.1 Shaded pole type induction meter

Construction:

Copper
shading
Damping
magnet

Exciting coil

Spindle Laminated
electromagnet
Aluminium disc

In this type of construction, the working current is passed through the coil of an electromagnet that has
air gap in one limb. Permanent magnet is use for damping. It consists of an aluminum disc mounted on a
spindle that is supported by jewel bearing. Springs are employed to provide the controlling torque. Half
of each of the pole faces is surrounded by a copper band in order to split the working flux.

Let 1 be the flux of the unshaded portion of the pole and E the resulting induced emf, lagging
behind 1 by 90 o . This induced emf E will cause a current I to flow in the copper rings, which lags the
flux 1 by 90 o . The current flowing in the copper ring will produce its own magnetic field say in
phase with current I. The flux given by shaded portion of pole will be vector sum of 1 and , which is
equal to 2 lagging behind 1 by an angle β where ( ).

Let the fluxes 1 and 2 in unshaded and shaded portion of poles respectively induce emfs E1 and
E2 in the disc. These emfs E1 and E2 will induce eddy currents say I1 and I2 in the disc, lagging the voltage

46
by a small angle α. Hence the torques acting in opposite directions are developed in the instrument.
These two torques result in an operating torque.

Deflecting torque,

The eddy voltages , where f is the frequency.

Now, the eddy currents,

Now, since

For maximum torque, . i.e. eddy current path should be highly resistive for α to be
zero, and the fluxes 1 and 2 should be displaced by 90.

1.6.3.2 Two – pole type (Ferraris type)

47
 A B
I1 I2

Φ1 Φ2 L
R

In this method, two laminated magnets A and B are placed near to each other as shown in fig. A
non-inductive resistance R is connected in series with the magnetizing coil of magnet A and an inductive
coil L is connected in series with the magnetizing coil of magnet B. Thus there will be two magnetic fields
having a phase difference of nearly 90 with each other, acting on the disc, which will produce a
resulting torque on the disc.

1.6.4 Advantages of induction type instruments:

 A full scale deflection of 300 is obtainable, giving a long and open scale
 Stray magnetic field effect is less
 Good and very effective damping mechanism is provided
1.6.5 Disadvantages of induction instruments:

 High power consumption

 Can be used for A.C measurements only
 Scale is cramped in the starting end of scale as
1.6.6 Errors in induction instruments:

 Error due to frequency variation

As , change in frequency will affect the torque; also Z depends on the frequency,
so a change in frequency will affect the resulting deflecting torque. The error can however be
compensated by use of a non-inductive shunt across the meter. When the frequency increases,
the impedance of winding also increases, causing a larger part of current to flow through the
non-inductive shunt. So, with increase in frequency, the current through winding decreases and
hence compensates for increase of deflecting torque due to increase of frequency.

 Error due to temperature variation

48
 Variation in temperature changes the resistance of eddy current paths, leading to
errors. The error is compensated in an ammeter by employing a shunt of material having high
temperature coefficient than the material of disc. In case of voltmeter, a combination of shunt
and swamping resistance in series with instrument is employed.

1.7 Thermal Instruments

These instruments are usually used for measurement of currents at frequencies above the range of MI
and electrodynamometer type instruments. These are based on the heating effect of the current being
measured.

1.7.1 Types of thermal instruments:

Thermal instruments are of two types:

 Hot – wire instrument and

 Thermo – couple instrument

1.7.2 Hot – wire instrument:

Principle

These are based on the principle of increase of the length of wire due to heating effect when current is
passed through the wire. The increase in length of the wire is proportional to the square of current
passed through the wire.

Construction

The hot – wire instrument is as shown:

Pointer

A C
B
Hotwire

Phosphor Bronze
F wire
Aluminum Disc
M
Damping Magnet
D
Tension
adjustment
Spring Silk Thread
mechanism

49
The hotwire of 0.1 mm diameter is usually made of platinum – iridium alloy, so that it may withstand
high temperatures without deterioration on account of oxidation. This hotwire is stretched between a
fixed point B and a tension – adjustment point A. Another wire of Phosphor – Bronze is attached to the
hotwire at point C and other end of it is fixed at D. A fine silk thread is attached to the wire at point F.
The silk thread passes round a pulley and the other end of it is fixed to the spring. A light pointer and
thin aluminum disc are carried by spindle upon which the pulley is also mounted.

When the current to be measured is passed through the hotwire, it expands due to heating
effect of current and a slack is produced in it. The slack in the hotwire causes a slack in the Phosphor –
Bronze wire, which is taken up by the spring through silk thread and the moving system is rotated due to
motion of the pulley. Thus the pointer moves over a calibrated scale.

Eddy current damping is provided in the instrument by means of an aluminum disc rotating
between the poles of a permanent magnet.

In order to minimize the error due to uneven expansion between wire and its fixtures, the base
of the instrument is made of material of coefficient of expansion equal to that of the hotwire.

The hotwire should be made as thin as possible so that it may attain steady temperature as
quickly as possible when current flows through it. At the same time, the wire should be of such size that
it may capable of withstanding stresses developed in the instrument due to handling, vibration etc.

Applications

 Measurement of current up to 1A without shunt and up to 5A with use of shunt

 Voltage measurement up to 400 V with the use of suitable high resistance in series
Advantages

 Reading is independent of frequency and waveform

 Not affected by external fields
 Can be used as transfer instrument
 Simple in construction and cheap
 Fairly accurate
 Temperature errors are negligibly small
 Can be used for high frequency current measurements
Disadvantages

o Delicate instrument
o Cant withstand overloads
o High power consumption
o Non – uniform scale
o Sluggish in response as some time is consumed for wire to get heated
o “Zero error” is present due to surrounding temperature

50
 o Affected by hysteresis error

1.7.3 Thermocouple instrument:

Principle

These are based on Seebeck effect which states that an emf is induced across the junction of
two dissimilar metals placed at different temperatures.

The current to be measured is passed through the heater attached to which or close to which is
the hot junction of thermocouple. So, temperature difference is created, resulting in an emf.

The thermal emf developed in a circuit composed of two dissimilar metals with junctions kept at
absolute temperatures T1 and T2 may be written as:

, where a and b are constants depending on the materials used

for the construction of the two junctions.

The rise in temperature of hot junction is proportional to I2R hence the thermocouple
instruments have a square law response.

Construction

The main components of thermocouple instruments are:

 Heater element
 Thermo element and
 PMMC instrument

Heater element

These are used to supply the heat energy to a thermo – electric measuring system. Platinum – Iridium or
Constantan allow wire is usually used for heater. For measurement of current up to 3A, fine wire of
suitable size may be used. But for measurements above 3A, a short length of thin walled tubing is to be
used to avoid errors due to skin effect.

Thermo element

Iron – constantan, Chromel – Constantan, Gold – Palladium, Platinum – Iridium are used as thermo
elements. The thermo emf developed by thermo elements is of the order of 50 µV/◦C of temperature
rise.

51
PMMC instrument

It is used to indicate the emf developed across the junction. PMMC instruments are preferred for their
high sensitivity.

Based on the construction, thermo – couple instruments are classified as:

 Contact type
 Non – contact type and
 Vacuum type
Contact type thermocouple

In this type of construction, the heater element is in direct contact with the hot junction of the
thermocouple as shown in fig.

Thermocouple Junction

Heater PMMC
instrument

The drawbacks of this arrangement are:

o Indications are affected by variations in surrounding temperature.

o The hot junction temperature depends to some extent on the direction of flow of current.
o High power consumption
o Low efficiency
o Highly sensitive meters are required to obtain reasonable deflection
Noncontact thermocouple

In this type of construction, the heating element is electrically insulated from the hot junction. This
arrangement makes the instrument sluggish and less sensitive than the contact type. However this
arrangement is very useful for measurement of current in high voltage circuits.

Vacuum thermocouple

In this arrangement, the thermo element and heater are enclosed in an evacuated glass bulb. This
arrangement leads to an improvement in the efficiency and sensitivity of the instrument and also helps
in minimizing the errors due to ambient (surrounding) temperature changes. They can measure currents

52
in range of (2 – 500) mA. These are suitable for current measurements at frequencies up to 100 MHz or
more. However, it is very difficult to construct voltmeters for high frequencies, as the construction of
multipliers is difficult for these frequencies.

Bridge type thermocouple instruments

h h
C
h
h

A.C C C A.C

C C
h

In this arrangement, thermo elements are connected to form a bridge circuit. Here, no separate
heater is used; instead the current under measurement flows directly through the thermo elements and
raises the temperature in proportion to the square of current flowing through the thermo element. The
cold junctions (C) are at the pins embedded in the insulation frame, and the hot junctions (h) are at the
splices midway between the pins. The thermo elements are oriented as shown in fig, so as to generate
D.C potential difference across the PMMC movement.

This arrangement gives a greater output voltage and deflection compared to single thermo
element and hence has greater sensitivity. They are used for a range of (0.1 – 1) A. They can be
used to measure voltage up to 500 V, with a sensitivity of about 100 – 500 Ω / V. This arrangement is
used for measurement of current from power frequencies up to 100MHz.

Merits:

 Unaffected by frequency and waveform errors and hence are used for current
measurements up to frequencies of 50MHz.
 Not affected by stray magnetic fields
 High sensitivity
 Can be used as transfer instrument

Demerits:

o Low accuracy

53
 o Small overload capacity
o Power loss due to poor efficiency
o Highly sensitive meters are required to obtain reasonable deflection

1.8 Rectifier type instruments

Rectifier instruments are used for measurement of A.C voltages and currents by employing a rectifier
element, which converts A.C to unidirectional D.C and then using a meter responsive to D.C, the value of
rectified A.C is indicated. The indicating instrument usually used is the PMMC meter.

This method is very attractive since the PMMC instruments have higher sensitivity than the
electrodynamometer or the MI instrument.

These instruments find application in A.C voltage and current measurements on communication
circuits and other light current works.

1.8.1 Construction:

D Rs

A.C / D.C Voltage /

PMMC
Current
instrument

Fig. Rectifier type (Half wave rectifier) instrument

Rs

PMMC
instrument

Fig. Rectifier type (Full wave rectifier) instrument

The construction of rectifier type instrument making use of half wave rectifier and full wave rectifier are
shown in fig. above. The main elements are rectifying element and PMMC instrument.

54
Rectifying element:

A rectifying element is used to convert A.C to D.C, so that a unidirectional current flows through the
PMMC meter. Usually silicon or germanium diodes are used as rectifying elements, as their peak inverse
voltage is high. (Ge – 300V and Si – 1000V)

PMMC instrument:

It is used to indicate the rectified A.C voltage or current. A multiplier resistance (Rs) is connected in
series to ensure that the current does not exceed the current rating of the PMMC instrument.

1.8.2 Sensitivity of rectifier type instruments:

D.C Sensitivity:

The D.C sensitivity of a rectifier type instrument is , where Ifs is the current required to
produce full scale deflection.

A.C Sensitivity:

The A.C sensitivity depends on whether a half wave rectifier or full wave rectifier is used.

For half wave rectifier,

For full wave rectifier,

It should be however be noted that the above expressions are valid only for sinusoidal signal and for
ideal diodes.

1.8.3 Extension of range of rectifier type instruments:

The range of a rectifier instrument can be extended by using a multiplier resistance in series with the
PMMC instrument. The value of multiplier resistance is given by:

For D.C:

If half wave rectifier is used

, where Rd is the diode resistance

If full wave rectifier is used

55
 , where Rd is the diode resistance

For A.C:

The value of multiplier resistance depends on whether it is purely A.C meter or whether A.C is measured
by a D.C meter capable of measuring both D.C and A.C.

Purely A.C meter

, if half wave rectifier is used

, if full wave rectifier is used

D.C meter responsive to A.C

, if half wave rectifier is used

, if half wave rectifier is used

1.8.4 Factors affecting the performance of Rectifier instruments (Drawbacks)

Effect of waveform:

The rectifier type instruments are calibrated in terms of RMS value of sinusoidal currents and voltages.
The markings of the instrument are hence 1.11 and 2.22 times of the average current for full wave and
half wave rectifier respectively. Hence these instruments are subject to waveform errors as non –
sinusoidal waveforms would have different form factors.

Effect of rectifier resistance:

Due to non – linear V – I characteristics, the forward resistance of diode is large at low values of current
and vice versa. The effect of this is that the form factor becomes high and hence the instrument reads
low. The multiplier resistance usually swamps this effect.

The swamping effect is effective above 50V. For ranges below 50V, the swamping effect is less
and hence the scale is cramped for low values. This is the reason for providing a separate scale for lower
ranges of voltage.

Effect of temperature:

The biggest drawback of rectifier type instrument is that the resistance of diode changes with
temperature. This error can be overcome by attaching in series to the resistor a copper resistor (that has
high positive temperature coefficient of resistance). As the diode has negative temperature coefficient

56
of resistance, the effect due to temperature are opposite in nature and hence cancel each other. Hence
the instrument is protected from the temperature errors.

Effect of rectifier capacitance:

Rectifiers have the property of an imperfect capacitor, which by – passes high frequency currents. Thus
rectifier instruments show a decreased reading

Variation of sensitivity:

Sensitivity is different for A.C and D.C and also depends on whether a half wave or full wave rectifier is
used.

1.8.5 Advantages of rectifier instrument:

 Can be used over frequency range of 20Hz to 300 MHz.

 Lower operating current when used as voltmeter
 Uniform scale
 Good accuracy

1.9 Calibration of voltmeter:

Calibration:

Calibration is the comparison of a given instrument with either a primary standard, or a

secondary standard, or a working standard or an instrument of higher and known accuracy. Calibration
is usually carried out to determine the errors if any and the accuracy of the instrument under test.

Calibration procedure for voltmeter:

57
 Rheostat

Test Standard
R.P.S R V V
meter meter

The figure above shows an arrangement for calibration of voltmeter. In this method, a
regulated power supply is used to supply a constant voltage to the circuit. A standard resistor is
used, across which the standard meter and meter under test are connected. For a given voltage,
the voltage drop across the resistor, indicated by standard and test voltmeters are noted. These
two readings are compared to determine the error and accuracy of the voltmeter under test. The
rheostat provided is used to limit the current to the voltmeters. A voltmeter calibrated by this
method is accurate by  0.01% .

Calibration procedure for ammeter:

Test Standard
Rheostat
R meter meter

A A

R.P.S

The figure above shows an arrangement for calibration of ammeter. In this method, a regulated
power supply is used to supply a constant voltage to the circuit. A standard resistor is used, in
series with which the standard meter and meter under test are connected. For a given voltage, the
current through the resistor, indicated by standard and test ammeters are noted. These two
readings are compared to determine the error and accuracy of the ammeter under test. The
rheostat provided is used to limit the current to the ammeters. An ammeter calibrated by
this method is accurate by  0.01% .

58
End of Unit – 1

59
 UNIT – 2

2.1 Power in D.C circuits

In D.C circuits, power is given by . i.e. power consumed by load in a D.C circuit can be calculated
by multiplying the voltage across it and current through it.
To measure power using a voltmeter and ammeter, one of the following arrangements can be used:
 Ammeter on the load side
 Voltmeter on the load side
2.1.1 Power measurement with Ammeter on the load side:

I A

Va
V VL LOAD
V

In the above arrangement, the voltage indicated by the voltmeter is not only the voltage consumed by
the load but also the voltage drop across the ammeter.

Power consumed by the load,

Hence it can be seen that the indicated power is more than the actual power consumed by the load.

60
2.1.2 Power measurement with Voltmeter on the load side:

I
A
IL
IV
V
LOAD
V

In the above arrangement, the ammeter indicates not only the current through the load, but also the
current through the voltmeter.

Power consumed by the load,

Hence it can be seen that the indicated power is more than the actual power consumed by the load.
Hence, it is very clear that, in both the arrangements, the power indicated is equal to the sum of power
consumed by load and the power loss in the meter connected nearer to the load. Therefore there will be
some amount of error on account of power loss in meter. This error can be neglected when measuring
high power, but when measuring low power, the error is high and needs to be considered.
So it can be seen that measurement of power by means of a voltmeter and ammeter is error prone and
hence a device capable of indicating the power directly is desired. Such a direct power indicating
instrument is the wattmeter.
2.2 Power in A.C circuits
In A.C circuits, the power consumed is given by .

61
It is clear from the above expression that mere usage of voltmeter and ammeter is of no use for A.C
power measurement as power factor cannot be calculated using either the voltmeter or ammeter. Thus
a wattmeter is suitable device for measurement of power in A.C circuits.

2.3 Electrodynamometer Wattmeter

These are similar to the electrodynamometer ammeters and voltmeters. The difference is that in case of
ammeter and voltmeter, the field coil and moving coil are in the same circuit, but in case of wattmeter,
the two coils are in different circuits.
The field coil / fixed coil is connected in series with the load and so carry the current in the
circuit. Hence the field / fixed coils are also referred to as Current Coil or CC of wattmeter. The moving
coil is connected across the voltage, and therefore carries a current proportional to voltage. Hence the
moving coil is also referred to as Pressure Coil or Voltage Coil or PC of wattmeter. To limit the current
through PC, a high non – inductive resistance can be connected in series to it.
2.3.1 Construction:
The construction of an electrodynamometer wattmeter is shown on fig.1 below.

C.C
I ic

ip

P.C
LOAD
R

Fig.1. Electrodynamometer Wattmeter

Fixed coil:
The fixed coils carry current of the circuit. They are divided into two halves and are wound with heavy
wire. The reason for using the fixed coil as CC is that they can be made more massive and can be easily
constructed to carry considerable current, since they don’t have problem in leading the current in and
out. To avoid the errors due to eddy current losses, the wire can be laminated or stranded while carrying
heavy currents.
To increase the wattmeter range, the fixed coil halves, which are usually connected in series,
can be connected in parallel. Shunts are not preferred for extension of wattmeter range, as they lead to
temperature errors.

62
Moving coil:
The moving coil is mounted on a pivoted spindle and is placed in between the fixed current coils. The
moving coil is used as pressure / voltage coil, due to the design requirements. They cannot be used as
current coils because the springs lead the current into and out of moving coil, which get damaged for
high currents.
To protect the moving coil from heavy currents, a resistor is connected in series to the moving
coil. The resistor usually limits the current through the moving coil to 100mA. To avoid eddy current
errors, both the fixed and moving coils are air – cored.
Control:
Spring control is used here. The springs also act as current carrying element to the moving coil.
Damping:
Air- friction damping is used here. The moving system (pointer) carries a light Aluminum vane that
moves in a sector shaped chamber. Eddy current damping cannot be used here as introduction of
permanent magnet can distort the weak operating field.
Indication:
Pointer and scale arrangement is used for indication. Knife – edge pointer, mirror type scales are
provided for reducing the parallax error.
2.3.2 Torque equation:

The instantaneous torque for an electrodynamometer instrument is given by:

Where,

Let V, I be the rms values of voltage and current to be measured and Rp be the resistance of PC circuit.

63
Where,

Let us assume that the current in the current coil lags the voltage by an angle Φ

Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), we get,

Spring control is used here, so the controlling torque is

For steady state deflection,

Now let

64
Hence the deflection is proportional to the power.
2.4 Errors in Electrodynamometer Wattmeter and their Compensation
2.4.1 Error due to Pressure coil Inductance:
Let

In the ideal wattmeter, where inductance of pressure coil circuit is neglected, the current and voltage in
PC are in phase. But, when the inductance of PC is considered, the current will lag the voltage in PC by
an angle β, where,

The phasor diagram for lagging power factor is as shown below:

Ip

For ideal wattmeter, the power is termed as true power and is given by:

For practical wattmeter, where the inductance is considered,

65
But,

Therefore to get true power, the actual power must be multiplied by the correction factor given by:

Therefore for lagging power factor, the wattmeter reads high i.e. the indicated power will be more than
actual power.

For leading power factor, the correction factor is given by the expression:

Therefore for leading power factor, the wattmeter reads low i.e. the indicated power will be less than
actual power.

66
For lagging power factor, the error in terms of the actual reading, is given by:

As is very small,

From (3),

Now for small values of ,

Now, % Error is given by,

But,

From (7),

67
Compensation:

The error caused by the inductance of the PC can be compensated by means of a capacitor connected in
parallel with the multiplier resistance as shown in fig. below.

L rp

r
RP

The total impedance,

If the circuit constants are chosen such that, , then

If we make i.e. , then and hence β will be zero.

Hence the error due to inductance can be compensated by means of capacitor ( ) connected
across the series multiplier resistance.

It should however be noted that this compensation method holds good over a frequency range of 10
KHz.

2.4.2 Error due to Pressure coil Capacitance:

The pressure coil possesses capacitance in addition to inductance. This capacitance is due to the inter –
turn capacitance of the series resistance. The effect of capacitance is opposite to that of inductance i.e.
the wattmeter reading is low for lagging loads and high for leading loads.

2.4.3 Error due to Mutual Inductance:

Errors are caused due to mutual inductance between the CC and PC of wattmeter. These errors are
quite low at power frequencies but they increase as the frequency increases.

The effect of mutual inductance is to change the phase angle by which the current lags the voltage. This
depends on whether PC or CC is connected on the load side. If PC is connected on the load side, then the

68
phase angle β increases, whereas if the CC is connected on the load side, then the phase angle β
decreases.

To overcome this error, the CC and PC are arranged in such a manner that the mutual inductance is
always zero. Drysdale Torsion – head wattmeter is good example of meter with no error due to mutual
inductance.

2.4.4 Errors because of connections:

There are two alternate ways of connecting wattmeter in a circuit as shown in fig. below.

C.C
I

P.C
V LOAD
R

Fig. (a) Wattmeter connection with CC on load side

C.C
I

P.C

V LOAD
R

Fig. (b) Wattmeter connection with PC on load side

In the connection shown in fig. (a), where the CC is connected on the load side,

In the connection shown in fig. (b), where the PC is connected on the load side,

69
The connection shown in Fig. (a) is preferred where the load current is small, whereas for large load
currents, connection in Fig. (b) is preferred.

If the power loss is to be accounted for accuracy considerations, then connection (b) is
preferable. This is because, for a constant voltage V, is constant and hence the true power consumed

by load can be calculated by subtracting the indicated power and . The value of can be observed by

simply noting the wattmeter reading under no load condition.

For lower power factors, a compensating coil for CC is used with connection (a).

2.4.5 Eddy Current Errors:

Eddy currents are induced in the solid metal parts and within the thickness of the conductor by the
alternate magnetic fields of the CC.

For lagging power factors of load, the wattmeter reads low and for leading power factors of
load, the wattmeter reads high.

To remove this error, metal parts are avoided as far as possible. Air cores are preferred. Also
stranded conductors can be used for CC to avoid eddy currents induction for large values of current.

2.4.6 Stray Magnetic Field Errors:

As the operating magnetic field is very weak, the errors due to the stray magnetic fields are severe. To
protect the wattmeter from external field, iron and steel shields are used. But precision type meters do
not have shields as they may lead to eddy current errors. In such a case, an Astatic system is used, which
consists of two sets of coils whose torques are same in magnitude but opposite in direction.

2.4.7 Errors caused by vibration of moving system:

If the pointer, spring or some other part of the moving system has a natural frequency, which is in
approximate resonance with the frequency of torque pulsation, the moving system (pointer) would
vibrate with considerable amplitude. These vibrations make the position of pointer difficult to read in
addition to making the mean position of pointer different from the average power.

This error can be avoided by designing the moving system in such a way that its natural
frequency is not equal to twice the frequency of the system on which the wattmeter is intended to be
used. This error is found occasionally in wattmeter.

2.4.8 Temperature Errors:

70
Change in room temperature affects the wattmeter performance. Change in room temperature changes
the resistance of the pressure coil and the stiffness of the springs. These effects are opposite in nature
and would neutralize each other.

2.5 Low Power Factor (LPF) Wattmeter

Measurement of power in circuits having low power factor, by an ordinary electrodynamometer

wattmeter is difficult and inaccurate because:

 The deflecting torque (Td) is small (due to lower power factor) even when the current coil
and pressure coil are fully excited.
 Errors introduced because of inductance of PC tend to be large at lower power factors.

To make an ordinary electrodynamometer suitable for low power factor power measurements, certain
special requirements are to be satisfied.

A LPF wattmeter incorporating the special requirements is as shown in fig. below.

Compensating Coil

C.C
I+Ip I

P.C Ip
V LOAD
C R

Fig. Low Power Factor Wattmeter

The special features of a LPF wattmeter include:

 Pressure coil current:

The pressure coil circuit is designed to have a low resistance, so that the current flowing
through it is increased, to give an increased operating torque. The PC current in a low
power factor wattmeter is ten times the value of that employed for high power factor
wattmeter.

 Compensation for PC current:

It was seen that, when the CC is connected on supply side, the CC carries a current I + Ip
and produces a flux corresponding to this current. To compensate for Ip, a series coil is

71
 attached to the PC in such a fashion that they oppose each other. Hence the resulting flux
will be only due to I.
 Compensation for inductance of PC:
The error due to PC inductance is . Now for lower power factor, as is
less, is high, so error is high for low power factor power measurements.
The error caused by the inductance can be compensated by connecting a capacitor
in parallel to the multiplier resistance, whose value should be , Where R is the
multiplier resistance.
 Small control torque:
LPF wattmeter are designed to have lower control torque, so that there will be deflection
even for low power factors of the order of 0.1. (As Td is less, if Tc is also less, we will get
an appreciable θ for lower power factors)
2.6 Calibration of wattmeter

2.6.1 D.C calibration

Calibration of D.C wattmeter can be done by:

 Comparison with standard wattmeter

 Using D.C potentiometers

Calibration by comparison with standard meter:

For calibration of dynamometer, the current coils of the standard and test meters are connected in
series and the pressure coils are connected in parallel. Phantom loading technique is usually employed
to reduce the power consumption.

A
Rheostat
−
Low voltage D.C supply WT WS
+

Normal
D.C supply
Potential V
divider
−

Fig. Calibration of wattmeter by comparison with standard meter

72
The rheostat is used to vary the current in the current coil and the potential divider is used to vary the
voltage across the potential coil. The ammeter and voltmeter indicate the current and voltage in CC and
PC respectively. WT is the wattmeter under test and WS is the standard wattmeter.

The two wattmeter readings are noted and error if any is calculated using the formula:

Based on the error, calibration curve is drawn and necessary steps are taken to eliminate the errors if
any.

2.6.2 A.C calibration

The calibration of A.C. wattmeter can be carried out by any of the following methods:

 Comparison with standard wattmeter

 Using A.C. potentiometer
 By use of resistive load
 By electrostatic wattmeter

Calibration by comparison with standard meter:

A
Rheostat
−
Low voltage A.C supply WT WS
+

Normal
A.C supply
Potential V
divider
−

73
Fig. Calibration of wattmeter by comparison with standard meter
The calibration of A.C wattmeter is same as that of D.C except that, for A.C wattmeter, an A.C supply is
used instead of D.C supply.

Use of resistive load for A.C wattmeter calibration:

This is an accurate method of testing low range wattmeter at unity power factor. In this method, a non –
inductive standard resistance is used as load and the power consumed by this load is determined from
its resistance and voltage drop across it. Electrostatic voltmeters are usually employed for measuring
voltage across the load (resistor).

74
2.7 Energy

Energy is the total power delivered or consumed over a time interval.

Energy is usually expressed in KWh.

2.7 Induction type Energy meter

2.7.1 Construction

The four main parts of an energy meter are:

 Driving system
 Moving system
 Braking system and
 Registering system

The construction is as shown below:

Pressure
Coil
Shading
V Bands

I
I

Aluminum Disc
Current Coil

Fig. Construction of Induction type energy meter

Driving system:

The driving system of the meter consists of two electro – magnets. The core of these electromagnets is
made of silicon steel laminations. The coil of one of the electromagnets is excited by the load current.
This coil is called the current coil. The coil of second electromagnet is connected across the supply and
therefore carries a current proportional to the supply voltage. This coil is called the pressure coil. Hence
the two electromagnets are known as series and shunt magnets respectively.

75
 Copper shading bands are provided on the central limb. The position of these bands is
adjustable. The function of these bands is to bring the flux produced by the shunt magnet exactly in
quadrature with the applied voltage.

Moving system:

The moving system consists of an Aluminum disc mounted on a light alloy shaft. This disc is positioned in
the air gap between the series and shunt magnets. The upper bearing of the moving system is a steel pin
located in a hole in the bearing cup fixed to the top of the shaft. The moving system runs on a hardened
steel pivot, screwed to the foot of the shaft. The pivot is supported by a jewel bearing. A pinion is used
to connect the shaft and the registering mechanism.

Braking system:

A permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the Aluminum disc forms the braking system. The
Aluminum disc moves in the field of this magnet and thus provides a braking torque. The position of the
permanent magnet is adjustable and hence the braking torque can be varied.

Registering mechanism:

The function of registering or counting mechanism is to record continually a number proportional to the
revolutions made by the moving system. A pointer type registering mechanism is shown below:

1000 100 10 1 KWh

Fig. Pointer type of registering mechanism

2.7.2 Operation

A simplified functional diagram of the driving system of the meter is shown in the fig. below.

76
 I

LOAD
V

Fig. Working of induction energy meter

The supply voltage is applied across the pressure coil. The pressure coil winding is highly inductive as it
has very large number of turns and its reluctance is small due to presence of air gaps of very small
length. Thus the current Ip through the pressure coil is proportional to the supply voltage and lags it by a
few degrees less than 90◦.

The current Ip produces a flux Φpt. This flux divides itself into two halves Φg and Φp. The major
portion Φg flows across the side gaps, as the reluctance of this path is small. The reluctance to the path
of flux Φp is large and hence its magnitude is small. This flux Φp goes across Aluminum disc and hence is
responsible for production of driving torque. The flux Φp is in phase with the current Ip and is
proportional to it. Therefore Φp is proportional to voltage V and lags it by an angle less than 90◦. Since Φp
is alternative in nature, it induces an eddy emf Eep in the disc, which in turn, produces eddy current Iep.

The load current I flows through the current coil and produces a flux Φs. This flux is proportional
to the load current and is in phase with it. This flux produces Ies in the disc. This Ies interacts with Φp to
produce a torque and the Iep interacts with Φs to produce another torque. These two torques are in
opposite direction and the net torque is difference of these.

Let

V be the applied voltage

I be the load current

be the phase angle of load

Ip be the pressure coil current

be the phase angle between supply voltage and pressure coil flux Φp

f be the frequency

77
Z be the impedance of the eddy current path

α be the phase angle of eddy current paths

Eep be the eddy induced emf by Φp

Ees be the eddy induced emf by Φs

Iep be the eddy current due to Φp

Ies be the eddy current due to Φs

The net driving torque of induction meter is given by:

Where

and

Here, the fluxes are

But,

If f, Z and α are constant, then,

If , then

78
The braking torque is given by:

At steady state speed,

Thus for the speed to be proportional to the power, the angle should be equal to . Hence, the flux
Φp must lag the supply voltage by exactly .

2.7.3 Lag Adjustment in energy meters

It is clear from the derivation of the number of revolutions made by energy meter that the meter will
register true energy only if the angle is made equal to . I.e. the phase angle between the shunt magnet
flux Φp and the supply voltage V should be equal to . This requires that the pressure coil winding should
be so designed that it is highly inductive and has a low resistance and the iron losses in the core are
small. But even this would not ensure phase of exactly . The phase would still be less than .

However, by introducing a magnetic shunt circuit which allows the main portion of the shunt
magnet flux to bypass the gap in which the disc is located, it is possible to introduce an MMF in proper
phase relation to bring the shunt magnet flux in the air gap in exact quadrature with the voltage. The
arrangement for this is shown in fig. below.

79
 Φpt

Ip

V
I Lag coil
IL Φg

Φp

Disc

Fig. Lag adjustment using a lag coil

The required MMF is obtained from a ‘lag coil’ which is located on the central limb of the shunt magnet
close to the disc gap and links with the flux that cuts the disc.
The pressure coil is excited by voltage V and carries a current Ip which produces an MMF ATpt,
which in turn produces a flux Φpt lagging the voltage by an angle . The flux Φpt divides into two
parts Φg and Φp. The flux Φp cuts the disc and also links with the lag coil. A voltage EL is induced in the
coil lagging Φp by . This voltage circulates a current IL through the lag coil, the lag between IL and EL
depends on the resistance of lag coil. This current produces an MMF ATL. The flux in the disc air gap Φp
will thus be created by the combined action of main MMF (ATpt) in phase with Ip and the lag coil MMF
(ATL) in phase with IL. Thus the flux Φp will be in phase with the resultant MMF ATp. Hence it is clear that
the phase of flux Φp can be adjusted by varying the MMF of shading coil.
The arrangements for adjusting the MMF of lag coil are:
Adjustable resistance:
A few turns of fairly thick wire are placed around the central limb of the shunt magnet and the circuit is
closed through a low adjustable resistance as shown in fig. below.

Central limb of shunt magnet

Lag coil

Adjustable bridge for Adjustable resistance

resistance variation

Fig. Lag adjustment with adjustable resistance

80
The resistance of this circuit is altered to adjust the lag angle of Φp . An increase in the resistance
decreases the current and MMF in the lag coil and therefore the value of lag angle θ is decreased. The
value of lag angle can be increased by decreasing the resistance of the lag coil circuit. The resistance of
the lag coil is so adjusted that becomes equal to .

Shading bands:

In this arrangement, copper shading bands are used instead of adjustable resistance as shown in fig.
below.

Φpt Shunt magnet

Φg Φp Φg

Disc

Series magnet

The adjustment can be done by moving the shading bands along the axis of the limb. As the shading
bands are moved up the limb, they embrace more flux. This results in greater values for induced emf,
current and the MMF ATL produced by the shading bands and hence the value of lag angle θ increases.
When the shading bands are moved down the limb, the MMF ATL produced by the shading bands and
hence the value of lag angle θ decreases. The adjustment is carried out till becomes equal to .

Lag adjustment is also referred to as “power factor adjustment”, “quadrature adjustment” or “inductive
load adjustment”.

2.7.4 Light load or friction compensation in energy meters

Despite every care taken to reduce the friction errors, these errors are liable to be serious, particularly
at light loads. In order to ensure accurate registration at low loads, it is therefore necessary to arrange
for small torque independent of the load of the meter. This is usually obtained by means of small
shading loop (L2) situated between the central pole of the shunt magnet and the disc and slightly the
one side of the central line of the pole as shown in fig.

81
 Φpt Shunt magnet

Φg Φp Φg
L1

L2
Disc

Series magnet

Fig. Friction compensation

The interaction between the portions of flux which are shaded and unshaded by this loop and the
currents they induce in the disc results in a small driving torque, whose value can be adjusted by lateral
movement of the loop.

2.7.5 Creeping in energy meters

The slow but continuous rotation of the disc with the pressure coil energized and no current flowing
through the current coil is called creeping. The major cause for creeping is over compensation for
friction.

In order to prevent creeping, two diametrically opposite holes are drilled in the disc. The disc
will come to rest with one of the holes under the edge of a pole of the shunt magnet. The rotation is
thus limited to a maximum of half a revolution.

A small piece of iron can also be attached to the edge of disc to prevent creep. The force of
attraction extended by the brake magnet on the iron piece is sufficient to prevent creeping of disc.

2.7.6 Overload compensation in energy meters

Due to continuous rotation of the disc in the field of series magnet under load conditions, an emf is
dynamically induced in the disc, resulting in a self – braking torque. This self – braking torque is
obviously proportional to the square of the load current and is dominant for higher loads. Thus at high
values of load current, the registration tends to be lower than the actual.

In order to minimize the self – braking action, the full load speed of the disc is kept as low as
possible. An overload compensating device usually consists of a magnetic shunt for the series magnetic
core. The magnetic shunt approaches saturation and so its permeability decreases at overloads. Thus at
large currents, the shunt diverts less of the series magnet flux, so that a larger portion of the flux
appears in the disc air gap and contributes to driving torque.

82
2.7.7 Voltage compensation in energy meters

Usually a certain amount of variation is permitted in the supply voltage. This voltage variation causes
errors due to two reasons:

 The relation between shunt magnet flux and supply voltage is nonlinear owing to
saturation in iron parts
 The flux Φp produces a dynamically induced emf in the disc, resulting in self – braking
torque proportional to the square of supply voltage.

Compensation for voltage variations is provided by using a saturable magnetic shunt, which diverts a
greater portion of flux into the active path when the voltage rises. Compensation can also be provided
by drilling holes in the side limbs so that reluctance of the side limbs of the shunt magnet increases.

2.7.8 Temperature compensation in energy meters

An increase in temperature is accompanied by a rise in resistance of all the copper and aluminum parts,
resulting in:

 Small decrease in Φp and reduction in angle of lag between V and Φp

 Decrease in torques produced by shading bands
 An increase in resistance of eddy current paths, and
 Decrease in angle of lag of eddy currents

Usually the error due to temperature variations is small, as the various effects due to temperature
changes neutralize each other. The effect of increase of temperature is to cause the meter to run fast
and to register high. To compensate for this effect, a temperature shunt is used on the brake magnet.

2.8 Errors in Single phase energy meters

The errors caused by the driving system are:

o Incorrect magnitude of fluxes

o Incorrect phase angles
o Lack of symmetry in magnetic circuits

The errors caused by the braking system are:

o Changes in strength of brake magnet

o Changes in disc resistance
o Self – braking effect of Φs
o Friction of the moving parts

83
2.9 Adjustments in Energy Meters

Some adjustments are carried out in energy meters, so that they read correctly and their errors are
within the allowable limits. The sequence of adjustments to be carried out is:

1) Preliminary light load adjustment:

The disc is so positioned that the holes are not underneath the electromagnets. Rated
voltage is applied to the potential coil with no current through the current coil. The light
load device is adjusted until the disc just fails to start.
2) Full load unity factor adjustment:
The pressure coil is connected across the rated supply voltage and rated full load current
at unity power factor is passed through the current coils. The position of the brake magnet
is adjusted to vary the braking torque, so that the meter revolves at correct speed within
required limits or errors.
3) Lag adjustment (Low power factor adjustment):
The pressure coil is connected across rated supply voltage and the rated full load current
is passed through the current coil at 0.5 power factor lagging. The lag device is adjusted
till the meter runs at correct speed.
4) With the rated supply voltage, rated full load current and unity power factor, the speed of
the meter is checked and the steps 2 and 3 are repeated until the desired accuracy limits
are reached.
5) Light load adjustment:
Rated supply voltage is applied across the pressure coil and a very low current is passed
through the meter at unity power factor. The light load adjustment is done so that the
meter runs at correct speed.
6) The steps 2 and 5 are again done until the speed is correct for both full load and light
loads.
7) The performance is re – checked at 0.5 power factor.
8) Creep adjustment is done finally.

2.10 Phantom Loading

Phantom loading is a fictious loading technique used for testing of energy meters. This is done when the
current rating of the meter under test is high, to avoid wastage of power.

The circuit for phantom loading is shown in fig. below:

84
 5A

C.C 6V

P.C
220 V

Fig. Phantom Loading Technique

This technique consists of supplying the pressure circuit from a circuit of normal voltage, and the current
circuit from a separate low voltage supply. It is possible to circulate the rated current through the
current coil even with a low voltage supply, because the impedance of this circuit is very low. Hence the
power consumption can be reduced considerably.

Let a 220 V, 5A energy meter be tested. Let the resistance of PC and CC is 8800 Ω and 0.1 Ω respectively.
Then the power consumed by the meter under direct loading and phantom loading (using a 6 V battery)
can be calculated as under:

Direct loading:

Phantom loading:

Hence, it is very clear that the power consumption in case of phantom loading is very much small
compared to direct loading.

85
 UNIT – 3

Potentiometer:

A potentiometer is an instrument designed to measure an unknown voltage by comparing it with a known

voltage. The advantages of potentiometer are:

❖ As it is a comparison method, high degree of accuracy is obtained, because the result does not
dependon actual deflection of a pointer, but on the accuracy with which the known voltage is known.
❖ No power is consumed in the circuit containing the unknown emf, because no current flows under
balanced condition
❖ It can also be used for measurement of current ( I = E)
R
❖ It can be used for calibration of voltmeters, ammeters and wattmeter.

3.1 Basic Potentiometer circuit

The schematic of the basic slide wire potentiometer is as shown in fig.1 below.

Battery

Slide
wire Rh

Rheostat
Working current
a 100 Cm
C
0 Cm 200 Cm
Sliding contact
E1
E
K
Unknown Operate
EMF G

Calibrate
Standard cell

Fig.1. Basic slide wire potentiometer

With the switch ‘S’ in the ‘Operate’ position and the galvanometer key ‘K’ open, the battery supplies the
‘working current’ through the rheostat ‘Rh’ and the slide wire. The working current through the slide wire can
be varied by changing the rheostat settings.

107
 The method of measuring the unknown voltage ‘E’ depends on finding a position for the sliding contact
such that the galvanometer shows zero deflection, when ‘K’ is closed. Zero galvanometer deflection means that
the unknown voltage ‘E’ is equal to the voltage drop ‘E1’ across the portion ‘ac’ of the slide wire. Thus the
determination of value of unknown voltage now becomes a matter of evaluating the voltage drop E1 along the
portion ‘ac’ of the slide wire.

The slide wire has a uniform cross section and hence uniform resistance along its entire length. A scale
in Cm is placed along the slide wire, so that the sliding contact can be accurately placed along the slide wire.
Since the resistance of slide wire is known accurately, the voltage drop along the slide wire can be controlled by
adjusting the value of working current.

3.1.1 Standardization:

The process of adjusting the working current so as to match the voltage drop across a portion of sliding wire
against a standard reference source is known as standardization.

The slide wire shown in fig.1 has a total length of 200 Cm and a resistance of 200 fi. The emf of
standard cell is 1.0186 V. Now the switch is thrown to ‘Calibrate’ position and the sliding contact is placed at
101.86 Cm mark on the slide wire scale. The rheostat is now adjusted so as to vary the working current. The
adjustment is carried on till the galvanometer shows no deflection, when the key ‘K’ is pressed. Under these
conditions, the voltage drop along the 101.86 Cm portion of the slide wire is equal to the standard cell voltage
of 1.0186 V. Since the 101.86 Cm portion of the slide wire has a resistance of 101.86 fi, the working current
should be:
V 1.0186
I= = = 10 NA
R 101.86

So, if the rheostat is adjusted to pass a working current of 10 mA, the voltage can be obtained from slide wire
reading just by adjusting the decimal points.

If the potentiometer has been calibrated once, its working current is never changed.

3.2 Laboratory type (Crompton’s) Potentiometer

The slide wire type basic potentiometer is not a practical form of construction. The long slide wire is awkward
and the precision is very less.

Modern laboratory type potentiometers use calibrated dial resistors and a small circular wire of one or
more turns, thereby reducing the size of the instrument. The circuit of simple laboratory type potentiometer is
shown in fig.2.

108
 Battery

Rheostat
Rh
1.3
10 mA
0.2 working
1.5 0.1 current
Dial switch 0
0.1
15 steps of 10
fi. Total 150 fi.
Range 15 V Shorting key G Circular slide wire
resistance 10 fi,
Standard cell
Range 0.1 V
Calibrate

Operate
Protective
resistance
S

− +
Unknown emf

Fig.2. Laboratory type potentiometer

The laboratory type potentiometer consists of one dial switch with fifteen steps, having a precision
resistor. There is also a single turn circular slide wire. For the potentiometer shown in fig.2, the resistance of the
slide wire is 10 fi and the dial resistors have a value of 10 fi each. Thus the dial has a total resistance of 150 fi
and the slide wire has a resistance of 10 fi. The working current of the potentiometer is 10 mA and therefore
each step of the dial switch corresponds to 0.1 V. The slide wire is provided with 200 scale divisions and since
the total resistance of slide wire corresponds to a voltage drop of 0.1 V, each division of the slide wire
corresponds to 0.1 / 200 = 0.0005 V. So, this potentiometer is capable of a highly accurate reading close to 4
decimal places.

The potentiometer is provided with a double throw switch that allows the connection of either the
standard cell or the unknown emf to be applied to the working circuit. A key and a protective resistance are
used in the galvanometer circuit. To operate the galvanometer at its maximum sensitivity, provision is made to
short the protective resistance when near the balance conditions.

109
The voltage measurement is done as follows:
• The combination of dial resistors and slide wire is set to the standard cell voltage. Supposing the value
of emf of standard cell is 1.0186 V, the dial resistor is put at 1.0 V and the slide wire is put at 0.0186 V
setting.
• The switch ‘S’ is thrown to ‘calibrate’ position and the galvanometer key is tapped while the rheostat is
adjusted for zero deflection on the galvanometer. The protective resistance is kept in the circuit in the
initial stages so as to protect the galvanometer.
• As the balance is approached, the protective resistance is shorted so as to increase the sensitivity of the
galvanometer. Final adjustments are made for zero deflection with the help of rheostat. This completes
the standardization process.
• After completing the standardization, the switch ‘S’ is thrown to ‘operate’ position thereby connecting
the unknown emf into the potentiometer circuit. With the protective resistance in the circuit, the
potentiometer is balanced by means of the main dial and slide wire.
• As the balance is approached, the protective resistance is shorted and final adjustments are made to
obtain true balance.
• The value of unknown emf is read off directly from the settings of the dial and slide wire.
• The standardization of potentiometer is checked again by returning the switch ‘S’ to ‘calibrate’ position.
The dial settings are kept exactly the same as in the original case. If the new reading does not agree with
the new one, a second measurement of unknown emf must be made. The standardization should be
checked again after completion of measurement.
3.2.1 Constructional details of potentiometers

▪ All the resistors (except slide wire) are made of Manganin. Manganin is preferred because of its high
stability, low temperature coefficient and freedom from thermo – electric effects against copper.
▪ Slide wire is made of platinum – silver alloy and the sliding contact are of copper – gold – silver alloy.
These materials are preferred because they provide the benefits of good contact, freedom from thermo –
electric effects and minimum wear of slide wire.
▪ To ensure uniform temperature, cases are provided.

3.2.2 Volt – ratio box

General purpose potentiometers cover a maximum voltage range of (0 – 1.8) V. If higher voltage ranges have to
be measured, a precision potential divider, called volt – ratio box is used. The volt – ratio box is as shown in
fig.3 below.

X 200
300 V

30000▲
X 100
150 V
X 50 15000▲
75 V + 1.5 V
To
7500▲ 150▲
Common point potentiometer

Fig.3. Volt – ratio Box

110
 The voltage to be measured is connected to the appropriate binding post. Let the voltage to be measured
is connected between the common terminal and 300V switch. If the potentiometer reading is 0.826, then the
300
value of unknown voltage is 0.826 × ( 1.5 ) = 165.2 V.

Usually potentiometers do not consume power from source. But, if potentiometers are used in
conjunction with volt – ratio box, power is consumed from the source.

3.3 Applications of D.C potentiometers

The applications of D.C potentiometers are:

✓ Measurement of voltage
✓ Calibration of voltmeter
✓ Calibration of ammeter
✓ Measurement of resistance
✓ Measurement of power
✓ Calibration of wattmeter

3.3.1 Calibration of Voltmeter:

The circuit for calibration of voltmeter is as shown in fig.4 below:

Volt – ratio Box

300
Coarse Adjustment

150
Stabilized Fine adjustment
D.C supply 75
V VUT
15 To
Potentiometer
0

Fig.4. Calibration of voltmeter using potentiometer

An important requirement for calibration of voltmeter is a stable D.C voltage supply; because any changes in
the supply voltage will cause a corresponding change in voltmeter calibration. A potential divider network,
consisting of two rheostats, one for coarse and the other for fine control of calibrating voltage is provided. The
voltage across the voltmeter is stepped down to a value suitable for application to a potentiometer with the help
of a volt – ratio box. As far as possible, the measurements are done near the maximum range of the
potentiometer, for high accuracy.

The reading of potentiometer is the standard or true reading and this is compared with the reading of the
Voltmeter Under Test (VUT) and the error is determined.

111
3.3.2 Calibration of Ammeter:

The circuit for calibration of ammeter is as shown in fig.5 below:

Coarse adjustment

A
Stabilized
D.C supply Fine adjustment To
S Potentiometer

Fig.5. Calibration of Ammeter using potentiometer

A standard resistance (S) of suitable value and sufficient current carrying capacity is placed in series with the
ammeter under calibration. The voltage across the standard resistor is measured with the help of potentiometer
and the current through the resistance is hence computed by using the formula:

I = Vc ,
S

Where

Vc is the voltage across the standard resistor as indicated by the eotentioNeter

S is the resistance of the standard resistor

Since the resistance of standard resistor is known accurately and the voltage is measured by a
potentiometer (which is accurate), this method of ammeter calibration is very accurate.

3.3.3 Measurement of Resistance:

The circuit for measurement of resistance with a potentiometer is as shown in fig.6 below.

Coarse adjustment
A
Stabilized
Fine adjustment
D.C supply
Potentiometer

R 1|
1
To

2
S 2|

Fig.6. Measurement of resistance using potentiometer

The unknown resistance ‘R’ is connected in series with a standard resistor ‘S’. The current through the circuit is
controlled by a rheostat. A two pole double throw switch is used. This switch when put in position 1, 1| connects
the unknown resistance to the potentiometer.

112
Suppose the reading of potentiometer is VR, then,

VR = IR (1)

Now, when the switch is thrown to 2, 2|, standard resistor is connected to the potentiometer.

Suppose the reading of potentiometer is VS, then,

VS = IS (2)

From (1) and (2),

VR
R= S
VS

As ‘S’ is accurately known, VR and VS are readings of potentiometer, R can be determined accurately. This
method is mostly used for measurement of low resistance.

3.3.4 Measurement of Power:

The circuit for measurement of power with potentiometer is as shown in fig.7 below:

I
S

TO POTENTIOMETER
300
L 150
SUPPLY O
A 75
D
15

Volt – ratio Box

Fig.7. Measurement of power with potentiometer

Two measurements are made, one across the standard resistance ‘S’ connected in series with the load and the
other across the output terminals of the volt – ratio box.

The current in the circuit can be computed from the voltage drop across the standard resistance and the
voltage drop across load can be computed from the potentiometer reading across the output terminals of the volt
– ratio box.

113
Let,

VS be the reading of potentiometer when connected across ‘S’

VR be the reading of potentiometer when connected across the volt – ratio box

2 The current through the load, I = VC

S

Voltage across the load, V = K × VR

Where, K is the multiplying factor of the volt – ratio box

2 Power consuNed = VI = KV VS = KVRVS

R S S
KVRVS
2P=
S
3.3.5 Calibration of Wattmeter:

The circuit for calibration of wattmeter by potentiometer is shown in fig.8 below.

Rheostat
A
PC CC
Low
Voltage Standard
Resistor (S)
Supply

TO POTENTIOMETER
High VOLT – RATIO BOX
Potential Divider

Voltage
Supply

Fig.8. Calibration of wattmeter by potentiometer

The circuit for calibration of wattmeter is similar to that of the measurement circuit. The main difference is that
the calibration circuit makes use of phantom loading to minimize the power consumption.

The volt – ratio box is used to step down the voltage to the potentiometer. Power measurement is made
as explained earlier and is compared with the wattmeter reading and the error is determined.

114
3.4 A.C Potentiometers

The most important difference between a D.C and A.C potentiometer is that, in a D.C potentiometer, only the
magnitudes of unknown emf and potentiometer voltage drop have to be made equal to obtain balance, but in an
A.C potentiometer, both the magnitude and phase angle have to be made equal to obtain balance.

The factors to be considered for A.C potentiometers are:

• The frequency and waveform of the current in the potentiometer circuit must exactly be the same as that
of voltage being measured. Thus, the potentiometer circuit must be supplied from the same source as the
voltage or current being measured.
• A vibration galvanometer, which is a tuned device, is usually used as a detector in A.C potentiometers.
If harmonics are present in the voltage, a balance is not obtained. As an alternative, if an average
indicating detector is used, the balance point is not same as that of R.M.S indicating device. To avoid
this problem, the source of A.C supply is made as sinusoidal as possible.
• As there is no A.C reference source, (in D.C potentiometers, standard cell or Zener source acts as
reference) the accuracy with which an A.C voltage can be measured in A.C potentiometer cannot be
compared with corresponding type of D.C measurement.
• Stray emfs affect the system. Thus, these emfs must be eliminated or compensated for.

3.4.1 Standardization of A.C potentiometers:

The standardization is done with the help of standard D.C source (i.e. a standard cell or Zener source) and a
transfer instrument. A transfer instrument is used because its response is same on both D.C and A.C. Usually
electrodynamometer milli – ammeter or thermocouple type of instrument is used as transfer instrument.

3.4.2 Types of A.C potentiometers:

A.C potentiometers are classified based on the manner in which the value of unknown voltage may be measured
by the instrument dials and scales. They are hence classified as Polar type and coordinate type.

Polar type:

In these instruments, the magnitude of the unknown voltage is read from one scale and its phase angle with
respect to some reference phasor is read from a second scale. Provision is made to read phase angles up to 360○.
The voltage is read in the form V²8.

Coordinate type:

These instruments are provided with two scales to read respectively the in phase component V1, and the
quadrature component V2 of the unknown voltage V. These components are 90○ out of phase with each other.

Then the voltage V is found from: V = ƒV1 2 + V2 2 and the phase angle 0 is determined from: 8 = tan–1 (V1).
V2
Provision is made in these potentiometers to read both positive and negative values of V1 and V2 so that angles
up to 360○ are covered.

115
3.4.3 Drysdale Polar potentiometer
The circuit for Drysdale potentiometer is as shown in fig.9 below:

Voltage
to be
measured
VG To rotor of
phase shifting
Kelvin – Varley transformer
slide wire
Slide
wire
A S

S1 R|
R

D.C Supply

Fig.9. Drysdale Potentiometer

A description of the two major components of the Drysdale potentiometer viz. phase shifting transformer and
transfer instrument is given below:
Phase shifting transformer:
✓ The schematic of phase shifting transformer is shown in fig.10 below:

Rotor 8

To potentiometer
Rotor Winding Slide Wire
winding 1
(R1, L1)
Stator

Stator
R
winding 2
(R2, L2)
C

Single Phase Supply

Fig.10. Drysdale Phase shifting Transformer

116
 ✓ It consists of laminated silicon steel stator which houses a two or three phase winding.
✓ The rotor is also a laminated structure having slots in which a winding is provided.
✓ There is a small air gap between the rotor and the stator.
✓ When current flows in the stator winding, a rotating field is produced, thereby inducing an
emf intherotor winding.
✓ The angle through which the rotor rotates is proportional to the phase displacement of the rotor
emf.
✓ A scale and pointer are provided on top of the instrument to indicate the angle through which
the rotorhas moved from its zero position. The scale is graduated both in degrees and cosine of the angles.
✓ It is only necessary to have two separate windings displaced by 90○ on the stator. One winding
is feddirectly from the supply, while the other winding is connected in series with a variable resistance R
and a variable capacitance C.
✓ The values of R and C are adjusted until the currents through the two windings are equal and
○
are 90displaced from each other, creating a revolving field.

The emf induced in rotor winding due to stator winding 1 is e1 = KI Sinmt Cos8

The emf induced in rotor winding due to stator winding 2 is e2 = KI Sin(mt + 90) Cos(8 + 90)

= —KI Cosmt Sin8

2 Resultant eNf in stator, e = e1 — e2

= KI[Sinmt Cos8 — Cosmt Sin8]

2 e = KI sin(mt — 8)

Hence it is clear from the above expression that the rotor emf has constant amplitude but the phase angle is
given by the rotor position 0.

Transfer instrument:

A precision type electro – dynamometer ammeter is required for standardization purposes. In order to
standardize the A.C potentiometer, the slide wire circuit is switched onto a D.C supply, and the standard current
is obtained in the usual way, using a standard cell. This standard current required to make the potentiometer
direct reading is measured by a precision ammeter which is included in the battery supply circuit of the
potentiometer. During operation on A.C, the ammeter is still included in the supply circuit, and the rms value of
the slide wire current is maintained at the same value as was required on D.C. Since the coils of potentiometer
are non – inductively wound, it remains direct reading even when used with an A.C supply.

3.4.3.1 Operation:

The Kelvin – Varley slide wire principle is employed in the slide wire circuit. VG is a vibration galvanometer
used as detector for measurement at commercial frequencies. This must be tuned carefully to give resonance at
the frequency of the voltage under measurement. r is a shunting resistor for the reduction of the range of the
potentiometer. When this shunt is put in the circuit by the switch S1, the resistor R is simultaneously connected
in series with the slide wire circuit to ensure that the resistance of working portion of the potentiometer is
constant. R1 is a rheostat for adjustment of slide wire current. A is a precision ammeter.

117
 The potentiometer is first standardized by adjusting the rheostat and the standard current is noted. For
standardization, the switch S is thrown to D.C supply and the VG is replaced by a D’Arsonval galvanometer.

The switch S is then thrown over to the A.C supply side, the standard cell and the D’Arsonval
galvanometer are now replaced by the A.C voltage to be measured and the vibration galvanometer respectively.
The stator windings of the phase shifter are then adjusted to exact quadrature by means of a variable resistor and
capacitor, until the A.C in the slide wire is constant for all positions of the rotor.

Balance of the potentiometer is obtained by successive adjustment of the sliding contacts of the slide
wire circuit and of the rotor of the phase shifter. The readings of the potentiometer dials and the slide wire at
balance give the magnitude of voltage being measured, as in case of D.C , while the reading on the scale of the
phase – shifter gives the phase of voltage being measured relative to the supply voltage. For accurate results, it
is necessary that the voltage and the frequency of the supply are steady and that the waveforms of the voltage
are sinusoidal.

3.4.4 Gall – Tinsley (Coordinate Type) A.C Potentiometer

S3

VG

+ − + −
S1 S2
b b| c|
c
In – phase Quadrature
potentiometer potentiometer
A

M
R R|

Supply phase 1 Supply phase 2

Fig.11. Gall – Tinsley A.C potentiometer

As shown in fig.11, this potentiometer consists of two separate potentiometer circuits enclosed in a common
case. One is called the in – phase potentiometer and the other quadrature potentiometer. The slide wire circuits
are supplied with currents which have phase difference of 90○. The in – phase potentiometer measures the
component of voltage in phase with the current in its slide wire and the quadrature potentiometer measures that

118
component of voltage in phase quadrature with the current in slide wire. If these measured values are V1 and V2
respectively, then the unknown voltage V is given by V = ƒV1 2 + V2 2 and its phase difference is 8 =
tan–1 (V1). bb1 and cc1, R and R1are the sliding contacts, current adjustment rheostats respectively of the in –
V2
phase and quadrature potentiometers.

The supplies to the potentiometers are obtained from the phase – splitting circuit shown in fig.12 below.

Supply phase 1 Supply phase 2

T1 T2

Single phase
supply

Fig.12. Phase splitting circuit

T1 and T2 are two step – down transformers, which supply about 6V to the potentiometer circuit. The
supply to T2 is obtained through a variable resistor R and variable capacitor C for the purpose of phase splitting.

VG is a vibration galvanometer (tuned to the supply frequency) and K is its key. A is a dynamometer
instrument for maintaining the current in the two slide wires at the standard value (50 mA). S1 and S2 are two
sign – changing switches which may be necessary to reverse the direction of unknown emf applied to the slide
wires. S3 is a selector by which, the unknown voltages to be measured are placed in the circuit. There are 4
terminals to which S3 can be connected. One among the four is shown in fig.11, which is called the test position
that allows the comparison of the currents in the two potentiometers using M.

The current in the in – phase potentiometer wire is first adjusted to its standard value by means of a D.C
supply. The dynamometer is of torsion head type, and the torsion head is turned to give zero deflection on D.C.
This setting is not changed during the calibration with A.C, and the slide wire current is adjusted to give zero
deflection again. Next, the D’Arsonval galvanometer and the D.C supply are replaced by vibration
galvanometer and A.C supply.

Now, the magnitude of the current in the two potentiometers must be equal (50 mA). Also they must be
in exact quadrature. The selector switch S3 is then switched to test position. The emf induced in the secondary
winding of the mutual inductor M will lag 90○ in phase behind the current in the primary winding (quadrature
potentiometer). If i is the primary current, then emf induced in the secondary is 2n × f × M × i. If M is made
equal to 0.063H, then the induced emf will be equal to (2n × f × M × i = 2 × 3.142 × 50 × 0.063 × 50 ×
10–3) 1V.

119
 The slide wire of the in – phase potentiometer is thus set to this calculated value of induced emf in the
secondary of M, and the rheostat R and capacitor C are adjusted until balance is obtained. For balance, the
current in the quadrature potentiometer slide wire must be equal to standard value and also must be exactly 90○
out of phase with the current in the in – phase slide wire. Any difference in the polarity of phases of the two
circuits is corrected by the sign – changing switches S1 and S2.

After all these adjustments have been made, the unknown voltage is switched in to the circuit by means
of the selector switch S3. In this position, the two slide wire circuits are in series with one another and with the
vibration galvanometer. Balance is obtained by adjusting both pairs of sliding contacts (bb1 and cc1) together
with the reversal of switches S1 and S2 if necessary. At balance, the reading of the slide wire of the in – phase
potentiometer, together with the position of S1, gives the magnitude and sign of the in – phase component of the
unknown voltage, while the reading of quadrature potentiometer with the position of S2 gives the magnitude and
sign of the quadrature component.

3.4.4.1 Errors in Gall – Tinsley A.C Potentiometer

Errors occur in Gall – Tinsley potentiometer due to:

✓ Slight differences in the reading of dynamometer instrument on A.C compared with reading on
D.C. Such errors may cause the standard current value on A.C to be slightly incorrect.
✓ Mutual inductance between the various parts of the circuit. An error in the value of M would
cause thecurrent in quadrature slide wire to be different from the standard value.
✓ Inaccuracy of the method of measuring the frequency, which would cause an error in the
quadrature slide wire standard current value
✓ The potential gradient is affected by the inter – capacitance, earth capacitance and mutual
inductanceofthe slide wire leading to errors.
✓ The existence of harmonics in the supply waveform leads to errors.

3.4.5 Applications of A.C Potentiometers

The main applications of A.C potentiometer are:

➢ Calibration of voltmeter
➢ Calibration of ammeter
➢ Testing of wattmeter
➢ Testing of energy meter
➢ Measurement of self – reactance of coils

3.4.5.1 Voltmeter Calibration:

Low voltages up to 1.5 V can be measured directly. Higher voltages can be measured using a volt – ratio box in
conjunction with the potentiometers. The reading of the potentiometer is then compared with the voltmeter
under test and the errors are calculated.

120
3.4.5.2 Ammeter Calibration:
The method for calibration of A.C ammeters is same as that of D.C meters. The voltage drop across a standard
resistor is noted, from which, the current is calculated. This calculated value is compared with the value of
ammeter under test.
3.4.5.3 Wattmeter and energy meter testing:
The testing circuits for A.C is same as for D.C, except that a phase shifting transformer is included in the
potential circuit to vary the phase of voltage with respect to the current so that the wattmeter and energy meters
are tested at various power factors.
3.4.5.4 Measurement of self – reactance of a coil:

I
S

TO POTENTIOMETER
Coil

Fig.13. Measurement of self – reactance of coil

A standard resistance S is connected in series with the coil whose reactance is to be measured. Two voltage
measurements are done, one across the standard resistance and the other across the coil.

Suppose polar type potentiometer is used, then,

Voltage across standard resistor S = VS²8S

Voltage across the coil, VC = VC²8C

2 Current through the coil, I = VC ²8

S S

Impedance of the coil, Z = VC = VC²8C = S×VC ²(8 — 8 )

I 7C VC C S
²8C
C
S × VC
2 Resistance of coil, R = Z Cos(8 — 8 ) = Cos(8 — 8 )
C S C S
VS
S × VC
Reactance of coil, X = Z Sin(8 — 8 ) = Sin(8 — 8 )
C S C S
VS

121
3.5 Instrument Transformer

Transformers used in conjunction with measuring instruments for the purpose of measurement are called
instrument transformers.
The transformer used for measurement of current is called a Current Transformer or simply CT.
Transformers used for measurement of voltage are called Voltage Transformer or Potential Transformer or
simply PT.
Instrument transformers are usually used for extension of range of instruments. As the parameter under
measurement is stepped down to the level of the meter, it is possible to use the meter for higher ranges. Though
shunts and multipliers can be used for extension of range of ammeters and voltmeters, they have some
drawbacks as mentioned below.
Drawbacks of shunts:
o It is difficult to achieve accuracy with a shunt on A.C (L / R should be same to achieve accuracy)
o The method of use of shunt is limited to capacities of a few hundred amperes, since power consumed by
shunts are large at large currents.
o At high voltage, insulation of instrument and the shunt is quite difficult
o The measuring circuit is not electrically isolated from the power circuit, so safety is a big issue.
Drawbacks of multipliers:
o Power consumed by the multiplier becomes large above voltages of order of 1000V.
o Insulation is difficult
o Measuring circuit is not isolated electrically, so safety is a major issue.
Advantages of instrument transformers:
✓ When instruments are used in conjunction with instrument transformers, their readings become
independent of R, L and C.
✓ Instruments of moderate size are used for metering. (5A for current and (100 – 120) V for voltage
measurements)
✓ With the standardization of C.T and P.T secondary winding ratings, instruments can be
standardized around these ratings and therefore a great reduction in cost of instrument transformers and
instruments can be achieved. Also replacement of instrument transformers is easy due to
standardization.
✓ Single range instruments can be used to cover large current or voltage ranges
✓ As the metering circuit is isolated from the high voltage power circuits, insulation is not a
problem andalso safety is assured for the operators.
✓ Low power consumption in the metering circuit
✓ Several instruments can be operated form a single instrument transformer
3.5.1 Ratios of an instrument transformer:

Transformation ratio:

It is the ratio of the magnitude of the primary phasor to the secondary phasor.
|PriNary ehasor|
TransforNation ratio, R =
|Secondary ehasor|

122
 |PriNary winding current|
R= for a C. T
|Secondary winding current|

|PriNary winding voltage|

R= for a P. T
|Secondary winding voltage|

Nominal ratio:

It is the ratio of rated primary winding current (or voltage) to the rated secondary winding current (or voltage).

Rated PriNary winding current

NoNinal ratio, Kn = for a C. T
Rated Secondary winding current

Rated PriNary winding voltage

NoNinal ratio, Kn = for a P. T
Rated Secondary winding voltage

Turns ratio:

NuNber of turns of Seconadry winding

n= for a C. T
NuNber of turns of PriNary winding

NuNber of turns of PriNary winding

n= for a P. T
NuNber of turns of Seconadry winding

Ratio correction factor (RCF):

RCF is the ratio of transformation ratio and nominal ratio.

R
RCF =
Kn

The nominal ratio is usually marked on the transformer.

Burden of an instrument transformer:

The burden is the volt – ampere loading which is permissible without the errors exceeding the limits.
(secondary winding induced voltage)2
Total secondary winding burden =
iNeedance of the secondary winding circuit including iNeedance of secondary winding

= (secondary winding current)2 × INeedance

(secondary winding terNInal voltage)2

Secondary winding burden due to load =
iNEedance of load on the secondary winding

= (secondary winding current)2 × INEedance of load

123
3.6 Current transformer

3.6.1 Construction:

Current transformers are available in two types of constructions. They are Wound type and Bar type. A current
transformer in which the primary winding of more than one full turn is wound on a core is called wound type
current transformer. A current transformer in which the primary winding consists of a bar of suitable size and
material forming an integral part of transformer is called bar type current transformer. The wound type and bar
type transformers are shown in fig.14.

Primary
Secondary
Secondary leads Primary

Core insulation

Core
Moulded
insulation
Secondary Core
Secondary
leads

Fig.14. Wound type and Bar type current transformer

Current transformers are available in three common shapes; stadium, circular and rectangular orifices.

Stadium Ring Rectangular

The core if of nickel – iron alloy or an oriented electrical steel is almost certainly of the continuously wound
type. But current transformers using hot rolled steel will consist of a stack of ring stampings. Before putting
secondary winding on the core, the latter is insulated by means of end collars and circumferential wraps of
elephantide or presspahn. These pressboards, in addition to acting as insulating medium, must also protect the
secondary winding conductor from mechanical damage due to sharp corners. The secondary winding conductor
is put on the core by a toroidal winding machine although hand winding is still frequently adopted if the number

124
of secondary winding turns is small. After the secondary winding has been placed on the core, the ring type
transformer is completed by exterior taping with or without first applying exterior end collars and
circumferential insulating wraps.

A near relative of the ring type current transformer is the so called bushing type transformer. This is, in
fact, indistinguishable from the ordinary ring type but the term is used when the current transformer fits over a
fully insulated primary winding conductor such as over the oil end of a terminal bushing of a power transformer
or an oil circuit breaker.

At very high voltages, the insulation of the current carrying conductor from the measuring circuit
becomes an expensive problem. At 750 KV, cascaded transformers are used or alternatively a coaxial shunt is
used to modulate a radio frequency signal that is transmitted from the shunt placed in the high voltage line to
receiving equipment on the ground, thereby overcoming the insulation problem. However, this type of system
has severe limitation in its power output which has to be amplified in order to operate relays etc.

In a bar type current transformer, the core and secondary windings are the same as in ring type
transformer but the fully insulated bar conductor constituting the single turn primary winding is now an integral
part of the current transformer. The insulation on the primary winding conductor may be bakelized paper tube
or resin directly moulded on the bar.
In a low voltage wound type current transformer, the secondary winding is wound on a Bakelite former
or bobbin and the heavy primary conductor is either wound directly on top of the secondary winding, suitable
insulation being first applied over the secondary winding or the primary is wound entirely separately, taped with
suitable insulating material and then assembled with the secondary winding on the core.
Whenever possible, secondary windings should utilize the whole available winding length on the core,
the secondary winding turns being suitably spaced to accomplish this and the insulation between secondary
winding and core and earth must be capable of withstanding the high peak voltages caused if the secondary
winding is open – circuited when the primary current is flowing. In the case of large number of secondary
winding turns, requiring more than one winding layer, the frequently adopted technique is to sectionalize the
secondary winding so as to considerably reduce the peak voltage between layers. With wound primary CTs, this
problem is rarely met, but it is of great importance to try to obtain good relative positioning of primary and
secondary winding coils, thus minimizing the axial forces on both coils caused by primary winding short circuit
currents.
The windings should be close together to reduce the secondary winding leakage reactance as the leakage
reactance increases the ratio error. Round copper wire of about 3 mm2 area is frequently used for secondary
windings rated at 5A. Copper strip is used for primary winding, the dimensions of which depend up on the
primary winding current.

When using bar type primary, the external diameter of the tube must be large enough to keep the voltage
gradient in the dielectric at its surface, to an acceptable value in order to avoid corona effect.

The windings must be designed to withstand, without damage, the large short circuit forces that are
caused when a short circuit takes place on the system in which the CT is connected.

The windings are separately wound, and are insulated by tape and varnish for small line voltages. For
voltages above 7 KV, the transformers are oil immersed or compound filled.

125
3.6.2 Theory of Current Transformer:

The fig.15 below shows the equivalent circuit of a current transformer.

rp xp rS xS
Ip IS

I0 $m
Ie re
Im
Vp Rc Xm Ep VS xe

Fig.15. Equivalent circuit of a Current Transformer

Let,
NuNber of cecondary winding turnc
n = Turns ratio =
NuNber of priNary winding turnc

rc = Resistance of the secondary winding

xc = Reactance of the secondary winding

re = Resistance of external burden (resistance of Neters, current coils including leads)

xe = Reactance of external burden (reactance of Neters, current coils including leads)

EP = PrINary winding induced voltage

ES = Secondary winding induced voltage

NP = NUNber of PrINary winding turns

NS = NUNber of Secondary winding turns

VS = Voltage at the secondary winding terNinals

IS = Secondary winding current

IP = PrINary winding current

8 = Phase angle of transforNer

ð = Angle between seconadry winding induced voltage and secondary winding current
xs + xe
= Phase angle of total burden including INeedance of secondary winding = tan–1 ( )
rs + re

6 = Phase angle of secondary winding load circuit i. e. of external burden = tan –1 (se)
re

126
I0 = exciting current

IN = Magnetizing coNeonent of exciting current

Ie = Loss coNeonent of exciting current

α = Angle between exciting current I0 and working flux 0

Transformation ratio:

Consider the phasor diagram:

b
90 – a – 6 c
Ip
a
nIs
6
8
Ie I0
a
O Im

From the phasor diagram,

²bac = 90° — ð — α, ac = I0, oa = nIc and oc = Ip

2 bc = I0 Sin(90° — ð — α) = I0 Cos(ð + α), ab = I0 Cos(90° — ð — α) = I0 Sin(ð + α)

Now, (0c)2 = (0a + ab)2 + (bc)2

Or Ip2 = [nIc + I0 Sin(ð + α)]2 + [I0 Cos(ð + α)]2

= n2Ic2 + I02 Sin2(ð + α) + 2nIcI0 Sin(ð + α) + I02 Cos2(ð + α)

= n2Ic2 + 2nIcI0 Sin(ð + α) + I02 Sin2(ð + α) + I02 Cos2(ð + α)

= n2Ic2 + 2nIcI0 Sin(ð + α) + I02

1/
2 Ip = [n I2c +2 2nIcI0 Sin ð (+ α + I0 ] 2 2
)

The transformation ratio is given by:

Ie [n2I 2 + 2nI I Sin(ð + α) + I 2]1/2

s s 0 0
R= =
Is Is

Now in a well designed current transformer, I0 ƒ nIc. Usually I0 is less than1 percent of Ip, and Ip is therefore
very nearly equal to nIc.

127
 [n2I 2 + 2nI I Sin(ð + α) + I 2Sin2(ð + α)]1/2 [nI + I Sin(ð + α)]21/2
s s 0 0 s 0
2R= =
Is Is
+I0 Sin(ð+α)
= nIs = n + I0 Sin(ð + α) = n + I0 (Sin ð Cos α + Cos ð Sin α )
Is Is Is

But

IN = I0 Cosα and Ie = I0 Sinα

IN Sin ð + Ie Cos ð
2 R =n+
Is

Phase angle:

The angle by which the secondary current phasor, when reversed, differs in phase from the primary current, is
known as the phase angle of the transformer.

The angle is taken to be positive if the secondary current reversed leads the primary current. The angle is taken
as negative if the secondary current reversed lags behind the primary current.

The angle between Is reversed and Ip is 0. Therefore, the phase angle is 0.

From the phasor diagram, tan 8 =bc = bc I0 Cos(ð+α)

=
ob oa+ab nIs+I0 Sin(ð+α)

0 Cos(ð+α)
As 0 is very small, tan 8 = 8 = I rad
nIs+I0 Sin(ð+α)

Now as I0 is very sNall coNeared to nIs we can neglect the term I0 Sin(ð + α).
I Cos(ð+α)
28= 0 rad
nIs
I0 Cos ð Cos α—I0 Sin ð Sin α IN Cos ð—Ie Sin ð
= = rad
nIs nIs
180 IN Cos ð — Ie Sin ð
( 2 8= ) degree
n nIs
3.6.3 Characteristics of Current Transformer:
1) Effect of power factor of secondary winding burden on errors
Effect on Ratio error:
The ratio error is defined as:
NoNinal ratio — Actual ratio Kn — R
Ratio Error = =
Actual ratio R
It is observed that for all inductive burdens, the secondary winding current Is lags behind the secondary
induced voltage Es so that 6 is positive. Under these conditions, the actual transformation ratio is always
greater than the Turns ratio ( R = n + I0 Sin(ð + α)). For burdens which are sufficiently capacitive, I
Is s
leads Es and hence 6 is negative. Under these conditions, the actual transformation ratio decreases
becoming less than the turns ratio for values of 6 approaching – 90○.

128
 Effect on phase angle:
I Coc(ð+α)
From 08
nIc
, we find that for inductive burdens, phase angle 0 is positive for small values of 6
=
(high secondary power factor) but becomes negative as the secondary burden becomes more inductive
and approaches 90○. For negative values of 6 (sufficiently capacitive burdens), 0 is always positive.
The variation of transformation ratio R and phase angle 0 with 6 is shown in fig.16 below. These
conclusions are based up on the assumption that the magnitude of secondary impedance remains
constant.
R
Ratio n

n n
— +
2 2

n n
— +
2 2

Fig.16. Variation of transformation ratio and phase angle with power factor of secondary winding circuit
2) Effect of change of primary winding current
If the primary winding current changes, the secondary winding current also changes proportionately. At
low values of current Ip (or Is), the current Im and loss component Ie are greater proportion of Ip and
therefore the errors are greater. As the current Ip increases, there is an increase in Is, and there is a
decrease in the ratio error and phase angle. The variation of ratio error and phase angle with secondary
winding current is shown in fig.17 below.
High
High
impedance
impedance
burden
burden
Ratio R

Low
Phase angle 0

Low
impedance
impedance burden
burden

Secondary current Secondary current

Fig.17. Variation of ratio error and phase angle with secondary current

129
 3) Effect of change in secondary winding burden
An increase in secondary winding circuit burden impedance means an increase in volt ampere rating.
This necessitates an increase in the secondary winding induced voltage which can be generated by an
increased flux and flux density. Therefore both the magnetizing and loss components (Im and Ie) are
increased. Thus it is expected that errors will increase in secondary winding burden. In general, a greater
burden impedance not only increases the transformation ratio, but also shifts the phase angle between
the primary winding current and secondary winding current reversed to more positive values as shown
in fig.17 above.
4) Effect of change of frequency
The effect of change in frequency will result in proportional decrease in flux density. Thus, in general,
the effect of increase of frequency is similar to that produced by decrease in impedance of secondary
winding burden. A CT is seldom used at a frequency different for which it is designed for and therefore
the effect of change of frequency is not usually considered.

3.6.4 Operation of Current Transformer:

Supply
Load
Primary winding

Ip

Is CC
Secondary winding

A PC

To potential circuit

Wattmeter

Fig.18. Use of CT for measurement of power and current

The CT is used with its primary winding connected in series with line carrying the current to be measured and
therefore, the primary current is dependent up on the load connected to the system and is not determined by the
load (burden) connected on the secondary winding of the CT. The primary winding consists of a very few turns
and therefore there is no appreciable voltage drop across it. The secondary winding of the CT has large number
of turns, the exact number being determined by the turns ratio. The ammeter or wattmeter current coil is
connected directly across the secondary winding terminals. Thus a CT operates its secondary winding nearly
under short circuit conditions. One of the terminals of the secondary winding is earthed so as to protect the
equipment and personnel in the vicinity in the event of an insulation breakdown in the CT.

130
Effect of secondary open circuit on CT

An important precaution to be taken while using a CT is to maintain at all times a closed circuit on the
secondary side. If the instrument is to be taken out of the circuit, then the secondary terminals must first be short
circuited by a low resistance not greater than 0.5 fi. The reason for taking this precaution is explained below.

Under normal operating conditions, the secondary ampere – turns of a CT almost balances the primary ampere –
turns and the flux setup is only due to small number of ampere – turns I0 × Np. If, by chance, the secondary is
open circuited and there is no change in the primary current, then primary ampere – turns remain the same and
the opposing ampere – turns set up by the secondary becomes zero. Consequently, the entire primary ampere –
turns Ip × Np are used in creating the flux. This causes an extra – ordinary large magnetic flux and flux density
in the iron circuit. The large flux leads to dangerously high emfs for both the operator and the transformer
insulation. The high flux density also results in increase of iron loss in the core.

Permanent magnetization of cores of CT

Permanent magnetization of cores of the CT may be due to following:

• When the secondary winding is open – circuited with the primary winding energized, a high value of
flux density is induced in the core due to large magnetizing force. When this force is taken off, it leaves
a large residual magnetism.
• A switching transient may leave behind residual magnetism.
• Presence of D.C current in either of the windings.

Usually permanent magnetization leads to increase in the values of both the ratio error and phase angle error
and hence has to be taken care of.

Demagnetization of core of CT

The methods of demagnetization are:

➢ The primary winding is excited with full current and a very high variable resistance of several
hundredohms is connected across the secondary winding, this amounts to open – circuiting the transformer.
This resistance is then gradually reduced to zero as uniformly as possible. By this means, the
magnetization of the transformer core is reduced from a very high value to its normal value gradually.
➢ Demagnetization can also be achieved by use of motor alternator set.

3.7 Potential Transformer (PT)

Potential transformers are used to operate voltmeters, the potential coils of wattmeter and relays from high
voltage lines. The primary winding of the transformer is connected across the line carrying the voltage to be
measured and the voltage circuit is connected across the secondary winding. The design of a potential
transformer is quite similar to that of a power transformer, but the loading of a potential transformer is always
small, sometimes only a few Volt – ampere. The secondary winding is designed so that a voltage of 100 to 120
V is delivered to the instrument load. The normal secondary voltage rating is 110 V.

131
Difference between CT and PT:

❖ The PT can be considered as a “parallel transformer” with its secondary winding operating
nearly underopen – circuit conditions, whereas, the CT can be considered as a “series transformer”
operating under virtual short circuit conditions. Thus, the winding of a PT can be open – circuited
without causing any damage to the operator or transformer.
❖ The primary winding current in a CT is independent of the secondary winding circuit
conditions, whilethe primary winding current in a PT certainly depends on the secondary circuit burden.
❖ In a PT, full line voltage is impressed upon its terminals, whereas, a CT is connected in series
withoneline and a small voltage exists across its terminals. However, the CT carries full line current.
❖ Under normal operation, the line voltage is nearly constant, and therefore, the flux density and
hence theexciting current of a PT varies only over a restricted range, whereas, the primary winding
current and excitation of a CT vary over wide limits in normal operation.

3.7.1 Construction of a PT:

The design and construction of a PT is basically the same as that of a power transformer. But there are a few
major differences between them. They are:

• Power transformers are designed keeping in vies the efficiency, regulation and cost. The cost being
reduced by using small core and conductor sizes. In designing a PT, economy in material is not a big
consideration and transformers are designed to give desired performance i.e. constancy of ratio and
smallness of phase angle. Compared to a power transformer, a PT has larger core and conductor sizes.
Economic designs may lead to large ratio and phase angle errors which are undesirable features.
• The output of a PT is always small and the size is quite large. Therefore, the temperature rise is small
and hence there are no thermal problems caused by overloads as in power transformers. In fact, the
loading of a PT is limited by accuracy considerations, while in a power transformer; the load limitation
is on heat basis. Actually, the PTs are able to carry loads on a thermal basis many times their rated loads.
These loads range from 2 to 3 times for a low voltage PT and up to 30 or more times for some high
voltage transformers.

Core:

The core may be of shell or core type of construction. Shell type construction is normally only used for low
voltage transformers. Special precautions should be taken to assemble and interleave the core laminations so
that the effect of air gaps at the joints may be minimized.

Windings:

The primary and secondary windings are coaxial to reduce the leakage reactance to minimum. In order to
simplify the insulation problems, the low voltage winding (secondary) is put next to the core. The primary
winding may be a single coil in low voltage transformers but must be subdivided into a number of short coils in
high voltage transformers in order to reduce the insulation needed between coil layers.

132
Insulation:

Cotton type and varnished cambric are used as insulation for coil construction. Hard fiber separators are used
between coils. At low voltages, the transformers are usually filled without compound but potential transformers
for use at voltages above 7 KV are oil immersed. Dry type, porcelain insulated transformers have been
developed for use up to 45 KV.

Bushings:

Oil filled bushings are usually used for oil filled potential transformers as this minimizes the overall size of the
transformer. Two bushings are used when neither side of the line is at ground potential. Some potential
transformers, connected from line to neutral of grounded neutral systems, have only one high voltage bushing.

It is to be noted that a CT needs only one bushing as leads from the two ends of the primary winding are
brought through the same insulator since there is only a small voltage between them, thus saving the expense of
another high voltage insulator.

3.7.2 Theory of PT:

The fig.19 below shows the equivalent circuit of a potential transformer.

rp xp rS xS
Ip IS
$
I0
Ie re
Im

Vp RC Xm Ep ES VS xe

Fig.19. Equivalent circuit of a Potential Transformer

Let,

0 = working flux

IN = Magnetizing coNeonent of no load (exciting) current

Ie = Iron loss coNeonent of no load (exciting) current

I0 = No load (exciting) current

ES = Secondary winding induced voltage

VS = Voltage at the secondary winding terNinals

133
NP = NUNber of PrINary winding turns

NS = NUNber of Secondary winding turns

IS = Secondary winding current

rc = Resistance of the secondary winding

xc = Reactance of the secondary winding

re = Resistance of external burden (resistance of Neters, current coils including leads)

xe = Reactance of external burden (reactance of Neters, current coils including leads)

6 = Phase angle of secondary load circuit i. e. of external burden = tan –1 (se)

re

EP = PrINary winding induced voltage

IP = PrINary winding current

rp = Resistance of the eriNary winding

xp = Reactance of the eriNary winding

NuNber of priNary winding turnc NP EP

n = Turns ratio = = =
NuNber of cecondary winding turnc NS ES

Actual Transformation Ratio

Let,

8 = Phase angle of transforNer = angle between VP and VS reversed

6 = Phase angle of secondary load circuit

þ = Phase angle between Ip and VS reversed

134
The phasor diagram of PT is as shown in fig.20.

b
Vp
a
Ip xp

Ip rp þ
I sxs n
Ep
Is rsn
c
Vs n
þ
0 Ic/n Ip
6
6
e Ic
Ie þ
I0 n
$
O Im d

Fig.20. Phasor diagram of a PT

From the phasor diagram,

oa = VpCos8

Also

oa = nVS + nISrcCos6 + nISxcSin6 + IPrpCosþ + IPxpSinþ

Or

VpCos8 = nVS + nISrcCos6 + nISxcSin6 + IPrpCosþ + IPxpSinþ

= nVS + nIS(rcCos6 + xcSin6) + IPrpCosþ + IPxpSinþ (1)

The phase angle 0 is very small and therefore, both VP and VS reversed can be taken perpendicular to 0,
hence,

²ocd = þ (aeeroxiNately) and ²ecd = 6 (aeeroxiNately)

Thus
Ic Ic
IP Cosþ = Ie + Cos 6 and IP Sinþ = IN + Sin 6
n n
As 0 is very small, Cos 0 = 1, hence VpCos8 = Vp

Substituting these in (1), we get

Is Is
2 V = nV + nI (r Cos6 + x Sin6) + (I + Cos 6) r + (I + Sin 6) x
p S S c c e p N p
n n

135
 rp xp
I Sin6 (nx + )+Ir+Ix
= nVS + ISCos6 (nrc +)+ S c e p p
n n N

IS I
= nV + Cos6(n2r + r ) + Sin6(n
S x2 +x)+Ir+Ix
S c p c p e p N p
n n

Now let,

Rp = equivalent resistance of the transforNer referred to eriNary side = n2 rc + rp

Xp = equivalent reactance of the transforNer referred to eriNary side = n2 xc + xp

IS
IS Ir+I x
+
2 V = nV Cos6 Rp + Sin6 Xp + e p p
p S N
n n
IS
= nV + (R Cos6 + X Sin6) + I r + I x
S p p e p N p
n

Actual transformation ratio,

IS
V (Rp Cos6 + Xp Sin6) + Ie rp + IN xp
R= =n+n
p
Vc Vc
IS
(Rp CosA + Xp SinA) + Ierp + Imxp
2R—n= n
Vs

In terms of secondary winding parameters, the above expression can be written as:

n IS (Rs CosA + Xs SinA) + Ierp + Imxp

R—n=
Vs

Phase angle:

From the phasor diagram,

ab IPxpCosþ — IPrpSinþ + nISxcCos6 — nISrcSin6

tan 8 = =
oa nVS + nISrcCos6 + nISxpSin6 + IPrpCosþ + IPxpSinþ

The terms in the denominator involving Ip and Is are small and therefore can be neglected compared to nVs.

IPxpCosþ — IPrpSinþ + nISxcCos6 — nISrcSin6

2 tan 8 =
nVS

IS IS
xp (Ie + n Cos6) — rp (IN + n Sin6) + nIS xc Cos6 — nIS rc Sin6
= nVS

136
 xe r
I Cos6 ( + nx ) — I Sin6 ( e + nr ) + I x — I r
S n s S n s e e N e
=
nVS
IS Cos6 I Sin6
( xe + n 2 xs ) — S (re + n2 rs ) + Ie xe — IN re
= n n
nVS
IS Cos6
Xp — IS Sin6 Re + Ie xe — IN re
= n n
nVS
IS
(Xp Cos6 — Re Sin6) + Ie xe — IN re
=n nVS

Since 0 is small, tan 8 = 8,

IS
(Xp Cos6 — Rp Sin6) + Ie xp — IN rp
28= n rad
nVS
IS Ie xp — IN rp
= (X Cos6 — R Sin6) + rad
s c
VS nVS

3.7.3 Characteristics of PT:

1) Effect of secondary current or VA:

If we increase the secondary burden, the secondary current is increased, and therefore, the primary
current increases. Both primary and secondary voltage drop increase and thus for a given value of Vp,
the value of Vs decreases and hence the actual ratio increases as the burden increases. The ratio error
increases becoming more negative with increase in burden. This variation of ratio error is almost linear
with change in burden.
With regard to phase angle, the voltage Vp is more advanced in phase because of increased
voltage drops with increase in secondary burden. The phasor Vs reversed is retarded in phase owing to
an increase in secondary winding voltage drops. Thus, with increase in burden, the phase angle becomes
negative.
2) Effect of power factor of secondary burden:
If the power factor of secondary circuit burden is reduced, angle O is increased. This makes the current
IP to shift towards current I0. The voltage Vp and Vs come nearly into phase with Ep and Es respectively
since the voltage drops are almost constant. The result is an increase in Vp relative to Ep. But Vp is
constant and therefore, Ep reduces relative to Vp. The voltage Vs reduces relative to Es. Therefore, the
transformation ratio increases as the power factor of secondary burden reduces. Now, with decrease in
power factor, Vs is advanced in phase in Vp retarded in phase, the phase angle (negative) reduces with
decrease in secondary power factor (lagging).
3) Effect of frequency:
For a constant voltage, the flux is inversely proportional to frequency. Increase in frequency reduces the
flux and therefore Im and Ie are decreased, and therefore the voltage ratio decreases. The decrease is not
so much, as with increase in frequency, the leakage reactance increases and therefore the leakage

137
 reactance drops are increased giving an increase in ratio. Thus changes in voltage ratio because of
change in frequency are dependent upon relative values of I0 and leakage reactance since the effects
produced by them oppose each other.
As far as phase angle error is concerned, both the effects due to increase in frequency advance Vp
and the increase in secondary reactance retards Vs and, therefore the phase angle is increased as the
frequency increases.
4) Effect of primary voltage:
There is no wide variation of supply voltage to which the primary winding of the PT is connected.
Therefore, the effect of primary voltage is of no practical importance.

End of Unit – 3

138
 UNIT – 4

4.1 Classification of Resistance

Resistance can be classified based on their value as:
• Low resistance (Value ≤ 1fi)
• Medium resistance (1fi to 0.1 Mfi)
• High resistance (Value Σ 0.1 Mfi)
4.2 Measurement of Medium Resistances
The various methods available for measurement of medium resistances are:
➢ Ammeter – Voltmeter method
➢ Substitution method
➢ Wheatstone bridge method
➢ Ohmmeter method
4.2.1 Ammeter – Voltmeter method
This method is the simplest way of determining resistance, as the components required are voltmeter and
ammeter, which are usually available in a laboratory.
The two ways of connecting ammeter and voltmeter for resistance measurement is shown in fig.1 below:

Va
I I
A A

Iv IR

V R V R
V VR V

Fig (a) Ammeter on load side Fig (b) Voltmeter on load side

Fig.1. Resistance measurement by Ammeter – voltmeter method

Considering fig.1 (a), the ammeter measures the true value of the current through the resistance, but the
voltmeter does not measure the true voltage across the resistance. The voltmeter indicates the sum of voltages
across the ammeter and the resistance.
Let Ra be the resistance of the ammeter and
Va be the voltage across the ammeter = I * Ra
V
Measured value of resistance, RN1 =
I
VR + Va
=
I
IR + IRa
=
I

139
 RN1 = R + Ra
True value of resistance, R = RN1 — Ra
Ra
= RN1 (1 —RN )
1
Thus, the measured value of resistance (RN1 ) is higher than the true value (R). Also RN1 will be equal to R only
if Ra is zero.
The relative error is given by:
RN1 — R Ra (1)
sr = =
R R
From (1), it is clear that the relative error is small if the resistance under measurement is higher than the
ammeter resistance. Hence the circuit in fig.1(a) is preferred when measuring high resistance values.
Considering fig.1 (b), the voltmeter measures the true value of voltage, but the ammeter indicates the sum of
currents through the resistance and voltmeter.
Let Rv be the resistance of the voltmeter and
V
Iv be the current through voltmeter = R
v

V
Measured value of resistance, RN2 =
I
V
=
IR + Iv
V
=
V/ + V/
R R
v
RRv
=
R + Rv
R
RN2 =
1 + (R/ )
Rv
RN2 Rv
True value of resistance, R =
Rv — RN2
1
= RN2 ( R N2
)
1—
Rv
RN2
If Rv 6Σ RN2 , is very sNall
Rv
RN2
R = RN2 (1 + )
Rv
Thus, the measured value of resistance (RN2 ) is smaller than the true value (R).
The relative error is given by:
RN — R —RN2
sr = 2 =
R Rv
If RN2 ÷ R, then
sr = —R (2)
Rv

140
From (2), it is clear that the relative error is small if the resistance under measurement is smaller than the
voltmeter resistance. Hence the circuit in fig.1(b) is preferred when measuring lower resistance values.
The division point between the two methods is at the resistance for which the relative errors of the two methods
are equal.
Ra R
i. e. =
R Rv
‹ R = ƒRa Rv
For resistances greater than ƒRa Rv , the circuit fig.1(a) is preferred and for values lesser than ƒRa Rv , the
circuit fig.1(b) is preferred.
Advantages
• Simplest method
• Cheap
Disadvantages
• Rough value is only obtained
• Accuracy is limited by the accuracy of voltmeter and ammeter
4.2.2 Wheatstone Bridge
A very important device used for measurement of medium resistances is the Wheatstone bridge. It is an
instrument for making comparison measurements and operates on null – deflection principle. A very high
degree of accuracy can be obtained using this instrument.
A basic circuit of Wheatstone bridge is as shown in fig.2.

P Q
I1
I3
G
a c
I4
I2
R S

Fig.2. Wheatstone Bridge

The bridge has four resistive arms, consisting of resistances P, Q, R and S, together with a source of emf E and a
null detector (galvanometer or other sensitive meter).
The bridge is balanced when there is no current through the galvanometer or when the potential
difference across the galvanometer is zero. This occurs when the voltage from point ‘b’ to point ‘a’ equals the
voltage from point ‘d’ to point ‘a’ (or) when the voltage from point ‘d’ to point ‘c’ equals the voltage from point
‘b’ to point ‘c’.

141
 For bridge balance,
I1P = I2R (1)
Also
E
I1 = I3 = and (2)
P+Q
E
I2 = I4 = (3)
R+S
Substituting (2) and (3) in (1), we get
E E
P= R
P+Q R+S
P R
‹ = (4)
P+Q R+S
‹ PR + PS = PR + QR
‹ PS = QR
P
‹ =
R (5)
Q S
If R is unknown, then,
P
R= ×S
Q
4.2.2.1 Sensitivity of
Wheatstone bridge
Sensitivity of a Wheatstone bridge is the smallest value of current or voltage that can be detected by the
galvanometer.
The sensitivity to unbalance can be computed by solving the bridge circuit for small unbalance. The
solution is approached by converting the Wheatstone bridge to its Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
Let P, Q, R and S be the resistances at which the bridge is balanced. Now let R change by an amount AR,
so that an unbalance is caused.
Now, the voltage drop between points a and b, Eab = I 1P = EP
P+Q
Similarly, the voltage drop between points a and d, Ead = I 2(R + 6R) = E(R+6R)
R+6R+S
Voltage difference between d and b is, e = Ead — Eab
(R + 6R) P
=E[ — ]
P R
R + 6R + S P + Q
From (4), P+Q = R+S
(R + 6R) R
e=E[ — ]
R + 6R + S R + S
E S 6R
= (R
+ S)2 + 6R(R + S)
E S 6R
÷ (Z 6R(R + S) [ (R + S)2)
(R + S)2
Let Sv be the voltage sensitivity of the galvanometer
Deflection of the galvanoNeter, 8 = S × e = S E S 6R
v v (R + S)2
The bridge sensitivity SB is defined as the deflection of the galvanometer per unit fractional change in resistance.
8
Bridge sensitivity, SB =
6R/R

142
 Sv E S R
SB = (6)
(R + S)2
(6) Can also be written as
Sv E Sv E Sv E
SB = (R + S)2/R S = R + 2 + S = P + 2 + Q (7)
S RR
Q P
From (7), it is clear that for maximum sensitivity, S = 1
For bridge with equal arms, (P = Q = R = S)
Sv E
SB =
4
4.2.2.2 Galvanometer
Current
The current through the galvanometer can be found by finding the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is as shown:

R0

E0 G

The Thevenin’s voltage,EO = Ead — Eab = I2(R + 6R) — I1P

E(R + 6R) EP
= —
R + 6R + S P + Q
(R + 6R) — P ]
=E[
R + 6R + S P + Q
For a bridge with equal arms, (P = Q = R = S)
(R + 6R) R
EO= E [ — ]
R + 6R + R R + R

(R + 6R) 1
=E[ — ]
2R + 6R 2
6R
=E[ ]
4R + 26R
6R
= E[ ] (Z 6R € R) (8)
4R
The Thevenin’s resistance is found by short circuiting the voltage source and finding the equivalent resistance
of the circuit as seen from the terminal bd. i.e.
R + 6R P
a

d b
S c Q

143
 RS PQ
Theveninus Resistance, RO = + (Z 6R € R)
R + S P +Q
For bridge with equal arms, RO = R (9)
EO
Current in galvanoNeter, Ig =
RO + G
From (8) and (9),
6R
E[ ]
4R
Ig = R + G
The deflection is given by
Sv E S 6R
8=
(R + S)2
But,
Si
S = , where Si is the current sensitivity
v RO + G
Si E S 6R
8=
(RO + G)(R + S)2
For bridge with equal arms,
Si E R 6R Si E 6R
8= =
(RO + G)(R + R) 2 4R(R + G)
8 Si E S R
The bridge sensitivity, SB = 6R/R = (R0+G)(R+S)2
For bridge with equal arms, SB4(R+G)
= Si E
4.2.2.3 Factors to be considered for precise measurement
The factors to be considered for precise measurement of medium resistances using a Wheatstone bridge are:
• Resistance of connecting leads:
While measuring resistances close to 10 fi, even the lead resistance affects the measurement. So, these
have to be taken into account.
• Thermo – electric effects:
Thermo – electric emfs are often present in the measuring circuit and they must be taken into account,
since they affect the galvanometer deflection in the same way as an emf occurring because of unbalance.
This can be eliminated by reversing the battery connections and making the adjustments till null
deflection is obtained. The reading is the average of two readings. This method, in addition to removing
the effect of thermo emfs, also increases the sensitivity of the bridge.
• Temperature effects:
There is a change in the resistance of materials with temperature. This could affect the balance
conditions of the bridge and hence should be taken care of.
• Contact resistance:
Serious errors may be caused by the contact resistances of switches and binding posts. The value is high
for low resistance and a problem with contact resistance is that its value is uncertain.

4.2.2.4 Limitations of Wheatstone bridge

o Can be used for measurements ranging from a few ohms to several mega ohms only.
o The lower ranges cannot be measured due to the resistance of connecting leads and the contact
resistance.
o The higher ranges cannot be measured due to reduction of sensitivity.

144
4.2.3 Ohmmeters
An ohmmeter is a direct reading device for the measurement of resistance. Though this method is very simple,
convenient and fast, its accuracy is low.
The applications of ohmmeters are:
✓ Approximate measurement and sorting of resistances used in electronic circuits
✓ Measurement of resistance of heater element
✓ Measurement of resistance of field coil of motors
✓ Checking the circuit continuity
4.2.3.1 Series – type Ohmmeter
The circuit of series – type ohmmeter is as shown in fig.3 below.

R1
IN I1 A

I2

Basic R2 Unknown Rs
RN
meter Resistor

Battery

B
E

Fig.3. Series – type ohmmeter

It consists of a basic D’Arsonval movement connected in parallel with a shunting resistor R2. This parallel
circuit is in series with resistance R1 and a battery of emf E. This series circuit is connected to the terminals A
and B of the unknown resistance Rx.
In the above fig,
R1 is the current limiting resistor
R2 is the zero adjusting resistor
E is the emf of internal battery
Rm is the internal resistance of meter
When the unknown resistance Rx = 0 (i.e. when the terminals A and B are shorted), maximum current flows
through the meter. Under this condition, the resistor R2 is adjusted until the basic meter indicates the full scale
current (Ifs). The full scale current portion is marked “0fi” on the scale. Similarly when Rx = œ (i.e. when the
terminals A and B are open), the current in the meter drops to zero and the meter indicates zero current, which
is marked as “œfi”. Therefore the meter has “0’ at extreme right and "œ" at extreme left. Intermediate scale
markings may be placed on the scale by different known values of resistance Rx.
Let Rh be the value of Rx causing half scale deflection of the meter.
I.e. at Rx = Rh, Im = 0.5Ifs

145
 R2 RN
Rh = R1 + (1)
R2 + RN E
The battery current at half scale deflection, Ih = 2R (2)
h
In order to produce full scale deflection, the battery current must be doubled,
E
I1 = 2Ih = (3)
Rh
Current through the shunt, I2 = I1 — Ifc (4)
Now, I2 R2 = Ifc RN
Ifc
‹ R2 = ( ) RN (5)
I2
Substituting (4) in (5), we get,
Ifc RN
R =
2 I1 — Ifc
Multiplying the numerator and denominator by the term Rh, we get
Ifc RN Rh
R2 =
I1Rh — IfcRh
Ifc RN Rh
R2 = (froN (3)) (6)
E — IfcRh
From (1), R1 = R h — R2RN
R2 +RN
Hence, from (6),
Ifc RN Rh
RN
R =R — R2RN =R IfcRNRh (7)
= Rh —
E—Ifc Rh
h—I
1 h R2 +RN fc RNRh E
+R N
E—Ifc Rh
Ifc RNRh
From (6), R2 = E–Ifc Rh
‹ R2 (E — Ifc Rh ) = Ifc RN Rh
‹ ER2 — Ifc Rh R2 = Ifc RN Rh
‹ ER2 = Ifc RN Rh + Ifc Rh R2
‹ ER2 = Rh Ifc (RN + R2 )
‹R ER2 (8)
=
Ifc (RN + R2 )
h

The meter current for any resistancehR is, N

I = I 1R2
R2 +RN
E
But I1 = R
h+Rx
ER2
IN = (9)
(Rh + Rs )(R2 + RN )
When Rs = 0, IN = Ifc
ER2
Ifc = (10)
Rh (R2 + RN )
(9) IN Rh (R2 + RN ) Rh
‹ = =
IN
(10) Ifc (Rh + Rs )(R2 + RN ) (Rh + Rs)
Let = S, where S is the fraction of full scale deflection when measuring unknown resistance R . Thus the
x
Ifc
scale of an ohmmeter for given Rh can be calibrated either by:
✓ Direct calibration using known values of Rx or

146
 ✓ Can be calculated in terms of fraction of full scale readings, which can be computed from Rx and Rh.
IN Rh
S= =
Ifc (Rh + Rs)
A drawback of series ohmmeter is that the ageing of the battery decreases the emf and in turn the full scale
current also decreases, so the meter does not read “0” when A and B are shorted. This problem can be overcome
by varying R2.
The range of ohmmeters can be extended by use of shunts.
4.2.3.2 Shunt – type Ohmmeter
The circuit diagram of shunt type ohmmeter is show in fig.4 below:

R1
I1 Is A

IN
E
Rs
RN

S B

Fig.4. Shunt – type ohmmeter

The shunt – type ohmmeter consists of a battery in series with an adjustable resistance R1 and a basic
D’Arsonval meter. The unknown resistance is connected across the terminals A and B, parallel to the meter. In
this circuit, an “ON – OFF” switch is provided to disconnect the battery from the circuit when the instrument is
not in use.
When Rx = 0 (i.e. when the terminals A and B are shorted), no current flows through the meter and
hence it shows zero deflection. When Rx = œ (i.e. when the terminals A and B are open), full current passes
through the meter, if R1 is adjusted. This ohmmeter therefore has “zero” mark on the left hand side of the scale,
and “infinity” mark on the right hand side.
When Rs = œ,
E
IN = Ifc = (1)
R1 + RN
E
‹ R1 = — RN (2)
Ifc
With any resistor Rx, the meter current is Rs
I =I
N 1 Rs + RN
From the circuit, E
I =
1 RN Rs
R1 + RN + Rs
E Rs
I =( )( )
N
RN Rs Rs + RN
R1 + RN + Rs

147
 ERs
IN = (3)
R1 RN + Rs (R1 + RN )
At half scale reading of meter, IN = 0.5 × Ifc and Rs = Rh
ERh
0.5 × Ifc = (4)
R1 RN + Rh (R1 + RN )
(3) IN Rs(R1 + RN)
‹ = S=
(1) Ifc R1 RN + Rs (R1 + RN )
Usually, R1 Σ6 RN
IN Rs
S= =
Ifc RN + Rs

Thus the meter can be calibrated by computing the fraction of full scale ‘S’ for a given resistance Rs in terms of
Rs and the meter resistance RN .

4.3 Measurement of Low Resistance

The methods used for measurement of medium resistance are not suitable for measurement of low resistance,
because the contact resistance and lead resistance are dominating for low resistances. Hence special type of
construction and techniques has to be used for measurement of low resistances.

V
IV
V

I P P|
A R C|
C IR

E
Fig.5 Four terminal resistance
Low resistances are constructed with four terminals as shown in fig.5. One pair of terminals CCl (called the
current terminals) is used to lead the current to and from the resistor. The voltage drop is measured between the
other two terminals PPl (called the potential terminals). The voltage V, indicated is thus IR times the resistance R
between PPl and does not include any contact resistance drop that may be present at the current terminals CCl.
4.3.1 Methods of measurement of low resistance
The methods for measurement of low resistance are:
➢ Ammeter – voltmeter method
➢ Kelvin’s double – bridge method
➢ Potentiometer method
➢ Ductor’s ohmmeter
4.3.2 Kelvin’s double – bridge method
The Kelvin’s bridge is a modification of the Wheatstone bridge and provides greatly increased accuracy in
measurement of low value resistances.

148
 The difficulties arising in a Wheatstone bridge on account of the resistance of leads and the contact
resistances is illustrated below:
Consider the fig.6 that illustrates a Wheatstone bridge.
b

P Q

G
a c

R S

m n
r1
d
r2
r

Fig.6. Wheatstone bridge

Here ‘r’ represents the resistance of lead that connects the unknown resistance ‘R’ to the standard resistance ‘S’.
Two galvanometer connections shown by dotted lines are possible. The connection may be either to point ‘m’ or
to point ‘n’. When the galvanometer is connected to point m, the resistance r of the connecting leads is added to
the standard resistance S, resulting in a low indicated reading for R. When the connection is made to point n, the
resistance r is added to the unknown resistance R, resulting in a high indicated reading for R.
Suppose that instead of using point m or n, we make the galvanometer connection to an intermediate
point d, as shown in fig. If at the point d, the resistance is divided into two parts r1 and r2, such that,
r1 P (1)
=
r2 Q
Then at balance, P
R + r = (S + r ) (2)
1 2
Q
From (1),
r1 P
=
r2 Q
r1 P
‹ =
r1 + r2 P + Q
P
‹ r1 = (r1 + r2)
P+Q
But, r1 + r2 = r
P
r1 = r (3)
P+Q
Similarly,
Q
r = r (4)
2
P+Q

149
Substituting (3) and (4) in (2), we get, P P Q
R+ r= (S + r)
P + QP P+QQ
‹R+ P P
r= S+ r
P+Q Q P+Q
P
‹R= S
Q r
Therefore, if the galvanometer connection is made in such a way that 1 = P , the error due to resistance of leads
r2 Q
can be eliminated.
The Kelvin’s bridge arrangement is shown below:
b

P Q
G

p q
R S
r
a c
m n

Rb
E
Fig.7 Kelvin’s double bridge arrangement
This bridge incorporates the idea of a second set of ratio arms, hence the name double bridge. The first set of
ratio arms is P and Q. The second set of ratio arms p and q is used to connect the galvanometer to a point d at
appropriate potential between the points m and n to eliminate the effect of connecting lead resistance between
the unknown resistor R and standard resistor S.
The ratio p / q is made equal to P / Q. Under balance, there is no current through the galvanometer, which
means that the voltage drop between a and b (Eab) is equal to the voltage drop between a and d (Eamd).
Now,
P
Eab = E
P + Q ac
Where,
(e + q)r
Eac = I [R + S + ]
e+q+r
P I [R + S + (e + q)r ]
Eab =
P+Q e+q+r
Also
e (e + q)r
EaNd = I [R + e + q { }]
e+q+r
er
EaNd = I [R + ]
e+q+r
For balance,
Eab = EaNd

150
 P (e + q)r er
I [R + S + ] = I [R +
]
P+Q e + q +r e+q+r
P (e + q)r er
‹ [R + S + ]=R+
P+Q e + q +r e+q+r
P qr P e
‹R= S+ [ — ]
P p
Q e+q+r Q q
Now if, Q
=q
Then,
P
R= S
Q
From the above expression, it is clear that the unknown resistance R is independent of the lead resistance r.
The effect of thermo – electric emfs can be eliminated by reversing the battery and taking a reading and taking
the mean of two readings (one reading with battery in normal condition and other with battery terminals
reversed). The range over which this bridge can be used is 0.1 µfi to 1 fi.
4.4 Measurement of High Resistance
Some examples of high resistance are:
✓ Insulation resistance of components and built up electrical equipments like machines and cables.
✓ Resistance of high resistance circuit elements like vacuum tube circuits.
✓ Leakage resistance of capacitors
✓ Volume resistivity of a material, i.e. the resistance between two faces of unit area separated
by unitdistance with all conduction from face to face being through the body of the material.
✓ Surface resistivity, i.e. the resistance between two lines of unit length and unit distance apart,
the linesbeing on the surface of the material and all conduction being on the surface.
4.4.1 Difficulties in measurement of High Resistance
Since the resistance under measurement is high, very small currents are encountered in the measurement
circuits, which lead to several difficulties. They are:
• The insulation resistance of resistor may be comparable with the value of resistance under measurement.
Thus, leakage currents of considerable magnitude are produced, which lead to errors. The problem with
leakage current is that its nature is unpredictable and changes with time and humidity.
• Stray capacitance affects the performance. To overcome this, screening should be done.
• The specimen usually has a considerable capacitance, which leads to charging.
• The insulating materials possess the property of dielectric absorption.
• Temperature, humidity, type of current employed for measurement, magnitude and duration of voltage
applied affect the performance.
4.4.2 Methods for measurement of High Resistance
The commonly used methods for high resistance measurement are:
➢ Direct deflection method
➢ Loss of charge method
➢ Mega ohm bridge
➢ Meggar

151
4.4.2.1 Guard Circuits in High Resistance Measurements
Guard circuits are used to eliminate the errors caused by the leakage currents over insulation. The operation of
guard circuit is explained using the fig.8.

Resistance IL Guard
IR + I L Terminal Terminal

A A
IR

V IL R E V IL R
E

(a) (b)
Fig.8. Use of guard wire in high resistance measurement
In fig.(a), which does not use a guard circuit, a high resistance mounted on a piece of insulating material is
measured by the Ammeter – Voltmeter method. In this case, the ammeter measures the sum of the current
through the resistor (IR) and the current through the leakage path around the resistor (IL). Therefore, the reading
obtained from this method will be a faulty one.
In fig.(b), a guard terminal has been added to the resistance terminal block. The guard terminal surrounds the
resistance terminal and is connected to the battery side of the ammeter. The leakage current (IL) now bypasses
the ammeter, which then would indicate only the current through the resistor (IR). As the guard terminal and the
resistance terminal are almost at the same potential, there will not be any flow of current between them.
4.4.2.2 Direct Deflection method
The direct deflection method is basically the circuit in fig.8(b). The difference is that here a sensitive
galvanometer of D’Arsonval type is used in place of ammeter. The sensitive type of galvanometers can detect
currents from (0.1 – 1) nA. Therefore, with an applied voltage of 1KV, resistances as high as 1012 to 10*1012 can
be measured.
The circuit of direct deflection method used for measuring insulation resistance of a cable having sheath
is shown in fig.9.

152
 Guard
wire
IR Metallic
IL sheath
G

Insulating
Conductor
material

Fig.9. Measurement of insulation resistance of a cable with sheath

The galvanometer (G) measures the current IR between the conductor and the metal sheath. The leakage current
IL, over the insulating material is carried by the guard wire wound on the insulation and therefore does not flow
through the galvanometer.
Cables without metal sheaths can be tested in a similar way if the cable, except the end or ends on which
the connections are made, is immersed in water in a tank. The water and the tank then form the return path for
the current. The cable is immersed in slightly saline water for about 24 hours and the temperature is kept
constant (at about 20○C) and then the measurement is taken as in fig.10.

IL

+ IR
G
Guard
wire
V
Cable

Tank
Water

Fig.10. Insulation resistance measurement of a cable having no conducting

V
sheath The insulation resistance of the cable, R = I
R

In some cases, the deflection of the galvanometer is observed and its scale is afterwards calibrated by replacing
the insulation by a standard high resistance (usually 1Mfi), the galvanometer shunt being varied, as required to
give a deflection of the same order as before.
In tests on cables, the galvanometer should be short – circuited before applying the voltage. The short circuit
connection is removed only after sufficient time has elapsed so that the charging and absorption currents cease

153
to flow. The galvanometer should be well shunted during the early stages of measurement, and it is normally
desirable to include a protective series resistance (of several mega ohms) in the galvanometer circuit. The value
of this resistance should be subtracted from the observed resistance value in order to determine the true
resistance. A high voltage battery of 500 V emf is required and its emf should remain constant throughout the
test.
Measurement of volume and surface resistivity by direct deflection method:
The direct deflection method is often used for measurement of insulation resistance of insulating material
samples available in sheet form. In such cases, the measurement of volume resistivity and surface resistivity of
the material is of great interest.
The fig.11 below shows the schematic diagram for measurement of volume and surface resistivity of an
insulation material.

G2

G1
Upper electrode Guard Ring
V

d1

Specimen sheet t
d2

Lower electrode

Fig.11. Measurement of volume and surface resistivity of an insulating material specimen

The specimen is provided with tin foil or colloidal graphite electrodes; the upper electrode having a guard ring.
For measurement of volume resistivity (which in fact is the specific resistance), readings of the voltage applied
and the current through the galvanometer are taken. Leakage currents over the edge of the specimen will flow
between the guard ring and the lower electrode and hence will not introduce error into the measurement. The
volume resistivity q can be calculated as follows:
Let,
d1 = diameter of upper electrode
t = thickness of the specimen sheet
V1 = reading of the voltmeter
I1 = current through the galvanometer G1
V1
Resistance of the seeciNen, R =
I1
But,
qt
R=
nd12
nd12R nd12V1
VoluNe resistivity of the seeciNen, q = =
t tI1
The resistivity of a thin layer of dielectric materials is different from volume resistivity, not only because of an
adherent humidity layer but also because of contamination, chemical alterations, absorption of gases, or

154
structural modification. The resistance Rt between two electrodes embedded in or attached to a dielectric
1 1
medium is composed of volume resistance Rv and surface resistance Rs with 1/R = /R + /R
t v c
The volume resistance Rv can be measured separately from surface resistance Rs by means of guard circuit as
shown in fig.11.
To measure surface resistivity, the galvanometer is placed in position G2. In this position, the galvanometer
measures the leakage current and current flowing between upper and lower electrodes will be eliminated from
measurement. Let,
d2 = diameter of lower electrode disc
V2 = reading of the voltmeter
I2 = current through the galvanometer G2
V2
Surface Resistance, Rc =
I2
The leakage current flows along a path of length t and width nd2 and therefore, the surface resistivity is:
Rc × nd2 nd2 V2
qc = =
t t I2
4.4.2.3 Loss of
charge method
The loss of charge method is illustrated in fig.12.

V R C
V

Fig.12. Loss of charge method

In this method, the insulation resistance R to be measured is connected in parallel with a capacitor C and an
electrostatic voltmeter. The capacitor is charged to some suitable voltage by means of a battery having voltage
V and is then allowed to discharge through the resistance. The terminal voltage is observed over a considerable
period of time during discharge.
The voltage across the capacitor at any instant t after the application of voltage is:
V = ve–t/RC or V/v = e–t/RC
t 0.4343t
The insulation resistance, R = =
C loge V/v C log1O V/v
The variation of voltage v with time is as shown in fig.13.

loge v
v
V = ve–t/RC
V loge V
loge v

t t
t

Fig.13. Variation of voltage with time Plot of loge v with time

155
If the resistance to be measured R is very large, very large time is taken for an appreciable fall in voltage and
thus the process may become time consuming. Also, the voltage – time curve will thus be very flat and unless
great care is taken in measuring voltages at the beginning, and end of time t, a serious error may be made in the
ratio V / v, causing a considerable corresponding error in measured value of R. more accurate results may be
obtained by considering the change in the voltage (V - v) directly and calling this change as e, the expression for
R thus now becomes:
0.4343t
R=
C log1O V/(V — e)
The change in voltage may be measured by use of a galvanometer.
For still accurate results, it is advisable to go for loge v versus time curve and determine the time taken for
discharge from this curve. As this curve is linear, the determination of time t from this curve would yield
accurate results.
The method described above works on the assumption that the resistance of the electro – static voltmeter and
the leakage resistance of the capacitor have infinite value. But, in practice, corrections have to be applied to take
these resistances into consideration. The fig.14 below shows the schematic of loss of charge method,
considering the effects of leakage resistance of capacitor.

Supply C
V R1
R

Fig.14. Loss of charge method considering effects of leakage resistance of

capacitor Here,
R1 is the leakage resistance of capacitor
R is the resistance to be measured
Let Rı be the parallel combination of R1 and R
With R connected to the circuit,
0.4343t (1)
Rı =
C log1O V/v
Now disconnecting R from the circuit, the above expression can be written as:
0.4343t
R1 = (2)
C log1O V/v
But R is the parallel combination of R1 and R
ı
R 1R
Rı =
R1 + R
R1Rı
‹R = (3)
R1 — Rı
Substituting (1) and (2) in (3), value of R can be determined.

156
4.4.2.3 Megger
Megger is an instrument used to test the insulation. It is used to measure the insulation resistance. The essential
parts of Megger is as shown in fig.15.

Fig.15. Meggar
The current coil is similar to that of the PMMC instrument. There are two voltage coils V1 and V2. The coil V1
embraces over the annular magnetic core. It is clear from above fig. that V1 is in a weak magnetic field when the
pointer is at œ position and hence this coil can exert very little torque.
The torque exerted by the voltage coil increases as it moves into a stronger field and the torque is
maximum when it is under the pole face and under this condition, the pointer is at its zero end of the resistance
scale. In order to modify the torque in voltage coil further, another coil V2 is used. This coil is also located in
such a fashion that it moves from the œ position towards 0 position of the resistance scale.
The combined action of the two voltages V1 and V2 may be considered as though the coils constituted a
spring of variable stiffness, being very stiff near the zero end of scale where the current in the current coil is
very large (on account of unknown resistance Rx being small), and very weak near the œ end of the scale where
the current in the current coil is very small (on account of unknown resistance Rx being very large).
Thus this effect compresses the low resistance portion of the scale and opens up the high resistance
portion of the scale. This is a great advantage since this instrument is meant for high resistances.
The voltage range of the instrument can be controlled by a voltage selector switch. This can be done by
varying the resistance R connected in series with the current coil. The voltages are usually generated by hand
cranked generator G. As the same magnet supplies magnetic fields for both instrument and generator, and as the
current coil and pressure coil move in a common magnetic field, the instrument indications are independent of
the strength of the magnetic field.

157
4.5 Measurement of Earth Resistance
The provision of an earth electrode for an electrical system is necessitated by the following reasons:
• All the parts of electrical equipment, like casings of machines, switches and circuit breakers, lead
sheathing and armoring of cables, tanks of transformers etc. which have to be at earth potential, must be
connected to an earth electrode. The purpose of this is to protect the various parts of the installation, as
well as the persons working against damage in case the insulation of the system fails at any point. By
connecting these parts to an earthed electrode, a continuous low resistance path is available for leakage
current to flow to earth. This current operates the protective devices and thus the faulty circuit is
isolated in case a fault occurs.
• The earth electrode ensures that in the event of overvoltage on the system due to lightning discharges
or other system faults, those parts of equipment which are normally dead as far as voltages are
concerned, do not attain dangerously high potentials.
• In a three phase circuit, the neutral of the system is earthed in order to stabilize the potential of circuit
with respect to earth.
An earth electrode should have a low resistance to earth, so that it can carry large currents. As the amount of
current carried by the earth electrode is large, it is usual practice to measure the earth electrode’s resistance,
which can be used as a reliable information.
The factors on which the resistance of earthing system depend are:
✓ Shape and material of electrode used
✓ Depth in the soil at which electrodes are buried
✓ Specific resistance of the soil surrounding and in neighborhood of the electrodes
4.5.1 Methods for earth resistance measurement
➢ Fall of potential method
➢ Earth tester
4.5.1.1 Fall of potential method
The circuit for measurement of earth resistance by fall of potential method is as shown in fig.16 below.

I I
V

EARTH E A B

Earth Auxiliary
electrode electrodes

Fig.16. Measurement of earth resistance by fall of potential method

158
The current is passed through earth electrode E to an auxiliary electrode B (usually an iron spike) inserted in
earth at a distance away from the earth electrode. A second auxiliary electrode A is inserted in earth between E
and B. The potential difference V between E and A is measured for a given current I. The flow of ground
currents is as shown in fig.17(C). The lines of the first electrode current diverge and those of the second
converge. As a result, the current density is much greater in the vicinity of the electrodes than at a distance from
them. The potential distribution between the electrodes is shown in fig.17(B). It is clear that the potential rises
in the proximity of E and B and is constant along the middle section. The resistance of the earth therefore
is RE = V = VEA . The position of electrodes E and B is fixed, whereas that of A is changed and the resistance
I I
measurements are done for various positions of the electrode A.

I I
V

EARTH E D A C B

(A)

VBC
V

VED

E D C B
(B)

A B

(C)

Fig.17. Distribution of potentials between two earthing electrodes

159
The graph showing variation of RE with the distance between the electrodes E and A is as shown.

Earth
resistance
RE

Distance between E and A

It is clear that the resistance increases rapidly initially. When the distance between E and A is increased, it
becomes constant and when A approaches B, it again increases. The placing of electrodes is thus very important
and serious errors may be caused by incorrect placing of electrodes. Correct value of RE is obtained when the
electrode A is at such a distance that the resistance lies on the flat part of curve. The spacing between earth
electrode E and the auxiliary electrodes A and B should be large to get proper results. The distance may be a few
hundred meters.
4.5.1.1 Earth tester
The earth tester is a special type of Megger and has the following additional features:
• A rotating current reverser and
• Rectifier
An earth tester is shown in fig.18 below.

Fig.18. Earth Tester

160
The additional features consist of simple commutators made of L shaped segments. They are mounted on the
shaft of the hand – driven generator. Each commutator has four fixed brushes. One pair of each set of brushes is
so positioned that they make contact alternately with one segment and then with the other as the commutator
rotates. The second pair of each of the set of bushes is positioned on the commutator so that continuous contact
is made with one segment whatever the position of commutator.
The earth tester has four terminals P1, P2, C1 and C2. Two terminals P1 and C1 are shorted to form a
common point to be connected to earth electrode. The other two terminals P2 and C2 are connected to the
auxiliary electrodes P and C respectively.
The indication of the earth tester depends on the ratio of the voltage across the pressure coil and the
current through the coil. The deflection of its pointer indicates the resistance of the earth directly. Although the
earth tester, which is a PMMC instrument, can operate on D.C only, yet by including a rectifier and current
reverser, it is possible to make measurements with A.C flowing in the soil.
The sending of A.C current through the soil has the advantage of elimination of unwanted effects due to
production of back emf in the soil. Also the instrument is free from effects of D.C / A.C currents present in the
soil.

End of Unit – 4

161
 UNIT – 5

5.1 Introduction to A.C Bridges

✓ A.C bridges are an extension to the Wheatstone bridge.
✓ D.C / Wheatstone bridges are generally used for measurement of resistance.
✓ A.C bridges are used for impedance measurements such as inductance, capacitance, storage factor and
loss factor.
✓ A.C bridges can also be used in communication systems and complex electronic circuits. They are
usedin applications such as phase shifting, filtering, measurement of frequency of audio signals and for
providing feedback paths for oscillators and amplifiers.
✓ An A.C bridge consists of the following components
• Four arms,
• An A.C source of excitation and
• A balance detector
✓ The basic differences between D.C and A.C bridges are:
D.C Bridge A.C Bridge
▪ The arms can contain resistors, inductors
▪ The arms contain only resistors. and capacitors.
▪ The source can be power line or electronic
▪ The source is a D.C battery. oscillator.
▪ The detector can be a headphone or
▪ The detector used is a D „Arsonval vibration galvanometer or tunable amplifier
galvanometer. detector.

▪ Only one balance equation is obtained ▪ Two balance equations are obtained

5.2 Sources for A.C bridges

✓ The sources that can be used with A.C bridges are
• Power line and
• Electronic Oscillators
✓ Power line is preferred as a source for A.C bridges for low frequency measurement applications.
✓ Electronic oscillators are preferred as a source for A.C bridges for high frequency measurement
applications.
✓ The advantages of using electronic oscillators as source are
▪ Their frequency is constant
▪ Easily adjustable and
▪ Determinable with accuracy
▪ Waveform produced by them is very close to a sine wave
▪ Their power output is sufficient for most bridge measurements
▪ They are suitable over a frequency range of 40 Hz to 125 kHz with a power output of 7W.

161
5.3 Detectors for A.C bridges
✓ The detectors that can be used with A.C bridges are:
• Head phones
• Vibration galvanometers and
• Tunable amplifier detectors
✓ Headphones are used as detectors at frequencies of 250 Hz to 3 or 4 kHz. They are the most
sensitive forthis range of frequency.
✓ Vibration galvanometers are extremely useful for power and low audio frequency ranges. They canbe
used over the range of 5 Hz to 1000 Hz, but are generally preferred below 200 Hz. They are the most
sensitive device below 200 Hz.
✓ Tunable amplifiers are the most preferred when working at a single frequency as they have the highest
sensitivity and discrimination against harmonics in the supply. They are the most versatile of the
available detectors. They can be made to respond to a narrow bandwidth at the bridge frequency. They
can be used over the range of 10 Hz to 100 kHz.

5.4 Condition for balance of A.C Bridge

Consider the A.C Bridge shown in fig.1 below:

I3
Z1
Z3

I1

a D c

I2

Z2 Z4

I4
d

Fig.1. Basic A.C Bridge Circuit

When the bridge is balanced, the current through the detector „D‟ should be zero. If the current through the
galvanometer is zero, then the voltage drops across the points „ab‟ and „ad‟ would be equal.

162
 i. e. Vab = Vad

‹ I1Z1 = I2Z2
When the bridge is balanced,
E
I1 = I3 = and
Z1 + Z3
E
I2 = I4 =
Z 2 + Z4
Substituting the values of I1 and I2 in the equation I1Z1 = I2Z2, we get,
E E
Z1 = Z
Z 1 + Z3 Z2 + Z4 2
Z1 Z2
‹ =
Z1 + Z3 Z2 + Z4
‹ Z1(Z2 + Z4) = Z2(Z1 + Z3)

‹ Z1Z2 + Z1Z4 = Z1Z2 + Z2Z3

‹ Z1Z4 = Z2Z3

From the above equation, the condition for balance of an A.C bridge can be stated as
“An A.C bridge is said to be balanced if the product of impedances of one pair of opposite arms is equal to
the product of impedances of the other pair of opposite arms.”
If the impedances of the A.C Bridge are expressed in polar form, then the bridge balance condition is:
(Z1²81)(Z4²84) = (Z2²82)(Z3²83)

‹ Z1Z4²81 + 84 = Z2Z3²82 + 83
Hence for balance,

Z1Z4 = Z2Z3 and

²81 + 84 = ²82 + 83

5.5 Bridges for measurement of self inductance / Inductance

Self inductance can be measured using the following bridges

• Maxwell‟s Inductance Bridge

• Maxwell‟s Inductance – Capacitance Bridge
• Hay‟s Bridge
• Anderson‟s Bridge and
• Owen‟s Bridge

Page 3

163
5.5.1 Maxwell’s Inductance Bridge

The Maxwell‟s inductance bridge measures an inductance by comparison with a variable standard self –
inductance. The Maxwell‟s Inductance Bridge and its Phasor diagram are as shown in fig.2.

E1 E3
b E1 = E2
E
I1
L1
I1mL1 = I2mL2
R3 I
1
R1 E3 = E4 I R = I (R + r ) I
1 1 2 2 2 2
I1
a D c

L1: Unknown Inductance of resistance R1

R2
R4
L2: Variable Inductance of fixed resistance r2
L2, r2
I2 I2 R2: Variable resistance connected in series with L2
d
E2 E4 R3 and R4: Known non – inductive resistances
E

Fig.2. Maxwell‟s Inductance Bridge Circuit and its Phasor Diagram

The condition for bridge balance is that the product of impedances of one pair of opposite arms should be equal
to the product of impedances of the other pair of opposite arms.

(R1 + jmL1)R4 = R3(R2 + r2 + jmL2)

Generally the resistance of a coil is very small and hence r2 can be neglected.
(R1 + jmL1)R4 = R3(R2 + jmL2)

‹ R1R4 + jmL1R4 = R2R3 + jmL2R3

Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get,

R1R4 = R2R3 and mL1R4 = mL2R3

R2R3 R3L2
‹ R1 = and L1 =
R4 R4
Hence the equations for unknown values are:

R3 R3
L1= L and
2 R =1 R 2
R4 R4

Hence it can be seen from the above equations that the unknown inductance (L1) and resistance (R1) are
determined in terms of known inductance (L2) and resistance (R2).

164
5.5.2 Maxwell’s Inductance – Capacitance Bridge (Q meter):

The Maxwell‟s inductance – Capacitance Bridge measures an inductance by comparison with a standard
variable capacitance. The Maxwell‟s Inductance – Capacitance Bridge and its Phasor diagram are as shown in
fig.3.

E1 E3
Ic I2
b
I1 E2 =
L1, r1 I2 R 2 E
I1cL1
R3
R1

I1
I1 R 1 IR E3 = E4 I1
a D c

IC L1: Unknown Inductance with internal resistance r1

C4
R2 R1: Effective resistance of the inductor L1
R4
IR
R2, R3 and R4: Known non – inductive resistances
I2 I2
d
E2 E4 C4: Variable standard Capacitor
E

Fig.3. Maxwell‟s Inductance – Capacitance Bridge and its Phasor diagram

The condition for bridge balance is that the product of impedances of one pair of opposite arms should be equal
to the product of impedances of the other pair of opposite arms.
1
(R + jmL + r ) (R " )=RR
1 1 1 4 32
jmC4

Generally the resistance of a coil is very small and hence r1 can be neglected.
1
R4 ×
jmC4
(R1 + jmL1) ( ) = R3R2
1
R4 +
jmC4
R4
‹ (R1 + jmL1 ) ( ) = R2R3
1 + jmR4C4
‹ R4(R1 + jmL1) = R2R3(1 + jmR4C4)

‹ R1R4 + jmR4L1 = R2R3 + jmR2R3R4C4

Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get

R1R4 = R2R3 and mR4L1 = mR2R3R4C4

165
 R2R3
‹ R1 = and R4L1 = R2 R3R4C4
R4
R2R3
‹ R1 = and L1 = R2 R3C4
R4
Hence the equations for unknown values are:

R2R3
L1 = R2R3C4 and R1 =
R4

The expression for Q – factor is:

XL
Q=
R
mL1
=
R1
mR2R3C4
= R2R3
( R )
4
mR2R3R4C4
=
R2R3

Q = mR4C4

Advantages:

• Since the variable parameters R4 and C4 do not appear in the two balance equations simultaneously, the
equations are independent of each other and hence the balancing is easy.
• As frequency term does not appear in any of the balance equations, this bridge does not depend on the
frequency of input.
• Simple expressions for unknown values are obtained here. For example if the product R2 R3 is chosen as
106, then the value of capacitor C4 is the direct value of inductance.
• They can be used for measurement of a wide range of inductance at power and audio frequencies.

Disadvantages

o As this bridge requires a variable capacitor, it leads to higher costs.

o The bridge is limited to measurement of low Q coils (1 < Q < 10). It cannot be used for measurement of
high Q coils (Q > 10) because it would demand a higher value of R4, which is generally costly. It cannot
be used for measurement of low Q coils (Q < 1) as the balancing is quite difficult.

166
5.5.3 Anderson’s Bridge:

Anderson‟s Bridge is a modification of the Maxwell‟s Inductance – Capacitance Bridge. Anderson‟s bridge
measures the self – inductance in terms of standard capacitor. The Anderson‟s Bridge and its Phasor diagram
are as shown in fig.4.

E1 E3
b E1 E
I1 I1cL1
L 1, R 1
I2 E2 = I2 R2
R3
D
Ic
r1 E4 = I4 R4
Ic r
C I3 I4 Ic r
a e Ic c
I1 (R1 + r1) E3 = I1 R3 = Ic / cc I1
Ic
r L1: Unknown Self – inductance
R2 R4 R1: Resistance of Self – inductance L1
I4 r1: Resistance connected in series with L1
I2
d r, R2, R3 and R4: Known non – inductive resistances
E2 E4
E C: Fixed Standard capacitor

Fig.4. Anderson‟s Bridge and its Phasor diagram

At balance, applying KCL at nodes „b‟ and „d‟ respectively, we get,

I1 = I3 and I2 = Ic + I4
At balance, applying KVL to the loop „bceb‟, we get,

I3R3 = Ic(—jXc)
—j 1
‹ IR =I× (/ I = I at balance and X = )
1 3 c 1 3 c
mC mC
Multiplying the numerator and denominator of the right hand side by j, we get,
1
I R =I ×
1 3 c
jmC
Ic = I1jmCR3 (1)
At balance, applying KVL to the loop „abeda‟, we get,

I1(r1 + R1 + jmL1) = I2R2 + Icr (2)

Substituting (1) in (2), we get,

I1(r1 + R1 + jmL1) = I2R2 + I1jmCR3r

167
 ‹ I1(r1 + R1 + jmL1) — I1jmCR3r = I2R2

‹ I1(r1 + R1 + jmL1 — jmCR3r) = I2R2

1
I= [I (r + R + jmL — jmCR r)] (3)
2
R2 1 1 1 1 3

At balance, applying KVL to the loop „cdec‟, we get,

1
I r+I × =I R
c c 4 4
jmC

Applying KCL at node „d‟, we get

I 2 = Ic + I 4

‹ I4 = I2 — Ic
—j
Ir+I× = (I — I )R
c c 2 c 4
mC
j
‹ IR= Ir —I × +IR
2 4 c c
mC c 4
1 j
‹ I2 = [Ic (r — mC + R4)]
R4
Substituting the value of Ic obtained in (1), we get,
1 j I1R3 I1jmCR3r
I = [I jmCR (r — + R )] = + + I jmCR
2 1 3 1 3
R4 mC 4 R4 R4
I1R3 I1jmCR3r
I= + + I jmCR (4)
2 1 3
R4 R4

From (3) and (4), we get,

1 I1R3 I1jmCR3r
[I (r + R + jmL — jmCR r)] = + + I jmCR
R2 1 1 1 1 3
R4 R4 1 3

I1(r1 + R1) I1(mL1 — mCR3r) I1R3 I1mCR3r

‹ +j = + j [I1 mCR3 + ]
R2 R2 R4 R4

Equating the real parts on both sides, we get,

I1(r1 + R1) I1R3

=
R2 R4

(r1 + R1) R3
‹ =
R2 R4

168
 R 2R 3
‹ (r + R ) =
1 1
R4

R2R3
R1= — r1
R4

Equating the imaginary parts on both sides, we get,

I1(mL1 — mCR3r) mCR3r

= I 1 (mCR3 + )
R2 R4
mL1 — mCR3r mCR3r
‹ = mCR3 +
R2 R4
L1 — CR3r CR3r
‹ = CR3 +
R2 R4

‹ L1 — CR3 r = CR2R3 + CR2R3r

R4
CR2R3r
‹ L = CR R + + CR r
1 2 3 3
R4
CR3
‹ L = [R R + R r + rR ]
1
R4 2 4 2 4

CR3
L1= [R2R 2 R )]4
4 + r(R +
R4

Hence the equations for unknown values are:

CR3 R2R3
L1= [R2R 2 R )]4 and R =1
4 + r(R + — r1
R4 R4

Advantages:

• As the equations are independent of each other, obtaining the balance is easy.
• They are well suited for the low Q coil measurements when compared to the Maxwell‟s bridge.
• As fixed capacitor has been used here, the cost is low.
• Can also be used for finding capacitance in terms of inductance.

Disadvantages:

o More complex in construction than Maxwell‟s bridge

o The balance equations are not easy
o Shielding becomes difficult as an additional junction is introduced here.

169
5.6 Bridges for measurement of mutual inductance

Mutual inductance can be measured using the following bridges

• Heaviside Bridge
• Campbell‟s modified Heaviside Bridge
• Heaviside Campbell equal ratio Bridge
• Carey Foster Bridge (Heydweiller Bridge) and
• Campbell‟s bridge
Mutual inductance can also be measured form the self inductances as follows

▪ Connect the two coils in series aiding fashion and find its equivalent inductance using the relation
Leq1 = L1 + L2 + 2M
▪ Connect the two coils in series bucking fashion and find its equivalent inductance using the relation
Leq2 = L1 + L2 — 2M
▪ From the above equations, Leq1 — Leq2 = 4M
1
‹ M = (Leq1 — Leq2)
4
▪ This method is useful when there is a fairly high coupling between the coils, otherwise this method
results in poor accuracy.

5.6.1 Campbell’s Bridge

The Campbell‟s Bridge measures the mutual inductance in terms of a standard mutual inductance. The circuit
for Campbell‟s Bridge is shown in fig.5.

L1 b
R3
M1 M1: Unknown Mutual Inductance
R1 b
b| L1: Self inductance of the secondary of mutual
a D c inductance M1
d|
d M2: Variable standard mutual inductance
R2
M2 R4 L2: Self inductance of secondary of mutual
L2 inductance M2
d

d R1, R2, R3 and R4: Non inductive resistances

Fig.5. Campbell‟s Bridge Circuit

170
There are two steps in the balancing process of Campbell‟s Bridge:

• The detector is first connected between „b‟ and „d‟ as shown in fig. below

L1
R3
R1 b

a D c

R2 d
R4
L2

• The condition for balance is:

(R1 + jmL1)R4 = (R2 + jmL2)R3

‹ R1R4 + jmL1R4 = R2R3 + jmL2R3

Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get,

R1R4 = R2R3 and mL1R4 = mL2R3

R1 R3 and L R = L R
‹ = 1 4 23
R2 R4
L R
R1 R3 and 1 = 3
‹ =
R2 R4 L2 R4

Hence the equations under balance for this bridge are:

L1 = R1 = R3
L2 R2 R4

• To balance the bridge, either R3 and R1 can be adjusted or R4 and R2 can be adjusted.

171
 • The detector is then connected between „b|’ and „d|’ as shown in fig. below.

L1
R3
M1
R1
b|

a D c

d|
R2
M2 R4
L2

• The adjustments are kept as in step 1 and the variable mutual inductance M2 is varied to get the balance.
• The balance equation for this step is:
M1 R3
=
M2 R4
• The unknown mutual inductance cab ne found from the relation:
R3
M1 = M2
R4
5.6 Bridges for measurement of Capacitance

The capacitance can be measured using the following bridges

• De Sauty‟s Bridge and

• Schering Bridge

172
5.6.1 Schering Bridge

Schering Bridge is used for measurement of capacitance in terms of a variable capacitor. It can also be used for
measuring properties of insulators, capacitor bushings, insulating oil and other insulating materials. The
Schering‟s Bridge and its Phasor diagram are as shown in fig.6.

E1 E3 Ic I2
b
I1
E3 = E4
C1 I1
I1r1 I4
R3
r1
6
I1
a D I2 c

C4 I1
mc1 E1 = E2 E
IC
C2 R4
IR C1: Capacitance of unknown capacitor
r1: Series resistance representing the losses in C1
I2 C2: Standard capacitor
d
E2 E4 R3: A non inductive resistance
E C4: Variable capacitor
R4: Non inductive resistance in parallel with R4

Fig.6. Schering‟s Bridge and its Phasor diagram

The condition for bridge balance is that the product of impedances of one pair of opposite arms should be equal
to the product of impedances of the other pair of opposite arms.
"— j
(r1) × (R ) × (— )
j )= 3 m
(R4 C
— mC1 m
C4 2

1 1 1
‹ (r1 + ) × (R4 " ) = (R3 ) × ( )
jmC1 jmC4 jmC2
1
1 R4 × jmC 1
4
‹ (r1 + ) ×( ) = (R3) × ( )
jmC1 1 jmC2
R4 + jmC
4

1 R4 1
‹ (r1 + )×( ) = (R3 ) × ( )
jmC1 jmC4R4 + 1 jmC2
R3
jmC1r1 + 1 R4 ) = ( )
‹( )×(
jmC1 jmC4R4 + 1 jmC2

173
 R3
jmC1r1 + 1 R4 )=
‹( )×(
C1 jmC4R4 + 1 ( )
C2
‹ R4C2(1 + jmC1r1) = R3C1(1 + jmC4R4)

‹ R4C2 + jmC1r1R4C2 = R3C1 + jmC4R4R3C1

Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get,

R4C2 = R3C1 and mC1r1R4C2 = mC4R4R3C1

R4
‹C= C and r C = R C
1
R3 2 1 2 34

R4 C4
‹ C = C and r = R
1
R3 2 1
C2 3

Hence the equations for unknown values are:

R4 C4
C1 = C2 and r1 = R3
R3 C2

As R4 andC4 are variables and appear only in one of the equations, the equations are independent of each other
and hence the balancing is easy.

The dissipation factor is given by:

D1 = mC1r1
R4 C4
=m C R
R3 2 C2 3

D1 = mR4C4

5.6.1.1 Schering Bridge for measurement of Relative Permittivity

✓ In addition to measuring capacitance, the Schering Bridge can also be used for measuring relative
permittivity of dielectric materials.
✓ If the electrodes can be placed closer to each other, then the following technique can be used:
• The specimen whose relative permittivity is to be determined is placed between the plates of the
capacitor, so that the specimen acts as dielectric medium.
• With the specimen between the plates, the capacitance (Cs) is determined.
• From the value of Cs, the relative permittivity is determined using the formula:

Cc × d
sr =
sO × A

174
✓ If the electrodes cannot be placed closer to each other, then the following technique can be adopted:
• The arrangement for this technique is as shown below:

x
t Electrodes
d
Specimen
• The specimen whose relative permittivity is to be determined is placed between the plates of the
capacitor, so that the specimen acts as dielectric medium.
• With the specimen between the plates, the capacitance of the arrangement is measured.
• The specimen is then removed and the spacing between the electrodes is adjusted until the
capacitance is same as before.
• The relative permittivity of the specimen can be calculated from the thickness of the specimen
and the alteration in electrode spacing.
• Let Cs and C0 be the capacitance of the specimen and the air portion
respectively. With the specimen between the electrodes,
sOsrA
Cc =
d
sOA
CO =
t
The capacitance between the electrodes (C) is the series combination of Cs and C0.
Cc × CO
C=
Cc + CO
sOsrA sOA
×
= d t
sOsrA sOA
d + t

sO 2srA 2 dt
= ×
dt sOsrAt + sOAd

sO2srA2
=
sOsrAt + sOAd
sO2srA2
=
sOA(srt + d)
sOsrA
C=
srt + d
• After the specimen is removed, the spacing is adjusted until the capacitance between the
electrodes is same as that with the specimen. Hence the new capacitance between the electrodes
after space adjustment is:
sOA
C=
d + t —x

175
 • But these two capacitances should be the same, hence,
s Os r A sOA
=
s rt + d d + t — x
sr 1
‹ =
s rt + d d + t — x

‹ sr(d + t — x) = srt + d

‹ s rd + s rt — s rx = s r t + d

‹ s rd — s rx = d

‹ sr(d — x) = d

d
‹ sr =
d —x

• Hence it can be seen from the above equation that, the permittivity can be easily determined by
just knowing the thickness of the specimen (d) and the space adjustment value (x).

5.6.2 High Voltage Schering Bridge

✓ High voltage Schering Bridge is used for measuring small values of capacitances.
✓ The basic difference between a Schering Bridge and High Voltage Schering Bridge lies in the supply
voltage used and detector used.
✓ High frequency or high voltage source is used as a source and vibration galvanometer is used as
detectorfor high voltage Schering Bridge.
✓ A high voltage Schering bridge is as shown in fig.7.

176
 b

R3
C1, r1

a D c

C4
C2 R4

Fig.7. High Voltage Schering Bridge

✓ The special features of high voltage Schering bridge are:

•
High voltage supply is obtained from a transformer usually at 50 Hz.
•
The arms „ab‟ and „ad‟ contain only capacitors that are designed for high voltage work. The
impedance of these two arms is higher than the other two arms. As the impedance is higher in
arms „ab‟ and „ad‟, the voltage drop in these arms would also be high when compared to the
other two arms. So even if a voltage as high as 100 kV is applied to the bridge, only a small
voltage will appear across arms „bc‟ and „cd‟. This ensures that the operator who varies the arms
„bc‟ and „cd‟ would be safe. The point „c‟ is earthed.
• A spark gap (set to breakdown at 100 V) is connected across the arms „bc‟ and „ac‟ to prevent
the dangerous high voltages in case of breakdown of the high voltage capacitors C1 and C2.
• As the impedances of arms „ab‟ and „ad‟ are large, the current drawn from the source is small
and hence the power loss is quite small. But one drawback of this is that since the current is
small, a highly sensitive detector is required.
• The fixed standard capacitor C2 has either air or compressed gas as dielectric.
• Earthed screens are provided to avoid errors due to inter – capacitance between high and low
arms of the bridge.
5.7 Wien’s Bridge

Wien‟s bridge is also known as frequency determining bridge.

Some applications of Wien‟s bridge are:
❖ Used in harmonic distortion analyzer as a notch filter to discriminate against one specific frequency
❖ Used in audio and high frequency oscillators as frequency determining device.

177
The Wien‟s bridge is shown in fig.8.
b
Mechanical Coupling
C1

R1 R3

a D c

R2
R4

C2
d

Fig.8. Wien‟s Bridge Circuit

The condition for bridge balance is that the product of impedances of one pair of opposite arms should be equal
to the product of impedances of the other pair of opposite arms.
R1
( ) R4 = R3 (R2
1 + jmC1R1
—
)
m
C
2
R1R4 R2R3mC2 — jR3
‹ =
1 + jmC1R1 mC2
‹ R1R4mC2 = (R2R3mC2 — jR3)(1 + jmC1R1)

‹ R1R4mC2 = R2R3mC2 + jm2R1R2R3C1C2 — jR3 — j2mC1R1R3

‹ R1R4mC2 = R2R3mC2 + jm2R1R2R3C1C2 — jR3 + mC1R1R3

‹ R1R4mC2 = (R2R3mC2 + mC1R1R3) + j(m2R1R2R3C1C2 — R3)

Equating the real and imaginary parts, we get,

R1R4mC2 = R2R3mC2 + mC1R1R3 and m2R1R2R3C1C2 — R3 = 0

‹ R1R4C2 = R2R3C2 + C1R1R3 and m2R1R2R3C1C2 = R3

From m2R1R2R3C1C2 = R3, we get

m2R1R2C1C2 = 1

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 1 1
‹ m2 = or m =
R1R2C1C2 ƒR1 R2 C1 C2

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But we know that, m = 2nf
1
2nf =
ƒR1 R2 C1 C2

1
f=
2nƒR1 R2 C1 C2

Generally the values of R1 and R2, C1 and C2 are chosen to be equal.

i. e. R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C
1
f=
2n√R2C2

1
f=
2nRC

To fulfill the condition R1 = R2, the two resistors are mechanically coupled.

Advantages:

✓ This bridge is suitable for measurement of frequencies from 100 Hz to 100 kHz.
✓ Accuracy close to (0.1 – 0.5) % can be obtained with this bridge.
✓ Can also be used for capacitance measurement

Drawbacks:

o Unless the applied input is sinusoidal, the balancing is difficult.

o Balancing becomes difficult if any harmonics are present in the supply. Filters need to be connected in
series with the detector in case harmonics are present.

5.8 Errors in A.C Bridge methods

Errors can occur in A.C bridges because of stray coupling between one bridge arm and another or from an
element to ground. These stray couplings modify the balance conditions making a definite balance impossible
or may lead to false balance. Thus these effects will cause incorrect values of unknown components to be
determined.
The factors causing errors in A.C Bridge are:
❖ Stray – conductance effects due to imperfect insulation
❖ Mutual – inductance effects due to magnetic coupling between coils
❖ Stray – capacitance effects due to electrostatic fields between conductors at different potentials
❖ Residues in components, for example existence of small amount of series inductance or shunt
capacitance in nominally non – reactive resistors

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5.8.1 Compensation of errors occurring in AC bridge measurements
The techniques available for compensation of errors in A.C bridges are:

• Use of high quality components:

Good quality bridge components have the advantage of high accuracy calibration, freedom from stray
conductance effects, and a minimum of residues. The residue value is usually supplied by the
manufacturer, so that corrections can be applied.
• Bridge Layout:
The bridge layout should be as follows to avoid errors:
Z2 Z1

Detector D d b Source

Z4 Z3

The features of this bridge layout are:

✓ The four corners of the bridge „a‟, „b‟, „c‟, and„d‟ should be close to each other.
✓ Each component should be connected to appropriate corners by its own leads.
✓ A pair of leads to a component should not form a large loop.
✓ The leads should be preferably coaxial.
✓ If there is more than one inductor in the bridge, the leads should be quite long so as to minimize
errors due to mutual inductance coupling and lead self inductances. But this would lead to stray
capacitance, which can be removed easily.
• Sensitivity:
To obtain a higher degree of accuracy, the bridge must be operated at sufficient sensitivity, i.e. the
change in voltage at the detector should be large.
• Stray Conductance Effects:
If the insulation between various components of a bridge circuit is not good, leakage currents will flow
from one arm to another. This error can be avoided by mounting various bridge components and other
apparatus on insulation stands.
• Eddy Current Errors:
Errors can occur due to eddy currents in resistors and inductors. This error can be avoided by removing
large conducting masses close to the bridge network.
• Residual Errors:
It is assumed in practice that the resistors are non inductive and non capacitive, which is not true.
Resistors always contain small amount of inductance and capacitance. This residual error can be
calculated and compensation can be applied.

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 • Frequency and waveform errors:
There are two types of bridges:
1) Bridge whose output equations does not depend on frequency
2) Bridge whose output equations depend on frequency
In case of bridges whose output equations do not depend on frequency, variation of frequency is
important in view of variation in the values of R, L and C with frequency. Presence of harmonics for
such circuits also affects the values of R, L and C.
In case of bridges whose output equations depend on frequency, variation of frequency is important in
view of variation in the values of R, L and C with frequency and also in view of balance getting affected
with variation in frequency.
The waveform of the supply is also important since the bridge cannot be balanced both for fundamental
and harmonics in the waveform. In presence of harmonics, bridge balance is extremely difficult to
achieve with headphone as complete silence cannot be observed in headphone in presence of harmonics.
These errors can be overcome by:
✓ Using wave filters which eliminate the unwanted harmonics from the source or
✓ Using tuned detectors such as vibration galvanometers in place of headphones, which do not
respond to harmonics but respond only to fundamental for which they are tuned.
5.9 Wagner Earthing Device
Wagner Earthing device is used to remove all the earth capacitances from the bridge network. Wagner earthing
device results in improved accuracy. A Wagner Earthing device is as shown in fig.9.

I3
Z1 Z3

I1
C2
a c
D

I2

Z2 Z4
C1 C3
I4
d C4

e
Z5 Z6

Fig.9. Wagner Earthing Device

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The Wagner Earthing device works as follows:

✓ The impedances of the bridge arms are Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4.
✓ The variable impedances of Wagner earth branch are Z5 and Z6.
✓ The impedances Z5 and Z6 may consist of variable resistances and capacitances similar to those
usedni the arms of the bridge, but not necessarily of known value.
✓ The impedances Z5 and Z6 must be capable of forming a balanced bridge with Z1 and Z3 or Z2 and Z4.
✓ C1, C2, C3 and C4 are stray earth capacitances appearing at the apexes of the bridge.
✓ D is a detector which is usually headphone.
✓ If the switch is in contact„d‟ the balance may be obtained by adjustment of the impedances Z2 and Z4.
Even though exact balance cannot be obtained due to presence of stray capacitances, a point of
minimum sound can be obtained.
✓ After adjusting the bridge to give minimum sound, the switch is thrown to contact „e‟, so that
headphoneis connected between the point „b‟ and earth.
✓ Z5 and Z6 are now adjusted until minimum sound is obtained.
✓ The headphones are reconnected between „b‟ and„d‟ and again Z2 and Z4 are adjusted to give
minimumsound.
✓ The above process of getting no sound at„d‟ and minimum sound at „e‟ is repeated. At this stage the
points b, d and e are at earth potential.
✓ Under these conditions, no current flows in earth capacitances C2 and C4 and since C1 and C3 shunt
the
Wagner arms Z5 and Z6, these capacitances are eliminated from the bridge network Z1, Z2, Z3 and Z4.

5.10 Vibration Galvanometer

Vibration galvanometers are used to detect the presence of A.C currents. They are A.C version of D‟Arsonval
Galvanometers. Vibration galvanometers are suitable for use at power and low audio frequencies, but they are
mainly used at power frequencies. They can be manufactured either for fixed frequency or can be provided with
a tuning device to cover a range of frequencies.

5.10.1 Principle:

Vibration galvanometer consists of moving coil suspended between the pieces of permanent magnet. When an
alternating current is passed through the moving coil, an alternative deflecting torque is produced which makes
the coil vibrate with a frequency equal to the frequency of the current passing. On account of inertia of moving
parts, the amplitude of vibrations is small. However, if the natural frequency of moving system is made equal to
the frequency of the current, mechanical resonance is obtained and the moving system vibrates with larger
amplitude.

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5.10.2 Construction:
• The construction of Duddell‟s moving coil vibration galvanometer is shown in fig.10.

Spring
Pulley

Bridge Piece

Vibrator Loop

N S

Mirror

Fig.10. Duddell‟s Vibration Galvanometer

• It consists of a moving coil made of fine bronze or platinum silver wire.
• This wire passes over a small pulley at the top and is pulled tight by a spring attached to the pulley, the
tension of which can be adjusted by turning a milled head attached to the spring.
• The loop of wire is stretched over two ivory bridge pieces, the distance between which is adjustable.
• When the moving coil vibrates due to passage of A.C, the reflected beam from the mirror throws a band
of light upon a scale provided for the purpose.
• Tuning is the adjustment of natural frequency of the moving system, so that it is equal to the frequency
of the current passing through the coil.
• Coarse tuning is done by varying the distance between the bridge pieces. Variation of distance between
the bridge pieces varies the length of the loop which is free to vibrate.
• Fine tuning is done by varying the tension of the spring.
• When this galvanometer is under mechanical resonance condition, the amplitude of vibrations is very
large and consequently a very wide band of light is observed on the scale.

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5.10.3 Theory:
Let the value of current passing through the moving coil at instant„t‟ be:
i = IN sin mt
Hence the deflecting torque is given by:
Td = G × i = GIN sin mt
The equation of motion is given by:
d28 d8
Td = J 2+ D + K8
dt dt
d28 d8
GIN sin mt = J +D + K8
dt 2 dt
The complementary function is given by:
8 = Fe(–Dt/2J)[sin(mdt + 0)]
The particular integral is of the form:
8 = A sin(mt — a)
Where A and a are constants.
Differentiating the particular integral w.r.to t, we get,
d8
= Am cos(mt — a)
dt
d28
= —Am2 sin(mt — a)
dt2
Substituting these values in the equation of motion, we get,
GIN sin mt = —JAm2 sin(mt — a) + DAm cos(mt — a) + KA sin(mt — a)
When mt — a = 0 or mt = a, we get
GIN sin α = DAm (1)
n
When mt — a = 2 , we get
n
GIN sin ( + α) = —JAm2 + KA
2
‹ GIN Cos α = —JAm 2 + KA (2)
Squaring (1) and (2) and adding, we get,
G 2 IN 2 sin2 α + G 2 IN 2 cos 2 α = D 2 A2 m 2 + A2 (K — Jm2 )2
‹ G 2 IN 2 = A2 [D 2 m2 + (K — Jm2 )2 ]
G 2 IN 2
‹ A2 =
D2m2 + (K — Jm2)2

185
 GIN
A=
ƒ(Dm)2 + (K — Jm 2 )2

Dividing (1) and (2), we get,

DAm
tan α =
—JAm2 + KA
Dm
‹ tan α =
K — Jm2
Dm
α = tan–1 ( )
K — Jm2
Hence the particular integral is:
GIN
8= sin(mt — a)
ƒ(Dm)2 + (K — Jm 2 )2
The complete solution is the sum of complementary function and particular integral,
GIN
8 = Fe(–Dt/2J)[sin(md t + 0)] + sin(mt — a)
ƒ(Dm)2 + (K — Jm 2 )2
The first term in the deflection is the transient term, which affects the performance for a short duration only,
which can be neglected.
GIN
8= sin(mt — a)
ƒ(Dm)2 + (K — Jm 2 )2

5.10.4 Ways of improving the sensitivity:

We know that the expression for amplitude of vibrations is:
GIN
A=
ƒ(Dm)2 + (K — Jm 2 )2
For sensitivity to be high, it is desired to have a larger value of amplitude, which can be accomplished by
following ways:

Increasing the value of G:

The displacement constant G is given by G = NBA,
The value of G can be increased either by increasing number of turns N or Area A or the flux density B.
Increasing the values of N or A would increase the moment of inertia J, which would in turn increase the
denominator term. Thus the amplitude A would decrease. Hence the flux density is generally improved to get
good sensitivity. The flux density can be improved by using powerful magnets.

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Decreasing the term (Dm)2 + (K — Jm2)2
The decrease of the term (Dm)2 + (K — Jm2)2 can be achieved by either decreasing D or J or K. Usually for a
galvanometer, the terms D and J are fixed, whereas K is variable. The term K can be varied by adjusting the
length and tension of the suspension of the moving system.
For the amplitude to be maximum, the term (Dm)2 + (K — Jm2)2 should be minimum, for which,
K — Jm2 = 0
‹ Jm2 = K
K
‹ m2 =
J
K
‹m=J
J

K
‹ 2nf = J
J

1 K
‹f= J
2n J

But this is the natural undamped frequency (fn) of the moving system.
Hence for maximum amplitude, the supply frequency should be equal to the undamped natural frequency of the
system.
The vibration galvanometers can be used for frequencies between 100 to 1800 Hz. Their current sensitivity is
about 50 mm / µA with scale kept 1m away. The sensitivity is inversely proportional to frequency.

End of Unit – 5

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