Name _______________________ Date______ Period ______

Rocks and Minerals Notes

Mineral – a naturally occurring, inorganic, solid that has a definite chemical

composition and crystal structure.

How do minerals form?

1. from cooling magma/lava

2. when water evaporates and dissolved minerals are left behind (minerals
“precipitate” out of solution

Identifying Minerals

Minerals can be identified by their physical and/or chemical properties.

Physical Properties Used for Mineral Identification:

1. Color
2. Streak
3. Luster
4. Hardness
5. Cleavage and Fracture
6. Density

1. Color: Some minerals have only one color (ex. sulfur is always yellow) while other
minerals can be more than one color (ex. quartz, can be green, red, black, brown,
pink, purple…)

2. Streak: The color of the powder when the mineral is rubbed on a streak plate.

3. Luster: The way a mineral shines or reflects light from it surface. Can be
metallic (ex. galena, pyrite, graphite) or non-metallic (ex. quartz, glassy, talc, waxy,
mica, pearly).

4. Hardness: A measure of how easily a mineral can be scratched.

The mineral’s internal structure (the strength of the bonds between the atoms)
determines the hardness of the mineral.

5. Cleavage and Fracture: Cleavage is when a mineral splits along smooth, flat
surfaces. Fracture is when a mineral breaks unevenly into jagged pieces with rough
surfaces.
What determines if a mineral has cleavage or fracture? The internal structure of
the mineral (the types of bonds between the atoms). If there are weak bonds the
mineral shows cleavage, if the bonds are strong the mineral will show fracture.

6. Density: Due to the kinds of atoms a mineral contains, and how closely packed
the atoms are; different mineral samples of the same size have different
densities.
Other Mineral Properties

Chemical Properties: Calcite reacts with hydrochloric acid. It forms bubbles of

carbon dioxide gas.

Magnetic: Magnetite is naturally magnetic.

Conductor: Quartz conducts electricity.

Uses of Minerals

Ores: An ore is a mineral that contains metals and non-metals that can be mined
and removed in usable amounts for a profit. Some examples of minerals that
contain valuable ores are galena (contains lead) and hematite (contains iron).

List some uses for the following minerals:

1. gypsum – dry-wall
2. sulfur – match tips
3. talc – powder
4. graphite – pencils
5. calcite – cement

Gems – minerals that have the following desirable qualities: hardness, color, luster,
clarity, durability, and rarity.

Precious Stones – diamonds, rubies, sapphires, emeralds

Rocks

Petrology – the branch of science that studies rocks

Rock Classification

Rocks are classified based on their formation and origin. Many kinds of rocks are
composed of minerals.

Some rocks are monomineralic meaning they are composed of one mineral (ex.
limestone-calcite). Some rocks are polymineralic meaning they are composed of
two or more minerals (ex. granite).

Letters:Words Minerals:Rocks

There are almost 3000 types of minerals, but only 8 of these minerals make up
90% of the rocks of Earth’s crust.

The 3 groups of rocks are:

1. Sedimentary
2. Igneous
3. Metamorphic

Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are rocks that usually form in layers from the accumulation of
sediments, organic material, or chemical precipitates. Most sedimentary rocks are
made up of solid sediments that have been weathered from other rocks. The
weathered sediments are then eroded (transported) by water, wind, and glaciers.
Eventually the eroded sediments are deposited at new locations either in water or
on land. Most sedimentary rocks form in layers underwater in lakes, seas or
oceans.
Fossils are mainly found in sedimentary rocks.

Types of Sedimentary Rock

1. Clastic – form from rock particles or sediments that are compacted and
cemented together.

individual particles of pressure natural sediments

rock sediment  dissolved in water

after deposition compaction cementation

 2. Chemical – form from dissolved minerals in water that settle out/precipitate
(dissolved minerals left behind when water evaporates)

3. Organic – form from the accumulation of plant/animal matter that undergoes

a transformation into rock

Coal Formation

Peat = accumulated plant material

Lignite = brown coal (soft)

Anthracite coal = metamorphed soft coal into hard coal

Igneous Rock

Igneous rocks form from the cooling and solidification/crystallization of molten

lava and magma. When molten (liquid) lava or magma cools and solidifies, crystals
of different minerals form the rock.

Types of Igneous Rock

1. Extrusive/Volcanic – forms from the fast cooling of lava on Earth’s surface.

Fast cooling does not allow time for crystals to grow. Rocks have small to no
crystals, therefore they have a smooth, fine texture.
example – obsidian

2. Intrusive/Plutonic – forms from the slow cooling of magma within the Earth.
Slow cooling allows time for large crystals to grow. Rocks have large
crystals; therefore they have a coarse, rough texture.
example – granite
Metamorphic Rock

Metamorphic rocks form from other preexisting rocks (sedimentary, igneous, and
metamorphic) that have been changed.

Conditions that cause rocks to undergo metamorphism include:

1. heat
2. pressure
3. chemical activity
Such conditions are often associated with deep burial and pressure that result
from mountain formation. Therefore, metamorphic rocks are often found in
mountain regions. Under conditions of high temperature and high pressure, many
metamorphic rocks form by the process or recrystallization. This is the growth of
new mineral crystals from the crystals of an igneous or metamorphic rock.
Recrystallization occurs without true melting.

Banding can occur in rocks that undergo metamorphism. Banding is a layered

arrangement of firmly joined mineral crystals; the minerals are aligned in layers or
bands. These bands are formed when rock is subjected to extreme pressure and
temperature. Usually, the greater the pressure and temperature, the thicker the
bands.

Banded gneiss
Types of Metamorphic Rocks

1. Foliated – have mineral crystals arranged in parallel layers or “bands”

ex. – slate, gneiss, schist
2. Non-foliated – do not have mineral crystals in bands, do not break into layers
or sheets.
ex. - marble, quartzite, anthracite coal
Topographic Map – a map showing the surface features of an area

Topographic maps provide highly accurate information on the elevation, relief and
slope of the surface ground.

To represent elevation, relief and slope on topographic maps, mapmakers use

contour lines.

Contour Interval – the change in elevation from contour line to contour line
 Weathering, Erosion and Deposition
Weathering – the physical and chemical breakdown of rock into smaller particles
called sediments.

Types of Weathering
Mechanical Weathering (Physical) – any process that causes a rock to crack or
break into pieces without changing it chemically
examples:
1. Ice (Frost) Wedging – occurs when water seeps into cracks in rocks,
freezes and expands and then thaws – this causes the rock to break

apart over time. *potholes are caused by ice wedging*

2. Abrasion – occurs when sediments are carried by streams or wind,
collide into each other and the surrounding rock

Wind
3. Organic (plant) Activity – occurs when tree roots or plant roots grow
through cracks in rock causing it to break apart.

Chemical Weathering – occurs when rocks are broken down by chemical

action and their mineral composition changes as a result

*Agents of Chemical Weathering*

1. Water- water is the most important agent of chemical weathering. Water

weathers rock by dissolving them. Over time, many rocks will dissolve in water.

2. Oxidation - can cause iron to rust. Iron, combines with oxygen in the presence
of water in a process called oxidation.

The product of oxidation is rust.

3. Carbonation - when carbon dioxide becomes dissolved in rain-
water, it forms a weak acid called carbonic acid (otherwise known as ACID
RAIN). Carbonic acid easily weathers marble and limestone. This is because
the mineral calcite which is found in marble and limestone, reacts
with the acid in the rain water.

III. Rates of Chemical Weathering

** The most important factors that determine the rate at which weathering
occurs are rock type and climate.**

1. Rock Type
A. Some kinds of rocks weather more rapidly than others. The minerals
that make up the rock determine how fast it weathers.

B. Rock made of minerals that do not dissolve easily in water weathers

slowly.

C. Rock made of minerals that dissolve easily in water weathers

faster.

2. Climate - refers to the average weather conditions in an area.

A. Both physical and chemical weathering occur faster in wet climates.

B. Chemical reactions occur faster at warmer temperatures.

 Erosion and Deposition

Erosion - the process by which weathered sediments are carried/transported.

1. An agent of erosion is a material or a force that moves sediments from one place
to another.

2. Agents of erosion include: wind, running water, glaciers, and waves.

**GRAVITY is the underlying force behind all erosion.**

Running water is the major agent of the erosion that has

shaped Earth's land surfaces.

Runoff - water that flows over the land and eventually makes its way back to the
ocean.

Because of gravity, runoff and the material it contains move downhill.

2. The amount of runoff in an area depends on five main factors.

1. amount of rain an area receives
2. vegetation – reduces runoff by absorbing water and holding soil in place
3. type of soil – some soils absorb more water than other
4. shape of the land – steep slope = greater runoff
5. paved areas – paved parking lots = increased runoff

Running Water Erosion

1. All runoff will eventually make its way to a tributary. A tributary is a stream
that flows into a larger stream.

2. When streams, rivers, creeks, etc. are high, the water flows faster,
which causes more erosion to take place.

3. Through erosion, a river creates valleys, waterfalls, flood plains, meanders,

and oxbow lakes.
 Deposition

Sediments are carried along in moving water and in wind. When the water
velocity or wind velocity slows down, the sediment drops or deposits; this
“dropped” sediment is known as deposition.

Deposition creates landforms such as deltas.