Types and methods of data transmission

Saturday, November 25, 2023 11:20 AM

i. Data packets

Data sent over long distances is usually broken up into data packets (sometimes called
datagrams). The packets of data are usually quite small, typically 64 KiB, which are much easier
to control than a long continuous stream of data. Splitting up data in this way means each packet
can be sent along a different route to its destination. The only obvious drawback of splitting data
into packets is the need to reassemble the data when it reaches its destination.

Packet structure

For each packet, the packet header consists of:

 the IP address of the sending device

 the IP address of the receiving device
 the sequence number of the packet (to ensure that all the packets can be reassembled into the
correct order once they reach the destination)
 packet size (to ensure the receiving station can check if all of the packets have arrived intact).

For each packet, the payload consists of the actual data being sent in the packet (this is usually
about 64 KiB).

For each packet, the packet trailer consists of:

 some way of identifying the end of the packet

 an error checking method; cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs) are used to check data packets:
○ this involves the sending computer adding up all the 1-bits in the payload and storing this
as a hex value in the trailer
○ once the packet arrives, the receiving computer recalculates the number of 1-bits in the
payload
○ the computer then checks this value against the one sent in the trailer
○ if the two values match, then no transmission errors have occurred; otherwise the packet
needs to be re-sent.

Packet switching

Packet switching is a method of data transmission in which a message is broken up into a

number of packets. Each packet can then be sent independently from start point to end point.
There will be several possible routes for the packets, between Computer A (sender) and
Computer B (receiver). At each stage in the transmission, there are nodes that contain a router.
Each router will determine which route the packet needs to take, in order to reach its
destination.

 Each packet will follow its own path (route)

 Routers will determine the route of each packet
 Routing selection depends on the number of packets waiting to be processed at each node
 The shortest possible path available is always selected
 Unfortunately, packets can reach the destination in a different order to that in which they were
sent.

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 For example, a photograph has been split up into five packets that have been sent in the
following order:

But they have arrived in a different order compared to the way they were sent, namely:

The benefits of packet switching are:

 there is no need to tie up a single communication line

 it is possible to overcome failed, busy or faulty lines by simply re-routing packets
 it is relatively easy to expand package usage
 a high data transmission rate is possible.

The drawbacks of packet switching include:

 packets can be lost and need to be re-sent

 the method is more prone to errors with real-time streaming
 there is a delay at the destination whilst the packets are being re-ordered.

It is possible for packets to get lost because they keep 'bouncing' around from router to router
and never actually reach their destination. Eventually the network would just grind to a halt as
the number of lost packets mount up, clogging the system.

To overcome this, a method called hopping is used. A hop number is added to the header of
each packet, and this number is reduced by 1 every time it leaves a router.
Each packet has a maximum hot number to start with. Once a hop number reaches 0, and the
packet hasn't reached its destination, then the packet is deleted when it reaches the next router.
The missing packets will then be flagged by the receiving computer and a request to re-send
these packets will be made.

ii. Data transmission

Data transmission can be either over a short distance (e.g computer to printer) or over long
distances (e.g one computer to another in a global network). Essentially, three factors need to
considered when transmitting data:

 the direction of data transmission (e.g can data transmit in one direction only, or in both
directions)
 the method of transmission (e.g how many bits can be sent at the same time)
 how will data be synchronised (how to make sure the received data is in the correct order)

Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex

Simplex data transmission

= when data can be in ONE DIRECTION ONLY from sender to receiver; e.g a computer to a
printer

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Half-duplex data transmission

= when data is sent in BOTH DIRECTIONS but NOT AT THE SAME TIME; data can be sent from A
to B and from B to A along the same line, but they can't both be done at the same time; e.g a
walkie-talkie

Full-duplex data transmission

= when data can be sent in BOTH DIRECTIONS AT THE SAME TIME; data can be sent from A to B
and B to A along the same line simultaneously; e.g a broadband internet connection

Serial and parallel data transmission

Serial data transmission occurs when data is sent ONE BIT AT A TIME over a SINGLE
WIRE/CHANNEL. Bits are sent one after the other as a single stream.

Serial data transmission works well over long distances. Because only one channel/wire is used,
data will arrive at its destination fully synchronised. However, the data is transmitted at a slower
rate than parallel data transmission. An example of this is when connecting a computer to a
printer via a USB connection.

Parallel data transmission occurs when SEVERAL BITS OF DATA (usually one byte) are sent down
SEVERAL CHANNELS/WIRES all at the same time. Each channel/wire transmits one bit.

Parallel data transmission works well over short distances. Over long distances (over 20 metres),
data can be skewed (data can arrive unsynchronised) and bits can arrive out of order. It is a
faster method of data transmission than serial data transmission. The internal circuits in a
computer use parallel data transmission.

Serial Parallel
Less risk of external interference than with Faster rate of data transmission than serial
parallel (due to fewer wires)
More reliable transmission over longer Works well over shorter distances
distances
Transmitted bits won't have the risk of being The bits can arrive out of synchronisation,
skewed since several channels/wires are used
Used if amount of data being sent is relatively Preferred method when speed is important
small
Used to send data over long distances If data is time-sensitive, parallel is the most
appropriate transmission method
Less expensive than parallel due to fewer Parallel ports require more hardware, making
hardware requirements them more expensive
Easier to program input/output operations

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iii. Universal serial bus (USB)

Universal serial bus (USB) is a form of serial data transmission. It allows both half-duplex and full-
duplex data transmission. It consists of a four-wired shielded cable, with two wires for power
(red n black) and two wires for data transmission (white and green). When a device is plugged
into a computer using one of the USB ports:

 the computer automatically detects that a device is present

 the device is automatically recognised, and the appropriate device driver software is loaded up
so that the computer and device can communicate effectively
 if a new device is detected, the computer will look for the device driver that matches the device;
if this is not available, the user is prompted to download the appropriate driver software

Its benefits:

 Devices plugged into the computer are automatically detected and device drivers are
automatically loaded up
 Connections can only fit one way preventing incorrect connections being made
 It has become an industry standard, which means considerable support is available
 Can support different data transmission rates (from 1.5 Mbps to 5 Gbps)
 No need for external power source since cable supplies +5V power
 USB protocol notifies the transmitter to re-transmit data if any errors are detected; this leads to
error-free data transmission
 It is relatively easy to add more USB ports if necessary, by using USB hubs
 USB is backward compatible (that is, older versions are still supported)

Its drawbacks:

 Standard USB only supports a maximum cable length of 5 m; beyond that, USB hubs are needed
to extend the cable length
 Even though USB is backward compatible, very early USB standards (V1) may not always be
supported by the latest computers
 Even the latest version 3 (V3) and version 4 (V4) USB-C systems have a data transfer rate which is
slow compared to, for example, Ethernet connections (Note: USB V2 has a maximum data
transfer rate of 480 Mbps.)

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