Computer Notes

COMPUTER APPLICATION
NOTES
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS
Chapter outline
1.1 Introduction.
1.2 Parts of a computer.
1.3 Classification of computers.
1.4 Development of computers.
1.5 Areas where computers are used.
1. 6 The computer laboratory. 1.7 Practical hands on skills.
1.1
Introduction
In the past, people have used slow and unreliable methods to generate, send,
receive and store information. However, today millions of people are using devices
called computers to produce, share and store information. Before embarking on
taking Computer Studies as a course, it will be necessary to ask the question: What
is a computer?
Definition of a computer
A computer is an electronic device that accepts user input also referred to as
data and transforms it under the influence of sets of special instructions called
programs to produce the desired output referred to as information.
Data can be defined as raw facts that do not have much meaning to the user and
may include: numbers, letters and symbols. Information is the processed data that
is meaningful to the user. The computer is said to be electronic because it utilizes
small electrical signals to process information.
Before 20th century, most information processing was done manually or by use of
simple machines. Today, millions of people are using computers
In offices and at home to produce and store useful information about all Aspects of
business, scientific research, government activities and Personal details. Together
with other telecommunication facilities, computers have also become the fastest
1
VOEA CYBER AND COMPUTER SERVICES- 07467076/0751488366
and most reliable means of communication. The integration of computers and,
telecommunication facilities for the purpose of communication is what is referred
to as information and communication technology (lCT).Computers come in
different sizes and designs but the most common is a computer referred to as a
personal computer (PC). Personal computers are mostly used in offices, schools,
business premises and at home.
1.2
Parts of a computer
A computer is made up of a collection of different components
that are interconnected together in order to function as a single
entity. A computer is basically made up of a system unit and
other devices convicted to the system unit called peripheral
devices. Examples of peripheral devices include; the monitor,
the keyboard and the mouse.
The system unit

This is the part that houses the brain of the computer called the central processing
unit (CPU). The system unit also houses other devices called drives. Drives are
used to store, record and read data.
Figure 1.2 shows a tower style system unit.
Peripheral devices
Peripheral devices are connected to the system unit using special cables called data
interface cables that carry data and information to and from the devices. The
cables are attached to the system unit using connectors called ports. .
Peripheral. Devices may be arranged as shown in Figure 1.1 with the monitor
resting on top of the system unit. Sometimes, the system unit may be made to stand
alone (tower style) as the one in Figure 1.2.
2
The keyboard
It is the most common device that enables the user to enter data and instructions in
the computer by pressing its keys.
The mouse
It is a device that enables the user to issue instructions to the computer
By controlling a special mouse pointer displayed on the screen.
The monitor
The computer monitor or simply the screen is a television like device used for
displaying output. It is called a monitor because it enables the user to monitor or
see what is going on in the computer.
1.3
Classification of computers
Computers can be categorised according to:
1. Physical size and processing power.
2. Purpose.
3. Functionality.
Classification according to physical size and processing power
Computers can be classified into four main groups namely supercomputers,
mainframe computers, minicomputers and microcomputers.
Supercomputers
They are the fastest, largest, most expensive and powerful computers available.
They are able to perform many complex calculations in a fraction of a second.
Because of their extreme weight, a supercomputer is kept in a special room. Due to
their huge processing power supercomputers generate a lot of heat. Special cooling
systems are therefore required. Sometimes the whole CPU is immersed in an
aquarium like tank containing liquid fluorocarbon to provide
cooling.
Supercomputers are mainly used for scientific research, which requires enormous
calculations. Applications that justify use of supercomputers include aerodynamic
design and simulation, petroleum research, defense and weapon analysis among
others. Supercomputers are mainly found in developed countries such as in USA
where they are used for advanced
3
Scientific research such as nuclear physics. Figure 1.3 shows an example of
supercomputer.
Mainframe computers
They are less powerful and less expensive than the supercomputers. While
supercomputers may be described as giant computers, the mainframes are said to
be big in size. They are used for processing data and performing complex
mathematical calculations. They have a large storage capacity and can support a
variety of peripherals.
Mainframe computers handle all kinds of problems whether scientific or

commercial. They are mostly found in government agencies, big organizations and
companies such as banks, hospitals, airports etc. which Have large information
processing needs. Figure 1.4 shows a picture of a mainframe computer.
Minicomputers
A minicomputer resembles the mainframe but is slightly smaller. Thus it is referred
to as a small-scale mainframe computer. Although it supports fewer peripheral
devices and is not as powerful and fast as the mainframe computer, it was
developed as a cheaper alternative to the mainframes for smaller organizations.
They are used mainly in scientific laboratories, research institutions, engineering
plants and places where processing automation is required. They are well adapted
for functions such as accounting, word processing, database management and
specific industry applications. Figure 1.5 shows a picture of a
minicomputer.
Microcomputer
A microcomputer is the smallest, cheapest and relatively least powerful type of
computer. It is called a microcomputer because; its CPU is called a
microprocessor, which is very small compared to that of a mini, mainframe or
supercomputers. Microcomputers are also called personal computers (PC) because
they are designed to be used by one person at a time.
4
Microcomputers are commonly used in training and learning institutions, small
business enterprises, and communication centers among others. Today, the power
of microcomputers has grown tremendously closing the gap that formerly existed
and reserved for the minicomputers and the mainframes.
Technological advancement has seen the development of smaller and smaller
microcomputers. The following are the various types of microcomputers in
operation today arranged in descending order according to size.
1. The desktop computer
-Not portable. It is designed to be placed on Top of an office desk.
2. The laptop computer
-Portable like a briefcase. It is designed to be used by placing it on the lap hence its
name.
3. The palmtop e.g. personal digital assistant (PDA)
- Small enough to fit in the pocket and can he held in the palm when being used.
Classification according to purpose

Computers can be classified according to the tasks they perform either as general
or special purpose computers.
General-purpose computers
General-purpose computers have been designed to be able to perform a variety of
tasks when loaded with appropriate programs. They are the most common types of
computers in use today. Their flexibility enables them to be applied in a wide range
of applications like document processing, performing calculations, accounting,
data and information management among others.
Special purpose computers

Special purpose computers are designed to serve a specific purpose or to
accomplish one particular task. Such computers can perform no other task except
the one they were meant to do. This means that the set of instructions, which drive
a special purpose computer, are limited in number at the time of manufacture.
Examples of such computers include, robots used in a manufacturing industry
production line, mobile phones for communication only and electronic calculators
that carry out calculations only.
5
Since special purpose computers are dedicated to a single task, they can perform
the task quickly and very efficiently.
Classification according to functionality

Computers can be classified according to the type of data they can process. Data
can either be in discrete or continuous form. Discrete data which is also called
digital data is one that can be represented as distinct values that do not have any
transitional stages over time e.g. either 1 or O. Continuous data which is also called
analog data can be represented as progressively changing values overtime.
Computers can be classified as digital, analog or hybrid.
Digital computers
Digital computers process digital data only. Any data to be manipulated by a
digital computer must first be converted to digital form. Most home appliances
today are also digital in nature. For example to increase the volume of a digital
television you simply press a button and it changes from 1 to 2, 3 If the same
television is analog, it would have a knob
that you can continuously turn round or slide in a slot to increase or decrease the
volume.
Analog computers
This refers to computers that process data that is analog in nature. Analog
computers solve problems by measuring the amount of change that occurs in
quantities like speed, temperature and pressure. An analog machine is usually a
special purpose device that is dedicated to a single task. Analog computers are
used in manufacturing process control like monitoring and regulating furnace,
temperatures, and pressures. They are also used in other applications like in
weather stations to record and process physical quantities e.g. wind, cloud
speed, temperature etc.
Hybrid computers
Hybrid computers are designed to process both analog and digital data.
1.4 Development of computers
Before 1900, most data processing was done manually using simple tools like
stones and sticks to count and keep records. Around 2000 years ago, Asian
merchants came up with a special calculating tool called abacus that could be used
to calculate large figures. Abacii, are still in use even today. An abacus is made up
of a rectangular frame and a crossbar at the middle. It is fitted with wires or strings
running across from the frame to the crossbar as shown in Figure 1.8.
6
, 1+5=6
Each bead has a value of 5
Crossbar
Each bead has a value of 1 4+5=90+0=0
3+5=8
Fig. 1.8: Representing numbers using an abacus
8 How to represent a number using an abacus

Each bead in the lower row represents unitary values while the upper ones
represent fives. To represent a number, the bead is moved to the crossbar. Those
beads away from the crossbar represent zeros. The abacus in Figure 1.8 represents
the number 6 908 (six thousand nine hundred and eight).
The first machine after the abacus that is usually regarded as the forerunner of
modem computers was developed by an English mathematician called Charles
Babbage and was named the analytical engine. After the death of Babbage in 1871
there was little improvement on his work until the 1930s. The first computer-like
machine Mark 1 was designed by Professor Howard Aken of Horrard University in
1939. Mark 1 became operational in 1943. It weighed 5 tons and was 16 m long.
Since then, rapid advancements in computing have been realized and can be
categorised into five generations.
First generation computers (1940s to 1958)

These computers were very large in physical size and used thousands of
electronic gadgets called vacuum tubes or thermionic valves. These types of
computers consumed a lot of power hence they constantly broke down due to the
excessive heat generated. Examples of such computers are the electronic numeric
integrator and calculator (ENIAC) and the electronic discrete variable automatic
computer (ED VA C).
Second generation computers (1958 -1964)

Computers in this generation operated using tiny, solid-state electronic devices
called transistors that were much smaller than the vacuum tubes. These computers
produced less heat, were much faster, smaller in size and more reliable than those
made with vacuum tubes. Examples of second-generation computers include IBM
1401 and 7070, UNIVAC 1107, ATLAS LEO Mark III and Honeywell 200.
7
Third generation computers (1964 -1970)
The third generation computers used electronic devices called integrated circuits
(ICs) instead of transistors. An integrated circuit consists of thousands of small
transistor circuits etched on a semiconductor called a silicon chip. The use of
integrated circuit improved the processing speed and storage capacity of
computers. Examples of third generation computers included smaller and less
expensive minicomputers such as IBM 360 and ILL 19000 series.
Fourth generation computers (1970 to present)

51 From 1970, further technological improvement was done on the silicon chip
design by compressing
more tiny circuits and transistors into even smaller space. This design produced
what is called large scale integrated (LS1) and very large scale integrated (VLS1)
circuits which were used in the innovation and technological development of the
brain of the computer called the microprocessor. A microprocessor is a complete
central processing unit (Processor) used in microcomputers. The result was
development of very small computers with very high processing speed. The first
microcomputer was called Apple 11 Other fourth generation computers included
IBM 370 and 4300, Honeywell DPS-88 and Burroughs 7700.
Fifth generation computers

In this generation falls today's computers that have very high processing power and
speeds than their
predecessors, and whose size is increasingly becoming smaller. These computers

have special instruction sets that allow them to support complex programs that
mimic human intelligence often referred to as artificial intelligence.
A lot of research is being done to try and come up with a machine that can work
without human intervention. One of the most successful developments in this field
is the advent of computers that can help managers to make decisions and those that
can offer critical expert services to users instead of relying on human professionals.
Areas where computers are used

Computers have many advantages over other types of office and business
equipments that are used for data processing functions. Three of the advantages
are:
1. Computers process data faster. The processing speed of a computer measured
against other devices like typewriters and calculators is far much higher.
2. Computers are more accurate. As long as the correct instructions and data are
entered, computers W produce more accurate results. They have the ability to
handle numbers up to many decimal places without rounding off.
8
3. Computers are more efficient. A computer utilizes minimum resources, to
process data as compared to
human beings or other machines. For example computers require less effort to
process repetitive tasks. In our day to day activities, we use computers in almost
every aspect of our lives. The following are some of the areas where computers are
used.
Supermarkets
Most retail stores use computers to help in the management of daily activities like
stock control. The stock control system keeps account of what is in store, what is to
be sold and what is out of stock. The management is automatically alerted when a
particular item or items are running out of stock and need reordering.
Offices
Computers have increased efficiency in offices by reducing the time and effort
needed to access and receive information. Most modern office functions have been
automated for faster message distribution and document processing.
Banks
Special cash dispensing machines called automated teller machines (ATM s) have
enabled automation of cash deposit and withdrawal services. Efficiency has also
been increased due to better record keeping and document processing brought
about by computers.
Industries
Computers are being used to monitor and control. Industrial processes. The
computer age has seen the wide use of remote controlled devices called robots. A
robot is machine that works like a human being but performs tasks that are too
unpleasant, dangerous, or complex and tedious to assign to human beings.
Hospitals
Computers are used to keep patients records in order to provide easy access to a
patient s treatment and diagnosis history. Computerized medical devices are now
being used to get a cross sectional view of the
Patient s body that enables physicians to get proper. Diagnosis of the affected part
of the body with high levels of accuracy. Computers also control life support
machines in intensive care units (lCU).
Transport
Computers are used to monitor vehicle traffic in a busy town, aircraft navigation
and to make reservations.
Communication
9
Integration of computers and telecommunication facilities has made message
transmission and reception to be very fast and efficient. Because of the speed with
which information can be transmitted around in the world using computers the
world is said to have become a global village.
Law enforcement agencies
Information held in computers such as fingerprints, photographs and other
identification details
helps law enforcers to carry out criminal investigations speedily.
Education
Computers are widely used in the teaching and learning process. Learning and
teaching using computers is referred to as computer-aided learning (CAL) and
computer aided teaching (CAT). For example experiments in subjects like
Chemistry or Physics may be demonstrated using a special computer programs that
can depict them on the screen through a process called simulation.
Domestic and entertainment

Computers can be used at home for recreational activities such as watching
movies, playing music and computer games. They can also be used in storing
personal information, calculating, keeping home budgets and for research in
various fields.
Library services
In a computerized library, a computer enables library personnel to easily access
and keep updated records of books and other library materials. Library users can
also use computers to search for titles instead of using the manual card catalogue.
1.6 The computer laboratory

A computer laboratory is a room that has been specially prepared to facilitate
installation of computers and to provide a safe conducive environment for teaching
and learning of computer studies. The following factors must be considered when
preparing a computer laboratory.
1. Security of computers, programs and other resources.
2. Reliability of the source of power.
3. The number of computers to be installed and the available floor space.
4. The maximum number of users that the laboratory can accommodate.
Safety precautions and practices in the computer

Laboratory
After the establishment of the computer laboratory, a number of safety precautions,
rules and practices need to be observed in order to avoid' accidental injury to the
10
users, damage of computers or lack of a conducive environment for teaching and
learning. The safety precautions and practices include:
Behavior in the computer laboratory
The following rules must be followed in and around a computer laboratory.
1. Avoid smoking or exposing computers to dust. This is because smoke and dust
contain small abrasive particles that can damage computer components and cause
wearing of moving parts.
2. Avoid carrying food and beverages to the computer room. Food may fall into the
moving parts of the computer and damage them. Liquids may spill into computer
parts causing rusting or electrical defaults.
3. Avoid unnecessary movements because you may accidentally knock down
peripheral devices.
4. At all times follow the correct procedure for starting and shutting down the
computer to avoid loss of data and damage to computer Programs.
5. Do not open up the metallic covers of computers or peripheral devices without
permission and particularly when the computers power is still on.
Protection against fire

A computer room should have gaseous fire extinguishers like those filled with
carbon dioxide. Water based or powder extinguishers should be avoided because
they can cause damage to computer components.
Cables insulation
All power cables in the computer room must be properly insulated and laid away
from busy pathways in the room. Lay them preferably along the wall in trunks.
This avoids the danger of exposing the user to electric shock and power
interruptions caused by stumbling on cables.
Stable power supply

Computers are delicate devices that require a stable source of power. Power from
mains supply is not always stable and may sometimes experience power surges or
under voltage sometimes referred to as brownout. To protect the computer from
being damaged due to power instabilities, avoid connecting it directly to the mains
supply. Instead, connect it to a special device called un-interruptible power supply
(UPS) then connect the UPS to the mains as shown below
The UPS charges when mains power is on and has power surge and. brownout
protection capabilities. When the mains
power goes off, it gives some sound alert
(usually a beeping sound) to alert the user.
11
The UPS performs two main functions namely:
1. It regulates power from an unstable power source to the required Clean stable
voltage by eliminating surges and brownouts.
2. It temporarily provides power to the computer in case of a sudden power failure
hence allowing the user to store his/her work and shut down the computer using
the correct procedure
To enable continuity of work even in the absence of mains power, organizations
that give critical services like banks, schools and hospitals usually install a standby
generator that automatically comes on in case of a power failure. Power from the
generator must pass through a UPS before being fed to the computer because it is
also not stable.
NB: Generally speaking, devices that provide alternative source of power are
usually referred to as power backups.
Burglar proofing
To deter unauthorized access to the computer room, it is important to implement
the following controls.
1. Fit strong metallic grills and locks on doors, windows and roof in Case the
roofing is weak.
2. Do not welcome strangers into the computer room.
3. Consider installing security alarms at strategic access points that would alert the
security
personnel in case of a break in.
Ventilation
There must be good air circulation in the computer room to avoid suffocation and
overheating. Remember that both computers and human beings emit heat energy
into the environment. Proper ventilation enables the computer to cool and hence,
avoids damage to electronic parts that can be caused By overheating. Proper
ventilation can be ensured by:
1. Ensuring that the room has enough ventilation points like windows.
2. Installing an air-conditioning system.
3. Avoiding overcrowding of either machines or people in the room.
Dust and dump control

a computer laboratory should be located away from excessive dust. The room
should also be fitted with special curtains that would reduce entry of dust particles.
Computers must remain covered using dust covers when not in use.
Humidity should be at an optimum of 50%. Humidity lower than this allows static
electricity to build up and causes damage to sensitive electronic components. also
12
high humidity of over 70% cause rusting of the metallic parts of the computer
system. To prevent both high and low humidity place humidifiers in the room
Lighting
a well lit computer room prevents eyestrain that eventually leads to headaches,
stress and fatigue. It is important to adjust the brightness of the computer monitor
until the eyes feel comfortable before using a computer to avoid damaging your
eyes:
fit radiation filter screens. Which are specially tinted to reduce the light that
reaches the eye. Avoid using a flickering monitor because this can cause extreme
eyestrain that can damage eyesight.
Standard furniture
The table on which a computer is placed must be strong and wide enough to bear
the weight and accommodate all the peripheral devices. The chair for the user must
be comfortable, and have a straight backrest for one to sit upright as illustrated
below to avoid muscle pains and backaches caused by poor posture. The seat must
be high enough relative to the table for comfortable use of the hands on the
keyboard and the eyes must be the same level as the top of the screen when the
user is seated
Practical hands on skills

Starting-up (Booting) a computer
1. make sure that all the components are properly
connected. The computer must be connected to an
active power source.
2. Switch on the monitor first,
3. Switch on the system unit
When the power is on, the computer automatically goes through a process of self-
test and preparation
for use. This process is called booting. There are two types of booting namely:
* cold booting
* warm booting.
Cold booting
This happens when the computer, originally off, is switched on by pressing the
power button of the system unit.
The computer starts by checking all its components to determine whether they are
functioning correctly and whether they are available for use. This process is called
the power-on-self-test (POST). During this process, the monitor will display
information showing the status of each device being tested. In case one of the
13
devices is faulty or missing, this process will halt and a message alerting the user is
displayed on the screen. The special program that directs the POST process is
called the basic input output system (BIOS).
When the POST process is over, the computer displays a prompt message
requesting one to start using it.
Some computers have programs that require a person to identify them selves by
providing a user name and a password (a secret word given to the user) before it
can allow one to use them. The process of providing such information is called
logging on and it is a security measure meant to deter unauthorized users from
using the computer.
Warm booting (restarting)

This happens when the computer, originally on, is forced to restart by pressing the
restart button on the system unit or by pressing a combination of keys on the
keyboard. It is also possible to warm boot a computer by using the restart
command found in a special program called an operating system.
Shutting down a computer

It is important that the user follows the correct procedure of shutting down the
computer at all times. If the procedure is not followed then loss of data, damage of
programs and computer components may occur.
Procedure for shutting down a computer

1. Ensure that all the work has been properly stored. This process is called
saving.
2. Close all programs that may be currently running.
3. If your computer is running on Microsoft Windows 98 or later versions then:
(a) Click the start button on the screen.
(b) Select the shut down command from the menu list.
(c) In the computer prompt that appears, select shut down then press the enter key
on the keyboard. (d) After a few seconds the message IT IS NOW SAVE TO
TURN OFF THE COMPUTER appears on the screen. Switch of the system unit
then the monitor.
NB: Some system units switch themselves off automatically when you do steps 3
(a), (b) and (c) above.
Keyboard layout
The keys on the keyboard can be categorized into five groups as shown in Figure
1.11.
14
Alphanumeric keys
Keys are labeled with alphabetic letters A-Z, numbers arranged in a line 1,2,
……..0 respectively and symbols like:?,], % etc. This group also includes the
following keys: cap lock, enter tab. space bar and backspace.
Caps lock key: Pressing this key let's the user type in upper case-letters,(capitals)
To switch back to lower case letters simply press the same key again.
Enter key (return key): Pressing this key forces the text cursor to move to the
beginning of the next line. A cursor is a blinking underscore (-) or a vertical beam
(I) that shows where, the next character to be typed will appear. The enter key is
also used to instruct .the computer to execute a command that has been selected on
the screen.
Tab key: This key is used to move the text cursor at set intervals on the same line
e.g. 10 mm, 20 mm etc.
The space bar: This bar creates a space between words during typing.
The backspace key: This key deletes characters from right to left on the same line.
Function keys
Function keys are usually located along the top of the keyboard. They are labeled
FI, F2 up to FI2. They are used for tasks that occur frequently in various programs.
For example pressing FI key in J most programs starts the HELP MENU.
Cursor movement and editing keys

Cursor movement keys are used to move the cursor on the screen. These keys are:
Arrow keys: Pressing the right or left arrow key moves the cursor one character to
right or left respectively. Pressing the upward or downward arrow key moves the
text cursor one line up or down respectively.
Page up and page down keys: Pressing page up key moves the cursor up one page
in case the document has many pages. Pressing page down key moves the cursor
down one page in case the document has many pages.
Home and end keys: Pressing home key moves the cursor to the beginning of the
current line. Pressing end key moves the cursor to the end of the current line.
Editing keys are used to delete or insert characters in a document. These are:
Insert key: This key helps the user to insert or replace a character at the cursor
position.
Delete (Del) key: This key deletes characters at the cursor position from left to
right.
15
Special PC operation keys.
These keys are rarely used singly but in combination with other keys to give
special instructions to the computer. They include SHIFT, CTRL, ALT and ESC
keys.
Numeric keypad keys
The numeric keypad consists of a set of numbers 0 to 9 and the arithmetic signs
like + (addition), (minus), * (multiplication) and / (division). They are located on
the right hand side of the keyboard. The keypad is meant to help the user to rapidly
enter numeric data. The numbers on the numeric keypad can only be used when
the, situated on the numeric keypad, is turned on.
Otherwise, they can be used as cursor movement and editing keys when num lock
key is turned off. It is important to note that not all keyboards have the numeric
keypad. For example portable
computers may lack a separate numeric keypad due to size limitations.
Practical keyboard skills

TYPING RULES:
1. Sit upright with both feet firmly on the ground maintaining an alert Posture.
2. Place the material to be typed on your left in a position you can read Without
strain.
3. Rest both hands on the keyboard with fingers resting on the home keys. These
are keys on which fingers rest during typing in readiness to press other keys. The
home keys for the left hand starting with the small finger are A, S, D, F with the
thumb on spacebar while those
Of the right hand are the apostrophe (') semicolon (;), L, K with the thumb on the
spacebar.
4. Start typing the text slowly at first, making sure you are using all the Ten fingers
and that you press the key nearest to the home keys with the closest finger, e.g. to
press Q, use the small finger on the left hand while to press J, use the index finger
on the right hand.
Mouse skills
Mice (the plural of mouse) comes in various shapes, colors and designs. Today one
can even get a mouse that uses wireless technology that is, it does not have a
connection cable. Most mice have two buttons but some may have three. Figure
1.12 is an illustration of a mouse.
Using the mouse

16
When the mouse is made to slide on a flat surface, it controls a pointer on the
screen, which is called a mouse pointer or a cursor. To make a selection, the
pointer must be on the item that is to be selected. After selecting, the user can
manipulate the item by pressing a mouse button
USING THE MOUSE:

1. Place the mouse on a flat smooth surface.
2. Gently hold the mouse with your right hand, using the thumb and the two right-
most fingers.
3. The index finger should rest on the left button while the middle finger rests on
the right button.
NB: For left handed people, it is possible to change the mouse settings in order to
comfortably hold it using the left hand.
Terminologies associated with the use of a mouse

Clicking: This means pressing and releasing the left mouse button once. A click
often selects an object.
Double clicking: This means pressing the left button twice in quick succession.
Double clicking usually opens a file or starts a program
Right clicking: Pressing the right hand side mouse button once displays a list of
commands from which the user can make a selection. This list of commands is
called a shortcut menu or context sensitive menu. It is called a context sensitive
menu because the commands on it apply to the right clicked item.
Drag and drop: This is whereby the user drags an item from one location on the
screen to another. The procedure to accomplish this operation is as follows:
1. Point to the item you want to drag.

2. Press the left hand side mouse button and hold it down
3. Slide the mouse until the pointer reaches the desired position on the screen.
4. Finally release the mouse button and the item will be dropped in the new
location.
17
COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Chapter outline
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Input devices
2.3 The central processing unit (CPU)
2.4 Output devices
2.5 Secondary (auxiliary) storage devices and media 2.6 Power and
interface cables
2.7 Basic computer setup and cabling
2.8 Computer software
2.9 Criteria for selecting a computer system
Introduction
In the previous chapter, you were introduced to some of the parts or devices that
make up a computer. However, a computer system requires more than just a
collection of devices. The term system can be defined as a collection of
independent entities that collectively work together to achieve a desired goal.
The systems approach to computing was borrowed from the social scientists who
believe that all things can be viewed as being made up of small independent
components(subsystems) that come together to form a bigger more complex
system. For example, a school can be seen as a system with the students, teachers,
accounts department and the administration as subsystems. The school system
itself is a subsystem of the ministry of education! Therefore, the term computer
system refers to a collection of entities that work together to process and manage
information using computers. It is important to note that, systems exist whether
computerized or manual. However, the computer is replacing many manual
processes hence the need to study the idea of a computer system. For example, a
document processing system in the secretary s office can be made more efficient
by computerizing it.
A computer system consists of three main components namely the hardware, the
software and the computer user (liveware). All the physical components both
mechanical and electronic that make up a computer system such as the monitor, the
system unit, keyboard and mouse etc. are called hardware. Software is a set of
computer programs that guides the computer in each and every activity that
happens inside the computer during data processing operations. Human beings by
themselves have the ability though limited, to process data and manage
information. Computers have been designed to help human beings to enhance the
efficiency of processing and managing information. It is the human being who
issues commands to a computer depending on his or her needs.
18
The hardware elements of a computer are generally grouped into
four major categories namely input devices, central processing
unit, output devices and storage devices.
Input devices
'Data may be entered into a computer using keying devices such as the keyboard, or
using pointing devices such the mouse, or by devices that automatically capture
data from the source referred to as data capture devices e.g. scanners and digital
cameras, or by voice recognition devices such as microphones. The main purpose
of input devices is to convert the human readable data into electronic or machine
readable form.
Input devices can be classified according to how they are used to enter data. This
includes:
1. Keying devices such as the keyboard, keypad etc.
2. Pointing devices such as mouse, trackball etc.
3. Scanning and other data capture devices.
4. Speech recognition or voice input devices.
5. Touch screen, digitizer and digital cameras.
Keying devices
Keyboard and keypad

These are the most common input devices. These devices enter data into a
computer by typing. Apart from a few differences, a computer keyboard is similar
to the typewriter keyboard. A keypad is a miniature (tiny) keyboard which is
mostly used on small portable computers, calculators palm notes, mobile phones
etc.
Pointing devices
These are the input devices that enter data or instructions by controlling a pointer
on the screen. Apart from the mouse, the other pointing devices include the
trackball, joystick and light pen.
Trackball
A trackball works just like the mouse but instead of moving it on a flat surface, a
ball fixed on its top is rolled using the index finger. As the ball rotates, it moves a
pointer on the screen; one can then click its button to execute the selected
command. Figure 2.1 shows a drawing of a trackball. The advantage of a trackball
over the mouse is that it neither requires an extra space nor a flat surface for
movement. Today some computers are coming with a track ball on top of a
keyboard and a mouse.
19
Joystick
A joystick is an input device that looks like a car
gear lever which can be moved sideways, upwards or downwards to control the
position of the cursor. Just like the mouse, it has a button which is used for
selecting an item. It is commonly used in playing video games.
Light pen
A light pen is a hand held pen-like device that has a light sensitive point. A light
pen can make selections, place images, draw and indicate dimensions by simply
touching the screen. A light pen does not emit light 'but instead, it reacts to the
light emitted by the display using a photosensitive. detector at its base.
Scanning devices
These are devices that enter (capture) data into the computer directly. Scanners can
be classified according to the technology they use to capture data. These are
optical scanners and magnetic ink scanners.
Optical scanners
These types of scanners capture data using light. A special type of concentrated
beam of light is passed over the object, image or text which needs to be entered
into the computer. The scanner converts the data into digital form and then passes
it to the computer for processing. There are three types of optical scanners:
Optical mark recognition (OMR)

These types of scanners detect marks made on a piece of paper using a soft pen or
pencil. The reader scans the marks with a special type of light called infrared light.
Where there are no marks, a strong light is reflected than where one exists. These
types of scanners are used in marking multiple choice questions, questionnaires,
selecting numbers in lottery tickets etc.
Optical bar recognition (OBR)

Bar codes are lines of different thickness that hold item information such as,
country of manufacture, name of the manufacturer, and item code. The type of
scanner used to read these bars is called a wand or a laser scanner. The
interpretation is based on the width of the bars rather than their location. Figure 2.3
shows bar codes.
Optical character recognition (OCR) / image scanners

This is the most sophisticated type of scanner that operates like the human eye. It
not only scans characters but also can scan real objects, pictures and drawings.
20
The most common type of this scanner is the flatbed
scanner, Using this scanner, one can scan text, a real
object or a picture by placing it on a glass plate exactly
the way photocopy machine works. The text or a picture
scanned is displayed on the screen or saved so that one can edit or print it.
Magnetic scanners
These types of scanners capture data by using magnetic technology. The data being
read can either be in form of special magnetic characters or a continuous magnetic
strip. The following are some of the common examples of magnetic scanners.
Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR)

MICR was developed to help banks process cheques. MICR allows special devices
to read magnetic characters written in a special format. An example of MICR
device is a cheque reader that reads the cheque number, and sends the details to the
computer to be used in updating the customer s account.
Magnetic stripe recognition

A magnetic stripe is a thin magnetic tape, often found at the back of a
plastic card e.g. an automated teller machine card (ATM) and a credit card. An
ATM card is used to get banking services without necessarily going to the counter,
while a credit card allows the holder to get services in any centre where the card is
acceptable. The amount spent is deducted from the holder's bank account.
Speech recognition or voice input

Voice recognition is a type of input method where a microphone is used to enter
data in form of spoken words into the computer. This method is mostly suitable for
the handicapped especially those with impaired hands. Although this is a fast and
easier method, it has some disadvantages.
It is complex to develop and it does not take care of speech related problem'
such as accents, inflections and tone. This implies that the device must learn the
unique speech of an individual.
Touch screen, digitisers and digital cameras
Touch Screen
Touch screen input method utilises the technology of a touch sensitive screen.
When the user touches the screen, the computer detects the position of the finger
and responds accordingly. Touch screens are mostly used in public places like in
banking halls, hotels, in airports (to provide guidance information) etc.
Digitisers
21
A digitiser or a graphic tablet is almost similar to a light pen but instead it has a
graphic tablet on which the user writes on using a device similar to a pen, called a
stylus. (Figure 2.6). As the stylus moves on the tablet, it s drawing is directly
reflected on the screen. Digitisers are mostly used for architectural and engineering
designs.
Digital cameras
A digital camera stores its images in digital form.
These images can then be streamed (entered) directly into
a computer for editing or printing by connecting the camera to a computer using a
special cable. As with the ordinary camera, there are two types of digitals cameras:
One that can takes still images i.e. photographs and another that takes motion
pictures (video).
The central processing unit (CPU)

The central processing unit (CPU) also known as the Processor is the most
important component of the computer. It is actually regarded as the brain of the
computer. This is so because all data processing and control operations are
coordinated here. In microcomputers, the CPU is housed inside the system unit. It
is mounted on a circuit board known as, the motherboard or the system board. The
figure below shows the location where a processor called Cyrix is mounted on the
motherboard.
The CPU has three different functional units called arithmetic and logic unit,
control unit and the main memory.
Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)

The arithmetic and logic unit is a unit of central processing unit where all
arithmetic and logical operations are carried out. The basic arithmetic operations
includes; addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Logic operations are
based on the computer s capacity to compare two or more values. For example, it
may compare whether a piece of data is greater than or less than, equal to or not
equal to etc.
In order for the ALU to be able to process data, it has special temporary storage
locations called registers, which holds the data just before processing. It also holds
the results after processing.
22
Control unit
Control unit coordinates all processing activities in the CPU as well as input,
storage and output operations. It determines which operation or instruction is to be
executed next. To coordinate these activities, the control unit uses a system clock.
The system clock sends electric signals as its means of communication, just like
the way the traffic signals or a traffic officer does in a round about or junction to
direct motorists and other road users. The number of pulses per second determines
the speed of a microprocessor. The faster the clock pulses, the faster the CPU
hence the faster the computer can process data.
Main memory (primary storage or working storage)

Main memory also known as primary storage provides storage location for data
and instructions accessed by the control unit. Computer memory can be classified
into read only memory (ROM) and random access memory (RAM).
Read only memory (ROM)

Read only memory is used to store programmed instructions and data permanently
or semi permanently. Data and instructions stored in ROM are those required to
remain unchanged for long periods of time e.g. booting instructions, special
purpose computers and computerized fuel pumps instructions etc.
Depending on permanence of the instructions or data written on it, there are four
types of read only memory namely;
Mask read only memory: Once the content is written on it by the manufacturer, it
cannot be changed.
Programmable read only memory (PROM): This allows the user to alter it only
once after the content is written on it.
Erasable programmable read only memory (EPROM): This has a transparent
quartz window through which its contents, can be erased by exposing it to ultra
violet (UV) light, and then reprogrammed for another use.
Electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM): This type of
ROM can be erased and reprogrammed using electricity. An example of EEPROM
is the memory that stores the basic input/output system (BIOS).
Characteristics of read only memory (ROM) are;
1. One can only read its content but you cannot write on it unless it is
a special type of ROM.
2. It is non-volatile i.e. its content is not lost when the computer is switched off
23
3. Stores permanent or semi permanent instructions from the manufacturer called
firmware. It can store semi permanent instructions because some variations of
ROM chips can be programmed according to the user s specification.
Random access memory (RAM)

This is the most common type of main memory. It is called random access memory
(RAM) because; its content can be read directly regardless of the sequence in which
it was stored. As opposed to ROM, the content in RAM is held temporarily and its
content is lost once the computer is turned off Therefore, before switching off the
computer, it is important that one stores (saves) his/her work in a device that offers
relatively permanent storage facility.
Characteristics of random access memory (RAM) are:

1. Data can be read (retrieved) and written (stored) in it.
2. RAM is a temporary (volatile) storage because its content disappears when the
computer is switched off.
3. Its content is user defined i.e. the user dictates what is to be contained in the
RAM.
Types of RAM
There are two types of-RAM namely, static RAM (SRAM) and dynamic RAM
(DRAM). Static RAM is very fast compared to dynamic RAM and holds its content
as long as there is power. Dynamic RAM on the other hand can only hold its
content for a short while even when power is all. To maintain the content of
dynamic RAM, the memory chip is designed in a way that its content is refreshed
(automatically rewritten) severally per second. Static RAM is more expensive. It is
mostly used to make special types of memories.
Special purpose memories
Apart from ROM and RAM there are several types of special purpose memories
found insijkde the CPU or in the input and output devices. These memories are
vital because they increase the overall performance of data and instructions moving
in and out of the CPU. These memories include buffers, registers and cache
memory.
Buffers
This is a temporary holding place that may be part of the CPU or built in an input
or output device. Because the CPU is very fast compared to the input or output
devices, buffers provide temporary storage so that the CPU is set free to carry out
other activities instead of waiting for all data to be entered or information to be
output. For example since a printer cannot work at the speed of a CPU, the printer
buffers temporarily holds the output to be printed hence freeing the CPU to
perform other functions. Buffers can hold more than one piece of data at a time.
Registers
24
As opposed to buffers, registers hold one piece of data at a time and are inside the
CPU. Examples of registers are:
An accumulator: This temporarily holds the results of the last processing step of
the ALU.
Instruction register: This temporarily holds an instruction just before it is

interpreted into a form that CPU can understand it.
An address register: This temporarily holds next piece of data waiting to be
processed.
Storage register: This temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way to and
from the CPU and the main memory.
Cache Memory
Most modem processors incorporate small high-speed type of SRAM called cache
memory. The purpose of cache memory is to allow the processor to access data and
instructions even faster than it would have taken to fetch it from the relatively slow
DRAM.
Memory capacities
Memory and storage capacity is measured in special units called bytes. A byte is
equivalent to a single character. Characters can be a number from 0 to 9, letters A
to Z or a special symbo1. For example, a number like 2545 has four bytes while
the words, My Home has seven bytes since, and the space between them has 1 byte.
Memory quantities can be expressed in;
1. Kilobytes (kB): Approximately one thousand bytes.(1024)
2. Megabytes (MB): Approximately one million bytes.
3. Gigabytes (GB): Approximately one billion bytes.
4. Terabytes: Approximately one trillion bytes.
Overall functional organization of the CPU

The arithmetic and logic unit, the control unit and the main memory use electrical
pathways or links referred to as buses. There are three types of buses namely;
Control bus: This is the pathway for all timing and controlling functions sent by
the control unit to other parts of the system.
Address bus: This is the pathway used to locate the storage position in meqwmory
where the next instruction data to be processed is to be found.
Data bus: This is the pathway where the actual data transfer takes place.
Figure 2.8 is a summary of the overall organisation of the CPU and how it controls other
computer components.
Control
25
unit
Gives instructions
Instructions Instructions
to each
device after
interpreting
program
instructions
Arithmetic and
logic unit
Calculates and
compares
data
Results of Data to be
processing processed
Input Main
Output
data memory
data
I Input Stores data and Output
unit instructions to unit I
be processed
temporally.
Output to be Data to be
stored processed
Secondary storage
devices
Stores data and
instructions to
be processed
permanently.
Fig. 2.8 Functional organisation of the CPU
Types of processors and their clock speeds
Processors
In 1971, a company called Intel that specialises in manufacturing central
processing units managed to combine the arithmetic-logic unit and the control unit
on a single tiny processor called microprocessor and called it Intel 4004. This
microprocessor was used in electronic calculators. The first microprocessor to be
used on microcomputers was called Intel 8086 developed in 1974. Since then,
26
there has been a tremendous growth in microprocessor technology marked by great
increase in processing capability and speed.
Until 1989, Intel corporation enjoyed monopoly in the field of microprocessor
technology with her famous Intel processors. Since then other players joined in
and started manufacturing cheaper alternatives. These include: Advanced Micro
Devices (AMD), Cyrix and Motorola companies
Processor clock speed

The speed at which a processor executes instructions is determined by its clock
speed. System clock speed is measured in hertz’s. A hertz is a unit of frequency
which measures the number of cycles per second in a signal. Quantities of the
clock speed can be expressed in;
1. Kilohertz (kHz): Approximately one thousand hertz’s.
2. Megahertz (MHz): Approximately one million hertz’s.
3. Gigahertz (GHz): Approximately one billion hertz’s.
There has been a tremendous growth in the processing capability and clock speed
of microprocessors. From a speed lower than 4MHz, modem microcomputers can
run at speeds higher 2GHz. Table 2.1 shows a summary of how microprocessors
have evolved.
Processor Description Clock speed

Intel 8086 The two are almost identical and were used 4.7 MHz-I0
and 8088 with the first IBMPCs 8086 was an MHz
improvement of 8088.
Intel
Provided increased performance over 8086. 6 MHz-20
80286
This was the processor that opened up the PCs MHz
to many users.
80386SX Apart from Intel s 80286, AMD produced 33 MHz-40
and their versions with copied greatly the Intel s. MHz
These were the first entry in the processor
80368DX
market.
80486SX Provided over 100% better performance than 25 MHz-50
and 80386 and were the first upgradeable MHz
processors. AMD and Cyrix produced their
80486DX
version too.
Pentiums Since 1992, Intel decided to coin their fifth 60 MHz-
(586) and generation with the name Pentium instead of presently
above 80586. Pent is a Latin word that means five. Pentium IV
Intel chose the word in order to distinguish its with over 2.8
80586 and above processors from AMD and GHz
Cyrix versions i.e. 5x86 and AMDK5
respectively. Examples of Intel Pentium
27
processor are Pentium Pro, Pentium MMX,
Pentium II and currently Pentium IV at the
time of writing this book.
Output devices
Output devices are peripheral devices that a computer uses to give out information
produced after the processing operations. There are two types of output devices namely the
softcopy and the hardcopy output devices. Softcopy refers to the intangible output mainly
displayed on the screen or through other output devices such as speakers. A hardcopy is a
tangible output produced mostly on papers by devices such as printers.
Softcopy output devices.

Some of the softcopy output devices are;
Monitors
A monitor or a video display unit (VDU) is the most common output device. It displays
information on its screen thus helping the user to monitor operations carried out by the
computer.
For a long time, monitors have been designed using a long tube called the cathode ray tube
(CRT at emits light. The screen of a cathode ray tube is curved slightly outward forming a
convex shape. However, new flat displays have come which do not use CRT technology.
Flat display are more comfortable to use, portable and do not consume a lot of power
compared to CRT. Figure 2.9 shows a CRT monitor and flat panel display monitor.
The sharpness or clarity of an image on the screen depends on the type of monitor being
used. Monitors that display sharp clear images are said to have high resolution. The images
on the screen are formed by small dots called picture elements (pixels). The higher the
number of pixels per square centimeter the higher the resolution hence the clarity.
There are two types of monitors namely monochrome and colour monitors Monochrome
monitors display images and text in only one colour mostly black and white. Colour
monitors can display images and text in multiple colours. For a monitor to display
information it must be connected to a separate piece of circuit board, plugged into the
motherboard called the video card or graphics adapter. However, some motherboards have
onboard video capability therefore there is no need for a video card.
Examples of graphic adapters are:
28
Monochrome display adapter (MDA): This was the first video card that was used in early
computers. MDA displayed text only in one colour.
Hercules graphics card (HGC): One weakness of the original MDA display was that, it
could not support images of any kind. Hercule graphic card supports monochrome images
in addition to text.
Color graphics adapter (CGA): This can display text and images using up to 16 colours.
Enhanced graphics adapter (EGA): This is an improvement over colour graphic adapter
but also displayed text and images using 16 colours.
Video graphics array (VGA): This offers at most 256 colours.
Super video graphics array (SVGA): This is an enhancement of video graphic array
capabilities offering over 256 colours.
Small portable laptops, notebooks and even desktop PCs use flat-panel display. Common
types of this display are:
Liquid crystal display (LCD): Liquid crystal displays do not display by emitting light of
their own. Instead they have tiny liquid crystals that reflect light falling on them from the
environment. Liquid crystal displays are widely used in watches, calculators, cell phones
and digital cameras.
Electro luminescent (EL): These displays are an improvement on LCDs. Electro
luminescent emits light when electrically charged. This makes them clear, sharper and
easier to read.
Gas-plasma: These use a gas that emits light in the presence of electric current.
Thin film transistor (TFT): This is the latest technological advancement in displays. It
provides high quality output than all the others.
Sound output
Speakers are used to output sound from a computer. Sound may be in form of music,
warning, video, interactive communication with a computer etc.
Light-emitting diodes (LED)

These are light emitting components that display light when an electric current is passed
through them. A good example is the red or green light displayed by the system unit to
help the user know whether it is on or off. Mostly LEDs are used to give warnings the
same way a motorist would use signals to indicate when he/she is overtaking or taking a
turn.
LCD projectors project the output from the computer to a white board or wall.
Hardcopy output devices

The most common hard copy output devices are printers and plotters.
29
Printers
Printers produce a hard copy of information on papers. The quality of the hardcopy
depends the printer s printing mechanism. There are two types of printers namely impact
and non-impact printers.
Impact printers
The mechanism of impact printers is almost similar to that of an ordinary typewriter i.e.
they produce characters by using special light hammers with characters or pins held on the
printing head. To print, a paper is placed behind an ink ribbon. When the hammer strikes
on the head, character mark is stamped. These printers are noisy and are mostly used to
produce rough copies. The two widely used impact printers are dot matrix and daisy-wheel
printers.
Dot matrix printers produce a hardcopy by arranging patterns of dots on the paper using
pins held in the printing head. Figure 2.10 (a) shows an example of an impact printer.
Figure 2.10 (b) shows print characters formed by a dot matrix
printer.
a daisy-wheel printer has a wheel with petals on which characters are mounted. It is so
called because it resembles a daisy flower. When printing, the wheel rotates allowing the
petals to hit a ribbon with different
characters as they are received from the computer.
Non-impact printers
These printers do not use the striking mechanism to produce characters on a piece of paper.
They do not hammer the ribbon hence they are much quieter. The major non-impact
printers are inkjet, thermal transfer and laser printers.
Inkjet printers
Inkjet printers form characters by spraying ink from tiny nozzles through an electrical field
that arranges the charged ink particles into characters. Inkjets are cheap to buy but
expensive to run because of the high cost of ink cartridges. Figure 2.12 shows an inkjet
printer.
Thermal printers
Thermal printers use heat to transfer characters onto a piece of paper i.e. they bond
characters onto a piece of paper by using hot pins which presses
against a special ribbon. They are inexpensive alternative to inkjets.
30
Laser printers
Laser printers prints by passing a laser beam back and forth over a rotating drum. The laser
beam draws the image on the drum by static electricity. An example of a laser printer is
shown in Figure 2.13. The charged areas pick up the ink toner from a cartridge, and press it
onto the paper. Although these printers are more expensive to buy, they are faster, and
cheaper to run than the inkjets.
Plotters
A as shown in Figure 2.14, a plotter resembles a printer but specialises in producing big
charts such as maps, pictures and drawings. They are mostly used for printing
geographical, architectural and engineering drawings e.g. maps, advertisement posters to
be placed on billboards, machine parts etc.
31
2.5. Secondary (auxiliary) storage devices and media
There is need to have an alternative long-term storage location for data and information
other than the main memory. These alternative storage devices that are not part of the main
memory are called secondary or auxiliary storage devices. These devices are not directly
accessible by the cpu. Secondary storage devices that are not housed inside the system unit
and hence can be carried around to be used with another computer are called removable
storage devices and media. In order to read or store data from a storage media, a device
called a drive is required.
Secondary storage devices can be classified according to the technology used to record
data. The technology could be magnetic or optical. The data and instructions held in these
devices must first be moved into RAM before processing.
Removable storage devices
Magnetic tapes
A magnetic tape is a ribbon of Mylar (plastic-like) material coated with a thin layer of iron
oxide. The tape resembles the music cassette used in home tape recorders.
In order to read/write data records on the tape, the tape must be inserted in a tape drive that
rotates the tape allowing a read/write head to perform
5.1. the operation. Most computers today don t has tape drives because of the advent of
better storage devices. Examples of magnetic tapes include: reel to reel tapes, cassette tapes
and cartridge tapes.
Disadvantages of using magnetic tapes

1. Magnetic tapes are slow because of the linear storage of data records on the tape. This
means that you have to access the proceeding records before you get the required.
2. There is a space between successive data records called inter-record gap (IRG), which
results in wastage of storage space.
Magnetic disks
They have a magnetic disk platter that stores data. Examples of magnetic disks are floppy
disks (diskettes), zip disks and jaz disk.
Floppy disks "

A floppy disk or simply a diskette is made up of a small flexible round disk coated with
iron oxide. This disk is covered with a plastic protective case. Floppy disks are portable
thus making them the most widely used type of secondary storage device.
Floppy disks are inserted in a floppy drive, which has a read-write head that runs over the
magnetised spots that contain data. Floppy disks come in different sizes with different
32
storage capacities. Initial floppy disks were large in size but with smaller storage capacities
than the presently available 3t-inch which has a maximum storage capacity of about
1.44MB. Figures. 2.15 (a) shows a typical 3t-floppy diskette while Figure 2.15 (b) shows
parts of floppy disk.
The structure of a floppy disk platter
If the protective plastic casing of a floppy disk is removed, a circular flexible disk, coated
with magnetic material will be revealed. The surface of the disk is divided into tiny
invisible concentric circles called tracks that store data. The tracks are further divided into
units called sectors as shown in Figure 2.16.
Zip disks
These are high capacity disks that resemble the floppy disks. They are, however, slightly
larger and thicker in size. A zip disk can hold as much as 250 MB. Zip disks mostly come
with separate-portable external zip drive.
Jaz disks
These are small portable disks with high storage capacity of about 1 GB to 2GB. They are
used for storing data that require large storage. Like jaz disk comes with a portable jaz
drive. Figure 2.17 below shows jaz and zip disks and their drives.
Care of magnetic storage media
To care for magnetic media the following rules are to be observed.
1. Do not expose them to strong magnetic fields. This would erase the magnetically
recorded data on the disk. Hence do not carry magnets to the computer room.
2. Keep magnetic media away from excessive heat because heat energy
weakens magnetic media s ability to store data.
3. Do not drop the disk on the ground.
Optical (laser) disks

These are disks on which data is recorded using a laser beam. A laser beam is a very strong
concentrated light. The beam bums very tiny holes (pits) into a thin shiny surface to record
data. Likewise a laser beam in the optical drive is also used to read, record data on the disk.
The advantages of optical storage media are:
1. They store very large volumes of data.
2. Data stored in them is more stable and more permanent than the
magnetic media.
Examples of optical storage disks include: LS-120 super disks (SD), compact disks (CDs),
digital versatile disks (DVD), optical card and optical tape.
LS-120 super disk

This is a diskette that resembles the 3 ½-inch floppy disk but uses optical technology
instead of magnetic technology to record data. It has greater capacity of storage and greater
speed of data retrieval. The LS-120 drive can read and write both the 3 ½-inch, 1.44 MB
floppy disk and the 120MB super disk. (Figure 2.18).
33
Fig. 2.18 Super disk and drive
Compact disks (CD)

Compact disks hold large quantities of data and information. One disk can hold as much as
700MB. They are mostly used to store data and information that requires a lot of space
such as video clips, software, sounds etc. Figure 2.19 shows a compact disk.
Currently compact disks are available in three forms namely:
Compact disk-read only memory (CD-ROM): These are the type of compact disks which,
when data is recorded on Them, one can neither change them, nor add anything on them.
They are mostly used to store music recordings.
Compact disk-recordable (CD-R): These compact disks are initially blank but with a drive
called CD- Writer, the user can record data, programs or information on it. However, once
data has been written on it, one can only read but not change it.
Compact disk-rewritable (CD-RW): Unlike the CD-Rs, these types of compact disks
allows the user to record, erase and rewrite new information just as one would with floppy
disks.
NB: Both CD-ROMs and CD-Rs are referred to as WORM (Write Once Read Many)
because they allow the user to record data on them once but read the data as often as
necessary.
Digital versatile disks (DVD's)

Digital versatile disks also known as digital video disks resemble compact disks in every
aspect but the only difference is that they have higher storage capacity of up to 17GB
which is equivalent to approximately twenty six 640MB CDs. They are suitable for
recording motion pictures such as video because they offer better sound and picture quality
than the CDs.
Optical card
An optical card resembles the magnetic-ink character recognition card but instead of
having a magnetic stripe, it has an optically recordable stripe that stores information. These
types of cards are mostly used in banking and other business organisations to record
customer details.
Optical tape
This is similar to a magnetic tape only that data is stored on it by using optical technology.
Current and emerging trends in laser technology

The advances in optical storage, digital video clips, voice and sound synthesis have formed
the basis for modem multimedia technology exploited to develop multimedia computers. A
34
multimedia computer does not only display text but can also allow the user to have sound
playback and watch videos and pictures. A typical multimedia computer must have the
following minimum requirements:
1. A video graphic array or higher super video graphic array (SVGA)
graphics card and monitor.
2. A sound card.
3. Compact disk or digital video disk drives.
4. 32 MB RAM or higher. Lower memory is bottleneck to performance.
Today computers can be used to tune to any of the favorite FM or TV channels as long as
an FM/TV card is installed in the computer.
Fixed storage media

These are the storage devices that are housed inside the personal computer s system unit.
An example is the hard disk. However it is important to note that some hard disks
especially those used in small computers such as laptops are removable.
The hard disk

The hard disk, also known as the Winchester disk is a sealed unit in which is shiny, rigid
magnetic disks or platters that are arranged vertically on a common axis as shown in Figure
2.20.
How the hard disk stores data

Each disk has two read/write heads that read/record data on both sides. The surfaces of
each disk are divided into tracks and sectors like those of a floppy disk. Tracks along the
common axis forms an imaginary cylinder. Therefore the term cylinder is sometimes used
to indicate the number of tracks on one surface of a platter. For example if you say that a
hard disk has ten cylinders then each disk has ten tracks on one surface. If the disk has ten
platters then one cylinder will have twenty tracks:
As the disk rotates, the read/write head moves in and out over the surface to record or read
data.
Hard disks have gained widespread
popularity because:
35
1. They provide permanent, cheap and large storage capacity that is rewritable. For example a
computer can have one hard disk of 40 GB storage space.
2. They are very fast compared to other secondary s rage devices in terms of data transfer.
Care of the hard disk
Because of the high rotational speed of the disks, it is important to observe the following
precautions to avoid permanent destruction to the hard disk also called disk crash.
1. Keep the disk away from smoke and dust. Dust and smoke particles can cause damage to
the surface of the disk by scratching it as the head attempts to read data.
2. Switch off the computer using the correct procedure. This allows the read/write head to
move off the disk surface before power is switched off. Improper procedure would risk
heads crashing on rotating disks hence scratching them.
Emerging trends in storage devices

Because of need for vast storage prompted by today s massive data processing applications
and need to carry a lot of information in easily portable storage devices, more advanced
and reliable storage media are emerging. One good
example is a storage device called the flash disk that is small
in size (about 5 x 2 cm) but has capacity to store over 600MB
( equivalent to approximately 400 floppy disks! !). Figure
2.22 shows a diagram of a flash disk.
2.6
Power and interface cables
Power cables
Inside the system unit is a special power supply unit that supplies power to the
motherboard and other internal devices. In order to connect the computer to the
mains power outlet, you need power cables that link the power supply unit to the
outlet.
Interface cables
All peripheral devices are connected to the motherboard hence to the CPU by
special cables called interface cables. An interface cable is connected to the device
on one end, and to the motherboard via ports on the other end.
The difference between the power cables and the interface cables is that the power
cable supplies power to a component while interface cables transmit data signals.
There are different types of cables and parts

namely;
Parallel cables and ports

36
Parallel cables
transmit information
simultaneously using a set of many conductors (wires). For example if a cable uses
8 conductors to transmit data at the same time, it is said to be an 8-bit parallel
cable. The advantage of using such cables is that they transmit data faster over a
short distance. These cables are mostly used to connect printers and removable
storage drives like the zip drive. Figure 2.23 shows an illustration of a parallel port
and cable.
Serial cables and ports

Unlike the parallel cables, serial cables transmit one bit at a time. Although they
are slow, they are much more reliable than the parallel ports and therefore, their
connector cables can be as long as 15 m. Serial cables are generally used to
connect devices such as the mouse and some serial printers. Figure 2.24 shows a 9
and a 25 pin serial ports.
Universal serial bus (USS) cable and port

Universal serial bus is a new standard serial interface that is set to replace the
conventional parallel and serial cables and ports. Currently most peripheral devices
are coming with universal serial bus ports and interface cable. Although it
transmits only I-bit at a time, it provides very high-speed and quality data
transmission over distances of approximately 5 metres. USB supports a wide range
of peripheral devices ranging from external storage drives to digital cameras.
Figure 2.25 shows a USB port and its interface
cable.
If a computer does not have a universal serial bus port, it can be bought and fitted
on the motherboard.
Small computer systems interface (SCSI) cables and port

37
This port and interface cables transmit data in parallel but are faster than the
parallel cables. Another advantage of the SCSI port is that one SCSI port allows us
to connect up to eight peripheral devices.
Other ports and connectors. Other ports and connectors include;
5-pin DIN and 6-pin (PS/2) ports

Originally, most computers used the 5-pin
DIN to connect a keyboard to the system
unit but the smaller 6-pin mini-DIN also
known as PS/2 interface port has almost
replaced this technology. Currently most
computers come with the PS/2 connector
as the new standard to connect PS/2 mouse
and keyboard. Figure 2.26 shows a 5-pin
and PS/2 connectors
showing physical difference in size. I
Monitor ports
The two most common connectors used for monitors are the 9- Pin D and the I5-
pin Hi-D connector as shown in Figure 2.27. They are called D-ports because they
resemble letter D.
(Audio connectors
These are jack plugs found
on a sound interface adapter
used to connect
speakers, microphone and
other portable audio
equipment.
2.7`
Basic computer setup

and cabling
Having learnt about various

devices and how they
function, it is important to
familiarise ourselves on how
to setup a computer.
Before attempting to carry out any setup activity, observe the following
precautions should be observed.
38
1. Disconnect all devices from power source before starting to work on them.
2. Do not work on any peripheral device without the guidance of the teacher.
3. Never work alone because you may need help in case of an emergency.
4. Discharge any static electricity that might have built up on the hands by
touching an earthed metallic object and then wearing an anti-static wrist member.
This is because your body can hold as much as 200 volts of static charge that can
damage sensitive components on the motherboard.
Tools and other requirements

The tools and requirements include;
1. Different sizes and shapes of screwdrivers.
2. Anti-static wrist member.
3. Pliers with narrow nose.
4. Manufacturer s manuals for motherboard and other components.
5. Necessary software.
6. A dismantled system unit.
7. Peripheral devices.
8. Interface and power cables.
9. Any other as needed.
Connecting devices to the motherboard

The following are steps for
connecting devices to the
motherboard.
Step 1: Identifying
motherboard slots and components. Before you connect any device to the
motherboard, carefully study the manufacturer s manual in order to identify the
components labeled in
Step 2: Connecting the hard disk, floppy drive and optical drive. These
devices are connected to the motherboard using special ribbon cables like the one
shown in Figure 2.30.
39
The following instructions should
be observed while connecting the
devices:
1. Wear antistatic wrist member to
discharge any static charge on the
body.
2. Check that a free drive bay
exists to hold the disk drive.
3. Slide the disk into its bay and
screw it into place.
4. Ensure that there is a free power connector from the power supply unit and connect
it to the drive. Notice that it is designed to fit in its socket in only one direction.
5. Identify pin 1 as labeled on the drives socket and match it with the red or brown
continuous line of the ribbon cable. Most cables will only fit in one direction.
6. Connect the cable both to the drive then to the motherboard.
7. Repeat this for all the drives.
8. If installation is complete replace the system unit cover.
Step 3: Connecting other peripheral devices

To connect a device to the system unit, you need to identify its port and interface
cable.
1. Gently and carefully connect the interface cable of each device to the correct
port and to the device if it is not already fixed permanently.
2. Connect the computer to the power source and switch it on.
3. Observe boot up information on the screen to see whether power on-self test
(POST) displays any error message.
4. A successful boot means that the computer was properly setup.
NB: If the computer is completely new, programs have to be copied (installed) on
the hard disk.
2.8 Computer software

As mentioned earlier, the term software refers to a set of computer programs. Its
function is to guide the computer in its operations. Software can be classified
according to purpose or acquisition.
Classification according to purpose:

Computer software may primarily be designed to manage the hardware resources
or to help the user accomplish specific tasks. Therefore software may be classified
as either system or application software.
System software
40
System software performs a variety of fundamental operations that avails computer
resources to the user. These functions include:
1. Booting the computer and making sure that all the hardware elements are
working properly.
2. Performing operations such as retrieving, loading, executing and storing
application programs.
3. Storing and retrieving files.
4. Performing a variety of system utility functions.
System software is further divided into:

1. Operating system. 2. Firmware.
3. Utility software. 4. Networking software.
The operating system

This is a set of complex programs that work together to control execution of user
programs called applications and acts as a go between (interfaces) between the
applications of the computer hardware. It manages input/output and storage
operations in a computer. Examples of common operating systems are Microsoft
Windows 95/98/2000/XP, UNIX, Linux, Macintosh (Mac OS) and OS/2. What
type of operating system software do you use in the computer laboratory?
Therefore the operating system is the main program on the computer system.
Firmware
Firmware, also referred to as stored logic is a combination of both the software and
hardware recorded permanently on electronic chips. Usually, a firmware is a read-
only memory chip that is mounted or plugged into the motherboard. Firmware may
hold an operating system, utility programs, language processors etc.
Utility software
Utility software is a special program that performs commonly used services that
make certain aspects of computing to go on more smoothly. Such services include
sorting, copying, file handling, disk management etc. The two basic types of utility
software are:
1. System-level utility software: These help the user to work with the operating
system and its functions. For example, a utility software tells the user when he/she
enters a wrong command and gives suggestions how the error can be corrected.
2. Application utility software: These make the use of an application program
smoother and efficient. These utility programs are commonly purchased separately
or may be part of an operating system.
Networking software
41
This type of software is mostly used to establish communication between two or
more computers by linking them using a communication channel like cables to
create a computer network. Networking software enables the exchange of data in a
network as well as providing data security. Network software may come as
independent software or integrated in an operating system. An example of
networking software is novel Netware.
Application software
Application software, also called application packages are programs that are
designed to help the user accomplish specific tasks.
.Table 2.2 gives examples and uses of common application packages
Software Uses Examples

Word processor Typing documents Ms Word, Lotus
like
letters. WordPro, WordStar.
Spreadsheets Manipulation of Ms Excel, Lotus 1 2
numeric data e.g. 3
calculating budgets.
Desktop Designing Adobe PageMaker,
publications
Publisher like newspapers, Ms publisher.
books.
Computer aided Technical drawing. AutoCAD.
Design
Databases Keeping records and Ms Access, Dbase.
files.
Graphics Creating and Corel Draw,’ Adobe
software
manipulating pictures. Photoshop.
Table 2.2: Application packages
Classification according to acquisition

Generally computer programs can be classified according to how they are obtained
as in-house developed software and standard software (Vendor off-the-shelf
software).
In-house developed programs

These are programs that are uniquely designed and tailored to meet a particular
user s needs. For example, a bank may decide to manage its banking operations
using a unique program developed by hired programmers. These programs are not
42
available in the shops and once developed for one company or user may not
address the needs of other users.
Standard software (Vendor off-the-shelf software)

These programs are developed by software engineers, packaged and then made
available for purchase through a vendor, a distributor or directly from the
developer. A developer may bundle more than one but closely related software into
one package to form a suite or integrated software as opposed to single-purpose
software. Examples of suites are Lotus
Suite, Microsoft-Office and Corel WordPerfect while those of single purpose are
QuickBooks and Sage Line 50.
The word package is sometimes used to refer to these types of software that are
packaged and sold by vendors.
Advantages of standard software over the in-house developed programs are:
1. They can easily be installed and run.

2. They are less expensive to acquire than the cost of developing in-house
software.
3. They are readily available for almost any task.
4. Since they are thoroughly tested before they are released, chances of errors in
them are rare.
5. They can easily be modified (customised) to meet specific user’s needs without
involving expert programmers
Criteria for selecting a computer system

The task of determining a suitable computer system for an individual or
organisation is not easy. A good computer system must meet all the requirements
of the user. Therefore, before selecting the computer system to implement, it is
advisable to do an analysis of all the requirements necessary in order to avoid
acquiring a system that may disappoint the users.
Requirements analysis for selecting a computer system should cover the following:
1. Identifying all user requirements.
2. Evaluating hardware requirements that will meet the users needs.
3. Evaluating software requirements that will meet the users needs. The computer
hardware and software to be acquired should therefore be able to meet all needs of
the data processing environment that, they are intended for effectively.
Hardware considerations
Some factors considered when selecting computer hardware are;
43
Processor speed
The processing power and speed of a computer mainly depends on the processor
speed. A good computer must have high processor speed. For example a few years
ago, processors used to have speeds of less than 100 MHz. However, today s
Pentium processors are operating at very high clock speeds of over 4 GHz.
Scientists and engineers are aiming at producing a processor that operates at
terahertz (trillion hertz). However, it is important to buy a processor that suits ones
need not necessarily the fastest.
Memory capacity
As earlier mentioned, primary memory, mainly random access memory (RAM) is
measured in megabytes (MB). For example, a computer may have 32MB of RAM.
Although, a computer may have a very fast processor, it may not perform as
expected if it has low memory capacity. Because of the current multimedia driven
applications, a good computer should have sufficient memory to handle the heavy
applications that require a lot of memory space in order to run. A computer with at
least 128 MB of RAM is recommended for most contemporary applications.
RAM is packaged as either dual in-line memory Module. (DIMM) or single in-line
memory module (SIMM).
Therefore, before one buys a memory module for the computer the following
factors have to be considered:
1. The type of module supported by the computer s motherboard.
2. Does the motherboard have an empty memory slot?
3. Will the module work well (be compatible) with the other existing modules on
the motherboard?
4. What is the capacity of the module?
Warranty
A warranty is an agreement between the buyer and the seller that spells out terms
and conditions of, after selling a product in case of failure or malfunction.
The most important consideration to make is whether the seller is ready to actually
provide after sales services. On top of the actual cost of the item, most
manufacturers and suppliers include a certain percentage charge to cover the
warranty.
A good warranty should cover the following points:
1. Scope of cover for example six months, one year etc.
2. Callout response and liability agreement. For example how long should the
supplier take to repair a fault or replace the product, and if he/she delays who bears
the cost.
3. Preventive maintenance for example regularity of service, at intervals etc.
Cost
44
The cost of a computer system depends on:
1. Its processing capability.
2. Whether it is branded or a clone. Branded computers are more expensive than
their equivalent clones. This is because of their reliability and good after sale
services.
3. Its size. Portable computers are more expensive than their desktop equivalents
because of the superior technology involved in manufacturing smaller components
without losing performance abilities.
It is important to do a market survey from magazines, newspapers, and electronic

media or visit a number of vendors to compare prices before purchasing a
computer. Computer information and technology exhibitions also enlighten a buyer
on current trends and costs.
Upgradeability and compatibility

When buying a computer, the best option would be to get one that can easily be
upgraded to accommodate emergent technologies. For example some older
computers cannot support large hard disks available in the market today hence,
difficulty in upgrading them because smaller hard disks are no longer in
circulation.
Portability
The size of electronic devices including computers has become a major
consideration because smaller devices enhance mobility.
User needs
When selecting computer hardware, consider the unique needs of the user. For
example if the users have special disability like inability to use their hands,
consider buying input devices that capture data through voice input.
The user needs also determine the type of data that will be processed hence, the
choice of the type of hardware most appropriate to satisfy the needs. For example
in a supermarket a special computerized devise called a point of sale (POS)
terminal is most suitable to record transactions.
Other considerations
Other considerations for selecting computer hardware are;
Monitor
Depending on preference, your choice for a monitor may depend on size,
resolution and the technology used to make it. Currently flat panel displays have
become a new market standard quickly replacing the cathode ray tube (CRT).
Multimedia capability
45
This is the combination of video, audio, text and images to provide an interactive,
creative and effective way of producing and communicating information. A
multimedia system should have speakers, CD/DVD drive, sounds card and a
SVGA monitor. It should also have software that supports multimedia capability.
Software considerations
Although one may have a good computer with the best hardware, the actual real
determinant of a computer s value to the user is the software in it that can run to
solve the day to day data and information processing needs.
The following factors should be considered when selecting software:
Authenticity
The term authenticity refers to genuineness, validity and or legitimacy of an item.
When you acquire software from the vendor, make sure it is an original copy that
is accompanied by the developer s license and certificate of authenticity. This is
because some people illegally produce pirated copies which is an offence.
Documentation
It refers to the manuals prepared by the developer having details on how to install,
use and maintain the software. These include installation guide, maintenance guide
and a user guide. This documentation enables the user to work with the software
with minimum guidance.
User needs
The needs of the user determines the type of operating system and application
programs that should be considered for acquisition. For example, if the user needs
to type documents most often he/she would go for a word-processor.
People with special disability will require software that recognizes other forms of
input like voice and natural sound. A good example is software used in mobile
phones to store voice and allow the user to make a call by just calling a name
instead of keying in the number.
Reliability and security

People are more comfortable with software that offers good security to confidential
and private information.
User friendliness
One of the most important features normally considered when using a computer
program is its user-friendliness. This is a measure of how easily the users can be
able to operate the computer. Some programs are more user- friendlier than others.
A lot of research and effort has been dedicated in trying to come up with more
user-friendly software. The ease of use of a program will most likely influence
whether the user will prefer it or not.
46
Cost
The cost of software is perhaps one of the most controversial issues that must be
considered carefully. One cannot just go for software because it is cheap. Many
other factors may force a person to buy far much more expensive software even
with cheaper alternatives available. However it is illogical to buy expensive
software if there is a reliable cheaper alternative that will meet ones needs.
In case the off- the-shelf software does not fit the needs of the users it would be
advisable to develop in-house software solutions even though they may be a bit
more expensive.
Compatibility and system configuration
Software compatibility refers to the ability of the computer to run the software
depending on the system setup (configuration). For example some software may
only run on a computer that has 32MB of RAM and above. Any computer with
lower than this, will be said to be incompatible. It is important that one reads the
installation guide and system requirements that comes with the software in order to
avoid disappointment.
Portability
Portability in this aspect refers to whether a program can be copied or installed in
more than one computer. Although, most software in the market today are portable
some developers produce software which can be installed on one machine only.
This means that if one has twenty computers, one should buy a license for each.
47
3.1 OPERATING SYSTEMS (OS)
Chapter outline
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Resources under operating systems control 3.3 Functions of an operating
system
3.4 Types of operating systems
3.5 Factors to consider when choosing an operating system
3.6 How Windows organizes information
3.7 Managing files and folders
3.8 Disk management using Windows
3.9 Installing Windows operating system
Introduction
As mentioned earlier, an operating system is the main program that controls the
execution of user applications and enables the user to access the hardware and
software resources of the computer. In a data processing environment, the user
sees a computer as a group of application programs that enables him/her to
accomplish specific tasks. Application programs do not directly utilize the
hardware devices. They send messages through the operating system which has the
capability to give instructions to the hardware to perform a particular task. An
operating system therefore, supervises all the other programs in the computer and
manages access to the hardware as shown in Figure 3.1.
3.2
Resources under operating systems control

A computer is composed of a set of software-controlled resources that enable
movement, storage and processing of data and information. The resources or
devices under the operating system control include: the processor, the main
memory (RAM), input and output device and parts, secondary storage devices and
communication devices.
The processor
The processor is a scarce resource. It executes tasks called processes. At anyone
time several tasks may require processing hence creating competition. The
operating system arranges the tasks according to priority and has the ability to stop
a particular task to allow the processor to service another one.
Main memory (RAM)

At anyone given time so many tasks may require the memory so that they can be
accessed and processed by the computer. However, because memory is also a
48
scarce resource, the operating system determines which task will remain in
memory awaiting for execution and which one will be sent back to secondary
storage to wait.
Because the operating system is large and very important, it is usually installed on
the hard disk but must be loaded to RAM during the booting process. Not all the
operating system can fit in RAM so a small special part that contains the most
necessary commands and procedures called the kernel is the one that is loaded.
Input/output devices and ports

In most cases, the operating system controls all data input and information output
tasks. Because most input/output devices are slower than the processor, the
operating system has to control the flow of data from the time of input to the time
the user receives it as information. It ensures that the right data reaches the
processor at the right time. The operating system also defines the various
input/output ports found on the computer e.g. printer port.
Secondary storage devices

The operating system manages the storage and retrieval of data on secondary
storage devices. It also utilizes the free space on hard disks to enhance the
performance of the computer by temporarily holding tasks
on it that were in RAM ready for processing but have to wait for some time.
Communication devices and ports

Communication in this case refers to how the various devices and programs in and
out of the computer system send and receive messages from one another and from
the processor. The operating system controls the overall communication process
between various tasks and computers. External communication can be achieved by
connecting an external device to a communication port using a communication
medium like cables or even wireless communication.
3.3 Functions of an operating system The functions of an operating system

are:
Job scheduling
The processor can only handle one task at a time. Therefore, the operating system
has to determine which task will be processed first and makes sure that the one that
is currently being processed is closely monitored to avoid wasting time in the
processor. The criteria for selecting which task will come before the other depends
on many factors. For example, the operating system may decide to process smaller
tasks before larger ones.
Resource control and allocation

49
In order for the processor to be able to recognize and priorities the use and requests
for resources, it gives each resource a unique identification number called an
interrupt number. Hence when two tasks request to use a resource at the same
time, the one with higher priority interrupt is granted control. This can be
compared to the priority given to the presidential motorcade on a busy road.
Secondly, the operating system tries as much as possible to avoid a situation where
a particular task holds a needed resource and refuses to release it for use by other
tasks. When several tasks do this, an undesirable situation called deadlock occurs.
Therefore, resource control and allocation is a core operating system function
because it determines which task uses a particular resource and at what time.
Input/output handling
Every computer has many input and output devices (I/O). Like a skilled traffic
officer, the operating system coordinates between these various I/O and other
peripheral devices such as auxiliary storage devices, making sure that data flows
properly between them and sorting out any possible confusion. For example, when
printing, the CPU directs its attention to the printing function. The operating
system searches for the printer, chooses the correct one, translates the name for the
CPU and finally the CPU sends the document to the printer. This then makes the
CPU available for other activities.
Memory management
All data and instructions must be temporarily held in the main memory before and
after processing. The operating system may organize the main memory into blocks
of sizes called partitions. It constantly assigns main memory storage partitions to
data and instructions. To access a piece of data or instruction, the operating system
knows where to find each piece of data as long as the correct address of the
partition is used.
Error handling
The operating system has many ways of alerting the user, of errors he or she
makes. Many op rating system usually express what the error is, and where
possible make suggestions on how to correct the error. The operating system does
this by monitoring the status of the computer system and performing error checks
on both hardware and the software.
Job sequencing
The operating system keeps a list of jobs or tasks currently being run and clocks
them in and out of the processor. It also arranges them in a particular order to make
it easy for the processor to execute them and to know how and when to fetch
instructions and data for each task.
Interrupt handling
An interrupt is a break from the normal sequential processing of instructions in a
program. An external request causes the processor to stop executing the current
50
task, and do something else before returning the control back to the program that
was interrupted.
Each hardware device communicates to the processor using a special number

called the interrupt request number (IRQ number). Fig 3.2 shows the devices
assigned to IRQ numbers in Microsoft Windows.
3.4 Types of operating systems
Operating systems can be classified according to:
1. Number of tasks handled concurrently.
2. Number of users.
3. Human computer interface (HCI).
Classification according to tasks handled concurrently
Single program operating system

Single program operating system allows processing of only one user program in
the main memory at a time. This means that the user can only run one interactive
program at a time. Then the user must exit from the program before loading and
running another program. An example of a single user operating system is MS
DOS from Microsoft Corporation.
Multi tasking operating system

This type of operating system allows a single CPU to execute what appears
to be more than one program at the same time. However, internally only one
program is being executed at a time. The CPU switches its attention between
programs as it receives requests for processing, executing statements from one
program, and then from another using the concept of giving a time slice to each
application. This switching of attention is so fast that it appears as if the programs
are being executed simultaneously.
Classification according to number of users
Single user operating system

A single user operating system is designed for use by only one person. It cannot
support more than one person and runs only one user application at a time.
Multi user operating system

Multi user or multi access operating system allows more than one user to
interactively use the computer. It can be installed on a computer that is accessed by
many people at the same time. Examples of such operating systems are UNIX,
Novell and Windows NT/2000, Linux.
Classification according to interface
51
The term human computer interface refers to the method of interaction between the
computer and the user and determines how easily the user can operate the
computer. The underlying principle in operating system design is to make complex
tasks very simple for the user to carry out. This is the reason why a lot of time has
been spent by software developers in trying to come up with user friendly
interfaces.
Currently the three main types of human computer interface are:
Command line Interface

The user interacts with a computer by typing a command at the prompt found on a
command line. A computer reads instructions from the command line and executes
them. For a command to be more user friendly, the words used should be
descriptive verbs e.g. print, copy etc. Unique abbreviations can also be used e.g.
Del Ren Chkdsk etc.
For example, if you are using MS DOS operating system, you can copy a file
called Fruits.Dat from a hard disk C to floppy disk A as follows: COPY
C:\Fruits.Dat A:\
NB: The user must press the enter key for the command to be executed.
Examples of command line interface are the early versions of MS DOS, PC DOS,
OS/2, and UNIX.
MS DOS Interface
Menu driven interface

This type of interface provides the user with a list of options to choose from. The
interface therefore is suitable for beginners who may have difficulties recalling
commands.
Some operating systems present the user with simple menus while others have
sophisticated menus.
The user makes a selection `by typing any of the letters I, V, E, D or Q to activate a
submenu.
A menu driven interface.
Later versions of DOS came with a menu driven interface called the DOS shell or
DOS editor
Menu
52
The DOS shell
The graphical user interface (GUI)

This type of interface represents commands as small pictures on the screen called
Icons. Icons can be selected to issue a command using a pointing device like a
mouse. GUI has become a very common type of interface because of its user
friendliness.
Examples of GUI based operating systems are OS/2 s Presentation Manager,

Microsoft Windows, Linux and Apple Macintosh.
3.5 Factors to consider when choosing an operating system

When choosing an operating system for a computer, the following factors should
be considered:
1. Hardware configuration or provision of the computer e.g. memory size, hard
disk capacity, type of processor etc.
2. Basic design of the computer e.g. is it an IBM or IBM-Compatible, or an Apple
computer.
3. Applications intended for the computer.
4. User friendliness or human computer interface i.e. is it command line based,
menu driven or graphical user interface based.
5. Availability in the market e.g. Microsoft Windows based operating systems are
very common.
6. Cost - how expensive is the operating system?
7. Reliability i.e. can it run without crashing or hanging i.e. stop responding to
commands. .
3.6 How Windows organizes information
Introduction
Microsoft Corporation is a software company that specializes in the development
of both operating systems and application programs. Some of its popular operating
systems include; Windows 95, 98, 2000, NT, Millennium (Me) and XP. These
operating systems have gained wide popularity with many PC users because of
their friendly graphical user interface.
Other operating systems that rival Microsoft products include Linux, UNIX, Mac
OS and OS/2.
NB: In order to understand how an operating system organizes information, this

book cuts across four versions of Windows i.e. Windows 95, 98, Me and XP, by
giving standardized procedures that are common to all. However because it is hard
to cater for the small differences in the four versions, the book provides a common
53
procedure of carrying out Tasks. However, extra details on specific versions are
discussed in appendices L II and III.
The good thing about all the versions of Windows discussed in this book is that
once you acquire basic skills in using one version, you can easily transfer the same
to other versions.
Some common features in Windows operating systems:

1. They all have similar user interface
2. Ability to handle long file names. As opposed to MS DOS which can handle a
maximum of eleven characters, Windows 95 and later versions accept file names
of up to 255 characters including spaces.
3. Various versions of Windows operating systems automatically accept a new
hardware once it is connected to the computer. This feature is referred to as plug
and play {PnP}.
4. They all support multiple tasks and multiple users.
Windows manages data and information stored on secondary storage devices by
organizing it into easily accessible units called files and folders.
Files
A file is a collection of related data or information stored in one location and given
a unique name that enables the operating system to identify it during storage and
retrieval process. Every file has details that indicate the following:
1. A unique name and an optional set of maximum three characters called an
extension e.g. a file named JUNE.DOC has JUNE as the name and DOC as the
extension. The file name and the extension are separated by a period (.). The
extension usually suggests the type of information held by the file e.g. DOC
suggests that it is a document file created in an application program called
Microsoft Word.
2. Its size and date of creation.
There are two types of files namely; system file and application files.
System files
These of files contain information that is critical for the operation of the computer.
For example, all hardware devices are tested and made ready (initialised) during
boot up by having the computer read information
From special system files. These files in Windows would have name extensions
like .sys, .ini and .dll. An example of a system file is system.ini
Application files
54
They are also called program files because they hold programs or application files.
They may have extensions such as .exe.
The following list gives some common file name extensions and suggests the type
of information that could be held in the file.
Extensions Type of information

DAT Data files
EXE Executable file that starts an
application
TXT Text files
DOC Document file
When naming files, it is important to give meaningful names and extensions that
suggest its content. For example when saving a letter written to John, give it a
name such as Johnletter. The name extension is automatically added by the
application being used.
Folders
A folder or a directory is a named storage area where the user can store related files
to enable easy access. Like with an ordinary file cabinet, a folder is meant to help
the user divide a large storage media into small manageable storage locations.
Subfolders
A large folder may be divided into smaller units called subfolders. Therefore, a
subfolder or subdirectory is folder/directory within another folder/directory.
In Windows, folders and subfolder icons mostly appear in yellow color while file
icons are mostly white with a fold at the top right hand corner
Storage media
When saving a file or creating a folder, identify a storage location, which is more
reliable and sufficient. For example, if a file or folder requires more than 1.44MB
of storage space, you can not use a 1.44MB 3 inch. floppy disk instead use a
storage media with larger space.
Windows desktop
Once you switch on the computer, Windows is automatically loaded into the main
memory and a mostly empty screen called the desktop appears. This shows that the
computer is ready for use.
Some versions of Windows e.g. Windows XP, prompt the user to press Ctrl +Alt
+Delete to gain access to desktop features through a process called Log on.
55
Desktop features
On the desktop are icons and a long thin bar called the task bar. Figure 3.8 shows a
Windows Me desktop.
Icons
Icons are mostly manipulated using a pointing device e.g. the mouse. Some of the
common icons on the desktop are My Computer; Recycle bin, Internet Explorer,
and My Documents.
The task bar

The taskbar enables the user to easily switch between different programs and
documents (tasks) that are currently running.
Whenever the user starts a program or opens a file, its button appears on the
taskbar and stays there until the user exits from the program see Figure 3.9. You
can switch between various programs and documents in Windows by clicking
these buttons. This process is called multi tasking.
The taskbar has at least three main parts.

Start button: The leftmost button on the taskbar that the user clicks to display the
start menu.
Task manager: This is the plain stripe that displays buttons of all currently running
tasks. The task manager of Figure 3.9 shows OPERATING SYSTE is the currently
running task
System tray: This is at the right most part of the taskbar. It has icons of tasks
running in the background put are not displayed on the screen. Examples are the
time and calendar, an antivirus program, volume control etc. To display such a
task, simply double click its icon.
The start menu

When you click the start button, a list of choices appear called the start
menu. The items on the menu may vary depending on the version of Windows you
are using. Figure 3.10 (a) and (b) shows Windows Me and Windows XP start
menus respectively. From careful study of the figures, you will notice slight
variations but most commands on the menu items remain the same.
Programs
This menu displays a list of all programs installed in the computer. The menu has a
small solid arrow. When you point at it, another list of menus called a sidekick
menu will be displayed as shown in Figure 3.10 (a) and (b).
Documents / my recent documents

56
Documents menu in Windows 95, 98 and me or my recent documents in Windows
XP lists the last fifteen recently accessed files. You can open any of the listed files
from a storage device by clicking its name provided that the device is accessible.
Settings / control Panel

Settings menu in Windows 95,98 and Me or the control panel in Windows XP
provides tools which the user can use to maintain and make changes to the
computer setup. It is important not to tamper with this menu because you may
interfere with the computer functionality.
Find / search
Find in Windows 95,98,and Me or Search in XP helps the user to search for a file
or folder in case the user forgets its name or location.
Help / help and support

The help command on the start menu, displays detailed information on how to use
the operating system and solve some computer related problems in case of the
computer fails to function properly.
Run
It enables the user to:
1. Install programs on the hard disk.
2. Open files and folders from a storage location.
3. Run programs from removable media without necessarily installing it on the
hard disk.
Log on / log off

Log on is a security measure that restricts unauthorized uses from accessing
computer resources. It prompts for a user name and password in order to gain
access. After using the computer, log off the computer before leaving.
Shutdown
This menu lets the user shut down, restart the computer, or restart in MS-DOS
mode. Windows Me and Windows XP do not have MS-DOS in their shut down
dialog box, see appendix II and III.
Every time you finish using the computer you must first shut it down before
turning it off. To do this you need to:
1. Click the start button
2. Point and click shutdown a prompt for Windows 98 will appear.
3. If you want to shut down, click the shutdown button
4. Finally, click ok or simply press enter
5. Wait for the computer to display a message, It is now save to turn off . Some
computers automatically switch themselves off once you click ok.
57
3.7
Managing files and folders

To manipulate files and folders, you can either use My Computer icon from the
desktop or Windows explorer from the start menu. Each in its own way lets you see
how storage devices or locations, files and folders are arranged. These tools also
enable the user to manipulate files and folders.
Windows explorer
Windows explorer lets the user display the drives and folders in a hierarchy or tree
structure. The computer tree is an up side down structure with the highest level
being the root. The explorer divides the window into two panes. The left pane
displays a tree of drives and folders while the right pane displays a list of files and
sub folders contained in a particular open drive or folder.
To display the Windows explorer in some versions of Windows like 95/98 carry
out the following procedure:
1. Click the start button then
2. Point to the programs menu
3. From the Programs go to the sidekick menu, click windows explorer
An explorer window such as the one shown in Figure 3.12 will be displayed.
NB: In some operating systems, Windows explorer command may not necessarily
be located on the program s menu. The other method of displaying the explorer
window is to:
1. Right click' my computer icon on the desktop.
2. Point and left click explorer from the shortcut menu.
This method of displaying the explorer window has been adopted as the standard
way of displaying the explorer window throughout this book to take care of various
versions of Windows operating systems.
In Figure 3.12, the highest item in the tree is the desktop then followed by My
Computer. If you observe keenly, you will notice that some items have a small box
on their left with a plus or minus sign inside. If an item has the plus sign on its left,
it contains other lower level items e.g. My Documents folder in the above figure,
has subfolders inside. To display the subfolders, click the plus sign and the sign
will change to minus meaning that all subfolders in that level have been displayed.
You can reduce (collapse) the tree by clicking minus sign.
Using My computer
58
Double clicking on my computer icon, gives you a graphical view of what is inside
the computer. This includes the drives, the control panel and other resources as
shown in Figure 3.13 (a).
To display files and folders from a particular drive proceed as follows:
1. Double click a drive icon. A window appears displaying files and folders stored
in the root of the drive in question. The root is considered to be the highest level of
the directory tree where all directories/folders start.
2. Double click a folder to display its contents.
3. Double click the hard disk (drive C). Its content will be displayed as shown in
Figure 3.13 (b).
4. From this window you can start manipulating your files and folders.
4.
Creating a new folder

There will be times when the user would want to create new folders. Say, for
instance, when working on a detailed project that has multiple files. It is advisable
that all related files be kept together in one folder. To create a new folder proceeds
as follows:
1. Using My computer icon display the Explorer window.
2. From the folder tree on the left pane, select the location in which you want to
create a new folder.
3. From the File menu, click New then click Folder as shown in Figure 3.14 (a).
Anew folder with a temporary name New folder appears in the explorer window as
shown in Figure 3.14 (b).
4. Type a new name for the folder to replace the temporary name then press Enter
key or click the icon once.
NB: To create a subfolder, follow the steps above but select a folder as the
location. To open a folder proceeds as follows:
2. From the folder tree on the left pane, click the plus sign against the storage
location that contains the file or folder you wish to open.
3. From the folder tree, select the folder. Its contents will be displayed on the right
pane.
Creating a new file .

Depending on the programs installed in your computer, you can create files of
different types such as drawings, text document etc. To create a new text document
proceed as follows.
2. From the folder tree on the left pane, select the location in which you want to
create a new file.
59
3. From the File Menu, point new
4. Select text document from a list of available applications and an icon with a
temporary name appears in the explorer window.
5. Type a new name for the new file to replace the temporary name and press
enter key.
NB: In Windows, file names can contain up to 255 characters, including spaces
but, with no special symbols such as \ /: *? < > I.
The application Window

In order to enter data in the new file just created above, you have to open it in its
application program. This can be done by double clicking the file icon. A
rectangular area called an application window appears on the screen as shown in
Figure 3.15.
Parts of a Window
Title bar
This is a bar across the top of the window that displays the name of the current
application program or task.
On the right of the title bar are three tiny buttons namely:
Minimize button: It reduces a window by pressing a button which is placed on the
taskbar.
The restore/maximize button: It stretches the window to cover the entire desktop or
restore it to its original size.
The close button: It is used to exit an application.
Menu bar
Menu bar provides a list of commands that can be used to manipulate a task. For
example, to save a document, click file and then save.
Too/bars
These are buttons arranged in a row that are shortcuts to menu commands.
Work area
This is the working area where you can create your documents.
Status bar
This is an interactive strip at the bottom of the application window that acts as a
communication link between the user and the operating system. Such interactive
activities include saving, opening a file, printing, cursor position etc.
Scroll buttons and arrows
60
Scrolling is the moving up, down, left or right of a document window on the screen
if it is too large to fit. Scroll buttons and arrows are horizontal and vertical buttons
at the borders of a window used to scroll through long document.
Saving changes to a file

After typing the content of the file in the work area, click file and then Click save
Otherwise, if the file will be saved with a different name or location then:
1.Click file and then save as
2. From the resulting Save As dialog box, select where the document is to be saved
then type its name
3.Click the save button.
Renaming files or folders

Renaming refers to changing the previous name to a new name.
To rename a file or a folder proceed as follows:
1. Using My Computer icon display the Explorer window.
2. From the folder tree on the left pane, select the file or folder to be renamed.
3. From the file menu, click rename

4. Type the new name, and then presenter key.
Deleting files and folders

In Windows, when you delete an item from the hard disk, it is temporarily held in a
special folder called the Recycle bin from which it can be restored if necessary.
The recycle bin is a default icon on the desktop therefore it cannot be removed.
Warning
1. One should not attempt to delete system and application files from the hard disk.
2. Items deleted from removable storage are not held in the recycle bin and are
completely lost.
To delete a file or folder proceed as follows:
2. From the folder tree on the left pane, select the item that is to be deleted.
3. On the File menu, click delete
4. A message appears on the screen asking whether you actually want to delete the
item.
5. Confirm by clicking yes
Restoring deleted files and folders
61
To restore a file or folder from the recycle bin to its original location proceed as
follows:
1. Double click the recycle bin icon.
2. Select the deleted item (or items) to be restored.
3. Click file then restore
Emptying the recycle bin

To completely discard files and folders you deleted, you need to empty the
Recycle Bin. Deleted items take up the same amount of disk space they occupied
before you deleted them. To free up that disk space occupied, you have to empty
the bin.
To empty the recycling bin proceed as follows
1. Double-click the recycle bin on desktop.
2. Choose empty recycle bin from the File menu.
3. Click yes when prompted to confirm deletion of the files.
NB: You can also delete selected items in the recycle bin by clicking file then
delete
Copying and moving files and folders

Cut or copy commands are used to move or create a duplicate of an item
respectively. When you cut or copy an item, it is temporarily held in temporary
storage location known as the clipboard. To copy a file or folder:
2. On the edit menu, click copy
3. Select the drive or folder where you want the item to be copied.
4. From the edit menu click paste Information or item is pasted to a new location
Copy progress dialog will be displayed on the screen as shown in Figure 3.16
below
To move a file or a folder proceed as follows:
2. On the edit menu click cut.
3. Select the drive or folder where you want the item moved.
4. From the edit menu click paste.
5. Move progress dialog will be displayed on the screen similar to that of copying
in Figure 3.16 but with the word moving in the title bar.
Sorting files and folder

Sorting means arranging files and folders in a particular order either alphabetically
or by size or date of last modification or creation. Widows automatically sorts files
and folders into alphabetic order but the user can choose to arrange them
62
otherwise. For example Figure. 3.17 show how to sort by name. Notice that a dot
appears next to name to show that it is selected.
Manipulate files and folders using the shortcut menu

When you right click an item, a shortcut menu is displayed which provides
commands commonly used to manipulate the item.
To copy, move, delete or rename an item proceed as follows:
1. Right-click the file or folder to display its context sensitive menu.
2. From the shortcut menu, left click the appropriate command i.e.
(a) To copy or move, right click the destination location then click paste
(b) To delete, simply click delete Command.

(c) To rename, type in a new file name to replace the old one.
Manipulate files and folders by drag and drop

Another easier method of handling files and folders is drag and drop. This is done
as follows:
1. To copy a file or folder, hold down the CTRL key while you drag the icon of the
file to a new location.
2. To move files from one location to another on the same drive but in a different
folder, simply press down the Mouse button and drag the item to the new location.
3. To delete any file or folder drag it into the recycle bin.
4. To copy file or folder from one disk to another, simply drag the item to the
destination drive icon e.g. from drive C to 31/2-floppy disk.
5. To move an item, hold down the Shift key while you drag it to new location.
Selecting multiple files and folders

If you want to manipulate multiple files or folders at a go, you can select them by
clicking each item while you hold down the control (CTRL) or SHIFT key.
If you want to select all files in an open folder, click edit then select all. This will
highlight all files in the folder. To manipulate the selected items, use the menu bar
or the shortcut.
Searching for files and folders

To search for a specific file 'or folder proceed as follows:
1. From the start menu, click find /search Figure 3.18 shows a
Windows 98 find dialog box.
2. Type the name of the file and the location to look in respectively.
3. click find now button
3.8
63
Disk management using Windows
Windows operating system provides the user with tools that help him/her to
manage storage devices and media. It is important to have a routine check of all the
storage devices otherwise one may end up losing very vital data and programs.
Warning: Do not attempt these operations on disks without the guidance of the
teacher. It is preferable to use the floppy disk rather than the hard disk to perform
these operations because some of them can easily lead to loss of data and
information stored on the hard disk.
Formatting disks
Before using a floppy disk, it must be formatted. Formatting is the process of
preparing a new disk for use by imprinting empty sectors and tracks on the surface
of the disk so that the operating system can recognize and be able to access it. Most
diskettes today are sold readily formatted. Each operating system has its own
special way of formatting a disk that may make the disk not to be read by another
operating system. To format a new floppy disk proceed as follows:
1. Put a new unformatted disk into the floppy drive.
2. Double click my computer icon.
3. Right click the icon labeled 3 1/2-floppy (A:) then select: Format.
4. Select the disk capacity e.g. 1.44MB, format type i.e. either quick erase or full
5. Give the diskettes an internal name (label).
6. Click start to begin formatting.
7. Once the process is over, click Close.
Scanning a storage device for problems

Windows has a disk management tool called the scan disk that helps the user check
up and repair minor storage problems, such as lost storage locations, or damaged
surface. To scan a storage device the following is done:
1. Double click my computer icon to display the storage devices installed on the
computer.
2. Right click a drive icon e.g. 31/2-floppy disk (A:).
3. From the shortcut menu, click properties then click Tools tab, to display a dialog
box
4. Click the check now button
5. A prompt appears requesting the user to specify scandisk options like whether
errors found should be corrected automatically.
6. Once scan disk is complete, Windows will give a summary statistics on errors
encountered if any.
Using disk defragmenter to rearrange storage media content
64
Disk defragmenter is a tool that is used to rearrange scattered folders and files on a
storage media in order to speed up access to files and folders. This enables the
read/write head not to waste time looking for the same item all over the disk.
Figure 3.20 shows a disk before and after defragmentation. Notice that the
fragmented disk has related data elements spread all over it but the defragmented
one has related data consolidated close to each other.
To start disk defragmentation proceed as follows:

1.Double click my computer icon to display the storage devices installed on the
computer.
2. Right click a drive icon e.g. 3 1/2-floppy disk (A:).
3.From the shortcut menu, click properties then click tools tab
4. From the dialog box displayed, defragment now button
5. From the dialog box displayed, click defragment a process status bar is
displayed.
6. Wait for the process to complete then close the defragmenter.
Compressing the storage media

Windows provides the user with two compression tools namely, compression agent
and DriveSpace. Compressing storage media contents to fit in smaller space helps
to create more free space on the media.
DriveSpace can use the free space on an uncompressed drive to create. a new,
empty compressed drive called a host. To compress a disk proceed as follows:
1. Double click my computer icon to display the storage devices installed on the
computer.
2. Right click a drive icon e.g. 3 1/2-floppy disk (A:)
3.From the shortcut menu, properties If you are using windows XP select the
Compress drive to save disk space, check box then click ok as shown in Figure
3.21 (a). If using windows 98 click the compression tab then click compress drive
button. (Figure 3.21 (b))
4. In confirm attribute changes, select the option, you want
NB: If you are using Windows 95/ 98, click the start button, point to programs,
accessories, then system tools and select compression agent or DriveSpace.
From the compress dialog box, click drive then compress
Scanning for viruses

A computer virus is a program written by malicious persons aimed at conducting
unwanted operations like damaging disks and data. Severe virus attack can result in
system failure. There are literally thousands of these evil programs that can get into
a computer via infected floppies or even via electronic mail and the Internet.
65
Cleaning infected storage devices
To guard a computer against virus attack, special programs called antivirus
software such as Norton Antivirus, PC-cillin or McAfee should be installed on the
computer. These programs can check your system for thousands of known viruses
and eradicate them. To scan for viruses the following is done:
1. Double click my computer
2. Right click a drive icon.
3. From the shortcut menu displayed, select the name of the anti-virus program e.g.
Scan with Norton Antivirus.
4. Follow the instructions displayed by the anti-virus program to start scanning.
Backing up Data
Windows comes with a utility called backup. It enables the user to create copies of
data and programs (on separate storage device) to avoid losing important data and
program files in case the storage device or the computer fails. It is good practice to
keep backups away from the computer room to ensure security of the information
in case of a calamity such as fire. To create a back up proceed as follows:
1. Click the start-button, point to programs, accessories, system tools then click
backup
2. If a welcome to Microsoft Backup dialog box appears, click ok to close it.
3. In the Microsoft Backup dialog box, select the files and/or folders you want to
backup by placing checkmarks next to their names. When all the files in a folder
are selected, it will appear gray.
4. Follow the on screen instructions to accomplish the operation.
Restoring backed up data

To restore backed up data proceed as follows:
1. In the main backup window, choose there store tab.
2. Select the back up files to restore, choose next step and follow the Instructions
on the screen. The backed up data will be restored.
The startup (Boot up) disk

Suppose the hard disk is seriously damaged, and the computer cannot start
Windows. The only other option available would be to start the computer using a
startup disk that has booting instructions. The start up disk is usually a floppy disk
that was created using the operating system.
To create a startup disk

1. Double click my computer: icon, then the control panel
2. In the control panel double click add/remove programs.
3. In the Add/Remove programs dialog box, click startup disk, then create disk.
4. The startup disk creation progress will be displayed as shown in Figure 3.22.
66
To boot up a computer using the start up disk insert it in the floppy drive then
switch on the computer. The computer reads the boot up instructions from the
diskette then displays a command prompt such as A:> - that enables the user to
type commands. The commands help the user diagnose the problems that might
have led to boot failure.
Partitioning a disk
Partitioning a disk refers to the process of dividing a large physical disk into two
or more partitions called logical drives. A logical drive is a drive that can be
accessed as if it is a separate disk but in actual sense, it is a partition of one large
physical disk.
Reasons for partitioning a disk The reasons are:

1. When the user intends to install more than one operating systems on the same
disk. Install each on a separate partition.
2. For purposes of backup on the same disk but different partitions so that if one
partition fails, the other will still be working.
Partitioning process
To create partitions, you must have a startup or bootab1e diskette and proceed as
follows.
1. Before you switch on the computer, insert the system disk into the floppy disk
drive.
2. Switch on the computer and let it boot to A: > prompt.
3. Type FDISK command at the prompt and press the enter key.
4. A prompt Do you wish to enable large disk support (YIN) appears. Press Y to
enable the computer to support large capacity hard disks of 500MB and above
otherwise press N.
5. From the menu displayed, Choose 1 (Create DOS partition or Logical DOS
Drive) as shown in Figure 3.23.
6. From the sub menu displayed:
(a) Choose option 1 to create primary DOS partition that will be treated at the
bootab1e disk or drive C.
(b) Choose option 2 to create extended (other) DOS partitions.
(c) Choose option 3 to give your extended DOS partitions drive labels.
Once you finish partitioning the disk, reboot the computer for the changes to be
effected then format the drives created. If you do not format the drives, the
computer will not be able to access the storage media.
NB: You can also use the other FDISK options to display partition information or
Delete partitions.
3.9 Installing Windows operating system

67
Installing Windows 98
Because the operating system is the supervisor for all the other computer programs
it must be installed into the computer s hard disk before installing any other
program.
The term installation refers to the process of copying program files onto the hard
disk. Installation differs from copy paste process in that it is specifically meant to
copy executable files in a format that allows the computer to run the program.
To correctly install an operating system, carefully study the manufacturer s

documentation (manuals) in order to get the correct information on installation
procedures and system requirements. For example to install Windows 98,
Microsoft recommends that a computer should have the following minimum
requirements:
1. At least 486-66MHz Processor.
2. At least 16 MB of RAM.
3. At least 170MB of free hard disk space.
4. A CD-ROM drive because Windows 98 comes a CD-ROM.
This configuration would work but a Pentium I and a machine with
32MB of RAM and above would be much better.
Installation process
In order to install Windows 98 on a computer that does not have an operating
system, the user must have a Windows 98 Startup disk. This disk gives the user
options for loading with or without the CD-ROM support.
Because Windows 98 comes on a CD-ROM, you must boot the computer With
CD-ROM support in order for the computer to recognise the CD-ROM drive.
A successful boot displays the prompt; A :> -' Then

1. Type the drive letter that represents the CD-ROM drive at the prompt e.g. A :\>
D: then press the enter key.
The prompt should change to the letter that was typed to represent the CD drive
e.g. D: \>
This means that the computer is able to read whatever is in the CD-ROM drive.
2. Type SETUPEXE e.g. D :\> SETUP then press the enter key.
First Setup scans the available disks for errors and if an error is encountered, it is
fixed but if it is more serious, the setup process is halted.
After this, the setup program (Wizard) asks you a few questions, gets you accept
the license agreement and enter the product key. See Figure 3.24.
68
The rest of the installation is automated. All you need to do is just relax and let the
wizard complete the installation task.
Troubleshooting Windows related problems

The term troubleshooting refers to the process of diagnosing and trying to fix
(resolve) hardware or software related problems. When using
113
Windows, you may experience some problems such as;

1. Failure to load the operating system during the booting process. 2. The computer
hangs (stops responding) now and then.
3. Abnormal restarting.
4. Displaying a blue screen with a message such as Fatal exception
error has occurred .. etc.
These problems may be due to one of the following reasons:

1. There may be hardware conflict or incompatibility caused by interrupt request
(IRQ) or missing Widows device drivers such as
Himem.sys (device drivers in Windows that helps in allocation of main memory)
2. There was a problem in the installation process e.g. missing system files that
could not be copied due to a damaged installation disk.
3. There may be a problem with your hard disk boot sector either due to virus
infection or damage.
4. Insufficient system memory.
5. Corrupted system Windows registry. Registry is a database where Windows
stores its configuration information such as system hardware, installed programs,
and property settings.
6. Due to interrupt request conflict i.e. if two devices are sharing a common
interrupt request number.
To resolve these problems you need to:

1. Study the troubleshooting guide that comes with the operating system
2. During the booting process, hold down the F8 key on the keyboard in order to
get the start-up options from which you can choose to start the computer in safe
mode or display the command prompt.
This will help you to check whether the problem is due to disk failure or corrupted
registry. With safe mode, you can establish whether the problem is due to
corrupted system registry or failed devices. If the registry has failed, the computer
will prompt you to reinstall the registry backup. If the problem is due to disk
failure, start the computer using the start-up disk and type Scandisk C: at the
69
command prompt. Scandisk will establish whether the failure is due to bad file or
directory structure or damaged disk surface.
3. Use the device manager found in System properties dialog box to check on the
devices that are causing problems. You get system properties dialog box by right
clicking my computer then properties
4. Reinstall the operating system if the problems above persist. In case the problem
is beyond repair.
APPENDIX I
Beyond basics
Arranging multiple application Windows on the desktop One of the

biggest advantages of multitasking is that one can open and work with several
applications. One may wish to arrange open Windows either, side by side (Tile) or
one on top of another (Cascade).
Tiling windows
Tile horizontally
This arranges all running programs one below the other as shown in Figure AI.I.
The program in focus will have its title bar highlighted. To switch to another
program, simply click its title bar. To tile horizontally:
1. Right click the task bar
2. Click tile windows horizontally
Fig. A 1.1: Tiling horizontally
Tile vertically
Applications can be arranged down the screen beside each other as shown
in Figure AI.2. To tile vertically:
1. Right click the task bar
2. Click tile windows vertically
Undoing tile
You can undo tiling by right clicking the from the shortcut menu.
then click
Cascading
Each window is placed on top of the other with the active program being foremost
as shown in Figure A1.3. To cascade:
1. Right click the task bar.
70
2. Click cascade windows
Undoing Cascade
You can undo cascade by right clicking the taskbar, then click undo cascade from
the shortcut menu.
Customising common features in Windows 98
Customising the desktop

Windows lets the user change desktop appearance and display.
To customise the desktop, right click the desktop to display properties dialog box
as shown in Figure A.1.4 and make the appropriate changes by clicking each tab.
The background
To set the background
1. Click the back ground tab
2. In Wallpaper list, select a wallpaper pattern.
3. Click on tile to cover entire screen with small wallpaper images or
stretch to fill the wallpaper with one large image or center to let the wallpaper
occupy only the centre of the desktop.
4. Click apply to see the changes before you close the dialog box,
5. Click ok to effect the changes and close the dialog box.
Setting the screen saver

If the screen saver is set, it starts playing on the screen if the computer is left idle
for a set period of time.
To set a screen saver:
1. Click the screen saver tab

2. Select a screen saver style from the screen saver list
3. click apply to see the changes before you close the dialog box,
4. click ok to effect the changes and close the dialog box.
NB: To clear the screen saver press the mouse button or any keyboard key.
Changing the screen appearance

This will change the appearance of Windows items such as icon size, border
colours, highlights etc.
To change the screen appearance:
71
1. Click the appearance tab
2. From the schemes list box, select the color scheme such as rose, storm,
Windows standard etc.
3. From the items list box, select the item that the scheme will apply to i.e. icon,
desktop, menu bars etc.
4. Click apply to see the changes before you close the dialog box,
Set Windows items effects

With Windows 98, the user can change icon type as well as visual effects of most
of items such size of icons, animate windows, and menus among others. To set
Windows effects:
Web
With Windows 98 you can customise the desktop by integrating the Web
features on it. You can also turn the Web elements into desktop elements and
update them at any time, this is done by:
1. Click the web tab to apply web effects on the desktop.
2. Check view my active desktop as a web
3. Click apply to see the changes before you close the dialog box.
Setting display colours and resolution

The clarity of an object depends on color intensity and resolution of the display
unit.
To change color and resolution settings

1. Click the Settings tab.
2. From colours list box, select the calibration e.g. 256 colours.
3. Use the slide button to adjust the screen resolutions e.g. 800 x 600 pixels.
4. Click apply to see the changes before you close the dialog box.
5. Click o.K. to effect the changes and close the dialog box.
Setting date and time

To set date and time:
1. Click the start button, point to settings then click control panel alternatively
double click the Clock on the system tray.
2. In the control panel, double-click date/time icon.
3. Adjust date and time accordingly.
72
Mouse settings
To change the default mouse button, double click speed and the pointer appearance
to set a mouse:
1. Click the, Start button, point to Settings then; control panel.
2. In the control panel, double click the mouse icon.
3. Change the mouse properties the click ok.
APPENDIX III
Windows Xp desktop feature

They re some slight changes on how some icons appear and their labeling on the
desktop as shown to enhance security, the user has to log on by pressing Ctrl + Alt
+ Del keys in order to use the computer resources.
The start menu
The start menu layout is slightly different from that of Windows 95, 98 and Me.
The start button displays a pane divided into two. The control panel has replaced
the settings menu while the shut down and log off commands can be accessed on
the start menu as shown in Figure A3.2
Changing desktop properties

To change desktop properties:
1. Right click a blank area on the desktop.
2. From the shortcut menu, click properties to display the desktop properties dialog
as shown in Figure A3.3.
3. To change a property, select a tab associated to the property then make the
necessary changes. For example to change the desktop' background, select the
desktop tab as shown and choose a background.
Shutting down the computer

Simply click the start button to display the shut down dialog box similar to the one
shown in FigureA3.4. As with Windows Me, in XP one cannot also restart in MS
DOS mode. New commands such as log off Administrator and Hibernate have
been introduced.
APPENDIX IV
Glossary
Access time: The length of time needed to write or read data from storage.
Application package: It is a program that is used in processing user specific needs

sometimes called off-the-shelf or canned programs.
73
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU): A part of the central processing unit that
performs computations and makes comparisons as instructed.
Artificial intelligence (AI): A field of computer technology in which researchers

and electronic product developers concentrate on developing computers that
imitates human intelligence.
Bits (binary digits): Since digital computers and computer accessories circuitry
represent data as a pattern of on and off state of electric current, a bit is a 1 or a 0
used to represent the two states respectively.
Byte: A group of bits used to store a single character. A byte usually consists of
seven or eight bits, which the computer handles as a unit.
Central processing unit (CPU): This is the brain of a computer, which apart from
performing processing tasks; it controls all other activities of a computer system.
Computer hardware: The physical computer equipment one can see and touch.
Such equipment includes the system unit, input devices, storage devices and output
devices.
Computer program: A set of instructions that direct the computer what tasks to
perform and how to perform it. These instructions are specially written using a
computer programming language.
Computer software: See computer program
Computer system: A computer system refers not only to the physically attached
devices to the computer but also to software and the user.
Control unit: The part of the CPU that interprets the instructions and controls all
the operations in a computer system. The control unit monitors on the input,
storage, the arithmetic and logic operations, and the output operations to have the
instructions carried out.
Data: This are the raw facts represented by numeric, alphabetic characters and
special symbols that are processed into information by the computer.
Data processing: The varied activities performed to convert data into useful
information.
Desktop publishing: The process of designing and creating professional documents

such as books, magazines, brochures and cards using specialised software such as
PageMaker, which instructs the computer to size, insert, graphics as well as print a
document.
74
Direct access: The ability to go directly to the storage location for the particular
data required for processing, without having to search through all the records from
the beginning of the file.
Drive: Devices used to read and/or write (store) data on a storage media.
Electronic mail (e-mail): A type of mail system that uses computers and the
telecommunication facilities to transmit messages. Messages may be in the form of
letters, memos, reports, or graphic displays.
Electronic spreadsheet: Computer software that has rows and columns used for
doing a number of calculations and forecasting future trends.
Floppy disk: A floppy disk or simply a diskette is made up of a small flexible disk
coated with iron oxide. This disk is covered with a plastic protective case. It is
portable thus making it the most common type of storage device used with
microcomputers.
Hard copy: Hardcopy refers to the tangible output produced mostly on a piece of
paper by devices such as printers and plotters.
Hard disk: Also referred to as a hard drive or a Winchester disk, is a sealed unit in
which are shiny, metallic disk platters and read/write heads that reads and records
data on the disks.
Information processing cycle: The full set of operations that take place, from
collection of input data to the availability of output (information).
Input: A collection of raw data at the start of information processing cycle.
Input/output (I/O) devices: Devices used for entering data to be processed and for
reporting the results of processing.
Integrated circuits: Thousands of small circuits etched on a silicon chip. As these

circuits are made more and more compact, they are called Large Scale Integrated
(LSI) and Very Large Scale integrated (VLSI) circuits.
Menu: A program s list of user choices or possible actions usually shown on the
screen. Choices are usually expressed in simple language statements for ease of
use.
Microcomputer: The name given to a small, low cost computer system with a
microprocessor as its brain. A microcomputer can perform input, processing,
75
storage and retrieval, and output operations rapidly, accurately, automatically, and
economically despite its relatively small physical size.
Microprocessor: A complete central processing unit of a computer placed on a

single Large-Scale Integrated (LSI) circuits chip.
Minicomputer: A computer having a smaller capacity for both primary and

secondary storage than medium size and large size mainframe computers.
Networks: Communication systems that connect computers, terminals, and other

electronic office equipment for the purpose of efficient communication and sharing
of resources.
Operating system: This is a complex program that is responsible for controlling

processing operations in a computer system. It handles input, output, storage and
running of other user programs. Examples of common Operating Systems are
Microsoft Windows 95/9812000/XP, UNIX and Linux, Apple Mac OS etc.
127
Optical disk: These are disks on which data is recorded using a laser beam (a very
strong concentrated light). The beam bums the thin shiny reflective surface to
record data.
Output: Useful information available at the end of the information processing

cycle.
Plotter: One type of graphics printer used to provide hard copy of graphical output.
The output appears in such forms as multicolored charts, graphs, diagrams and
maps.
Random-Access Memory (RAM): A type of main memory that holds data and
information temporarily before and after processing. It is called random access
memory because the data contained in each storage address can be directly
retrieved without regard for the sequence in which it was, stored.
Read-Only Memory (ROM): The other type of main memory with data or
instructions permanently or semi permanently recorded in it. This means that no
new data can be transferred in to ROM during processing. ROM is used to store
program instructions that the computer always needs to operate. '
Robotics: The use of robots controlled by computer to perform work ordinarily

done by human beings. Robots usually have computer controlled arms and a
control camera placed inside that enables it recognise different objects.
76
Scanner: An input device that captures data from source documents and objects.
Semiconductor: An electronic component consisting of small chips of silicon on

which integrated and support circuits are etched. It is used for developing
microprocessors, primary and other electronic components.
Storage: The storing of data and information for future us. The length of time the
data is stored can vary from less than a second to months or even years.
Supercomputer: The largest, fast, and most expensive type of computer available.
They can perform hundreds of millions of complex scientific calculations in a
second.
Utility program: A collection of instructions designed to make common processing

operations run smoothly.
Volatile memory: The term applied to semi-conductor memory because its content
is lost when the electric current is turned off. The content must be stored on an
auxiliary storage if it is to be used again.
Word processing: The processing of textual data to produce documents such as

letters, reports, manuals, catalogs, newspapers, magazines, books or other
documents.
77

Computer Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Computer Notes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Computer Notes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

COMPUTER APPLICATION

The system unit

Mainframe computers handle all kinds of problems whether scientific or

Classification according to purpose

Special purpose computers

Classification according to functionality

8 How to represent a number using an abacus

First generation computers (1940s to 1958)

Second generation computers (1958 -1964)

Fourth generation computers (1970 to present)

Fifth generation computers

predecessors, and whose size is increasingly becoming smaller. These computers

Areas where computers are used

Domestic and entertainment

1.6 The computer laboratory

Safety precautions and practices in the computer

Protection against fire

Stable power supply

Dust and dump control

Practical hands on skills

called the basic input output system (BIOS).

Warm booting (restarting)

Shutting down a computer

Procedure for shutting down a computer

Cursor movement and editing keys

computers may lack a separate numeric keypad due to size limitations.

Practical keyboard skills

Using the mouse

USING THE MOUSE:

Terminologies associated with the use of a mouse

1. Point to the item you want to drag.

Keyboard and keypad

Optical mark recognition (OMR)

Optical bar recognition (OBR)

Optical character recognition (OCR) / image scanners

Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR)

Magnetic stripe recognition

Speech recognition or voice input

Touch screen, digitisers and digital cameras

The central processing unit (CPU)

Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)

Main memory (primary storage or working storage)

Read only memory (ROM)

Random access memory (RAM)

Characteristics of random access memory (RAM) are:

Instruction register: This temporarily holds an instruction just before it is

Overall functional organization of the CPU

Fig. 2.8 Functional organisation of the CPU

Types of processors and their clock speeds

Processor clock speed

Processor Description Clock speed

Softcopy output devices.

Examples of graphic adapters are:

Light-emitting diodes (LED)

Hardcopy output devices

Removable storage devices

Disadvantages of using magnetic tapes

Floppy disks "