Chapter 4

CONTROL STRUCTURES

Introduction to computer science

1
Outline

n 1.Selection structure
q The if-else statement
q switch statement
n 2. Repetition structure
q while loops
q for loops
q do-while Loops

2
1. Selection structure

n The flow of control means the order in which a program’s

statements are executed.
n Unless directed otherwise, the normal flow of control for
all programs is sequential.

n Selection, repetition and function invocation structures

permit the flow of control to be altered in a defined way.

n In this chapter, you learn to use selection structures and

repetition structures in C++

3
SELECTION CRITERIA
n Comparison Operators
Comparison operators are used to compare two operands for
equality or to determine if one numeric value is greater than another.

A Boolean value of true or false is returned after two operands are

compared. C++ uses a nonzero value to represent a true and a zero
value to represent a false value.

Operator Description Examples

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
== equal a ==‘y’
!= not equal m!= 5
> greater than a*b > 7
< less than b<6
<= less than or equal b <= a
>= greater than or equal c >= 6

4
Logical operators
n Logical operators are used for creating more complex conditions.
Like comparison operators, a Boolean value of true or false is
returned after the logical operation is executed.

Operator Description
---------------------------------------------------
&& AND
|| OR
! NOT
n Example:
(age > 40) && (term < 10)
(age > 40) || (term < 10)
!(age > 40)
( i==j) || (a < b) || complete

5
 Operator precedence and associativity
n The relational and logical operators have a hierarchy of
execution similar to the arithmetic operators.
Level Operator Associativity
-------------------------------------------------------
1. ! unary - ++ -- Right to left
2. * / % Left to right
3. + - Left to right
4. < <= > >= Left to right
5. == != Left to right
6. && Left to right
7. || Left to right
8. = += -= *= /= Right to left

6
n Example: Assume the following declarations:

char key = ‘m’;

int i = 5, j = 7, k = 12;
double x = 22.5;

Expression Equivalent Value Interpretation

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
i + 2 == k-1 (i + 2) == ( k –1) 0 false
‘a’ +1 == ‘b’ (‘a’ +1) == ‘b’ 1 true
25 >= x + 1.0 25 >= (x + 1.0) 1 true
key –1 > 20 (key –1) > 20 0 false

7
Order of evaluation

The following compound condition is evaluated as:

(6*3 == 36/2) || (13<3*3 + 4) && !(6-2 < 5)

(18 == 18) || (13 < 9 + 4) && !(4 < 5)
1 || (13 < 13) && ! 1
1 || 0 && 0
1 || 0
1

8
The bool Data Type
n As specified by the ANSI/ISO standard, C++ has a built-in Boolean
data type, bool, containing the two values true and false.
n The actual values represented by the bool values, true and false, are
the integer values 1 and 0, respectively.
n Example 4.1.1
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
bool t1, t2;
t1 = true;
t2 = true;
cout << “The value of t1 is “<< t1
<< “\n and the value of t2 is “<< t2 << endl;
return 0;
}
9
THE if-else STATEMENT
Previous
The if-else statement directs statement
the computer to select a
statement based on the result
of an expression.
No
Is condition
The syntax: true ?

if (conditional expression) Yes

statement 1
Statement 1 Statement 2
else
statement 2

10
 START
Example 4.2.1
Input We construct a C++ program for
taxable
determining income taxes.
Yes Assume that these taxes are
taxable <= assessed at 2% of taxable
CUTOFF?
incomes less than or equal to
No
$20,000. For taxable income
greater than $20,000, taxes are
taxes = HIGHRATE*(taxable –
CUTOFF) + FIXEDAMT 2.5% of the income that
exceeds $20,000 plus a fixed
taxes = LOWRATE*taxable
amount of $400.

Output
taxes

END

11
Example 4.2.1
#include <iostream>
#include <iomanip>
using namespace std;
const float LOWRATE = 0.02; // lower tax rate
const float HIGHRATE = 0.025; // higher tax rate
const float CUTOFF = 20000.0; // cut off for low rate
const float FIXEDAMT = 400;
int main()
{
float taxable, taxes;
cout << "Please type in the taxable income: ";
cin >> taxable;
if (taxable <= CUTOFF)
taxes = LOWRATE * taxable;
else
taxes = HIGHRATE * (taxable - CUTOFF) + FIXEDAMT;
// set output format
cout << fixed
<< showpoint // show the decimal point
<< setprecision(2);
cout << "Taxes are $ " << taxes << endl;
return 0; 12
}
The results of the above program:
Please type in the taxable income: 10000
Taxes are $ 200.00
and
Please type in the taxable income: 30000
Taxes are $ 650.00

13
Block Statement
n Syntax: { declarations or statements }
n A block statement is used to combine many statements
into one statement.
n Declarations are allowed in a block statement. These
declarations are valid only within the block and hide
other outside declarations with the same name
n The location within a program where a variable can be
used formally referred to as the scope of the variable.

14
n Example:
{ // start of outer block
int a = 25;
int b = 17;
cout << “The value of a is “ << a << “ and b is “ << b << endl;
{ // start of inner block
float a = 46.25;
int c = 10;
cout << “ a is now “ << a << “b is now “ << b
<< “ and c is “ << c << endl;
}
cout << “ a is now “ << a
<< “b is now “ << b << endl;
} // end of outer block
The output is
The value of a is 25 and b is 17
a is now 46.25 b is now 17 and c is 10
a is now 25 b is now 17

15
 One-way Selection
n A useful modification of the if-
else statement involves Previous
statement
omitting the else part of the
statement. In this case, the if
No
statement takes a shortened Is condition
format: true ?

Yes

Statement(s)
if (conditional expression)
statement

16
Example 4.2.2
The following program displays an error message for the grades
that is less than 0 or more than 100.
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int grade = 0;
cout << "\nPlease enter a grade: ";
cin >> grade;
if(grade < 0 || grade > 100)
cout << " The grade is not valid\n";
return 0;
}

17
NESTED if STATEMENT
n The inclusion of one or more if statement within an existing if
statement is called a nested if statement.
n The if-else Chain
When an if statement is included in the else part of an existing if
statement, we have an if-else chain.

if (expression-1)
statement-1
else if (expression-2)
statement-2
else
statement-3
n Example 4.3.1

// This program can solve quadratic equation

18
 The output of the above
#include <iostream> program:
#include <cmath>
#include <iomanip> Enter the coefficients of the
using namespace std; equation:
int main() 1 5 6
{ x1 = -2.0 x2 = -3.0
double a, b, c, del, x1, x2;
cout << “Enter the coefficients of the equation: “<< endl;
cin >> a >> b >> c;
del = b*b – 4.0*a*c;
if (del == 0.0)
{
x1 = x2 = -b/(2*a);
cout << "x1 = “ << x1 << setw(20) << “x2 = “ << x2 << endl;
}
else if (del > 0.0)
{
x1 = (-b + sqrt(del))/(2*a);
x2 = (-b – sqrt(del))/(2*a);
cout << "x1 = “ << x1 << setw(20) << “x2 = “ << x2 << endl;
}
else // del < 0
cout << "There is no solution\n";
return 0; 19
}
switch statement
t=expression

Y
n A convenient way to write multi-way t==v1
statement
n Syntax: N Statements 1
switch (expression) { Y
t==v2
case v1: statements 1
case v2: statements 2 N Statements 2
case v3: statements 3
… Y
t==v3
default: statements 4
} N Statements 3
n break; statement in a switch statement
transfers control out of the switch
statement Statements 4

Programming Fundamentals 20
 Example
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
char o;
float num1, num2;
cout << "Enter an operator (+, -, *, /): ";
cin >> o;
cout << "Enter two operands: ";
cin >> num1 >> num2;
switch (o) {
case '+':
cout << num1 << " + " << num2 << " = " << num1 + num2 << endl;
break;
case '-':
cout << num1 << " - " << num2 << " = " << num1 - num2 << endl;
break;
case '*':
cout << num1 << " * " << num2 << " = " << num1 * num2 << endl;
break;
case '/':
cout << num1 << " / " << num2 << " = " << num1 / num2 << endl;
break;
default:
cout << "Error! operator is not correct”;
}
return 0;
}

Programming Fundamentals 21
2. Repetition structures
n C++ provides three different forms of repetition structures:
1. while structure
2. for structure
3. do-while structure

n Each of these structures requires a condition that must be

evaluated.
n The condition can be tested at either (1) the beginning or (2) the end
of the repeating section of code.

n If the test is at the beginning of the loop, the type of loop is a pre-test
loop.

n If the test is at the end of the loop, the type of loop is a post-test
loop.

22
Fixed count loop and variable condition loop
n In addition to where the condition is tested, repeating sections of
code are also classified.
n In a fixed count loop, the condition is used to keep track of how
many repetitions have occurred. In this kind of loops, a fixed number
of repetitions are performed, at which point the repeating section of
code is exited.

n In many situations, the exact number of repetitions are not known in

advance. In such cases, a variable condition loop is used.
n In a variable condition loop, the tested condition does not depend on
a count being achieved, but rather on a variable that can change
interactively with each pass through the loop. When a specified
value is encountered, regardless of how many iterations have
occurred, repetitions stop.

23
 while loops
The while statement is used for
repeating a statement as long
as a given conditional
expression is evaluated to true. Enter the while statement

The syntax for the while false

statement: test the
condition ?

true

while (condition expression) Execute the

statement (s)
statement
Exit the while
statement

24
Example 5.2.1
// This program prints out the total of a sequence of grades until
an invalid grade is input
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
const int HIGHGRADE = 100;
const int LOWGRADE = 0;
int main() {
int grade,sum = 0;
cout << “Input a grade between 0 and 100: “;
cin >> grade; /
while (grade >= LOWGRADE && grade <= HIGHGRADE) {
sum += grade;
cout << “Input a grade between 0 and 100: “;
cin >> grade;
}
cout << “The total of valid grades: “ << sum << endl;
return 0;
}
25
Sentinels
n In programming, data values used to indicate either the start
or end of a data series are called sentinels.
n The sentinels must be selected so as not to conflict with
legitimate data values.

26
 do-while statement Enter the do-while
statement

Execute the
statement (s)

false
test the
condition ?

true

n do..while statement is used

to create post-test loops.
Exit the do-while
n The syntax: statement

do
statement
while (conditional expression);

27
Example of do-while
n Example 4.8.1This program prints out the total of a sequence of
grades until an invalid grade is input
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int grade = 0,sum = 0;
do {
sum += grade;
cout << "Input a grade between 0 and 100: ";
cin >> grade;
}
while (grade >= 0 && grade <= 100) ;
cout << "The total of valid grades: " << sum << endl;
return 0;
}
28
Example of do-while
n Example 4.8.1This program prints out from 1 to 10
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
int count;
count = 1;
while (count <=10) {
cout << count << “ “;
count++;
}
return 0;
}

29
In the above program, the loop incurs a counter-controlled repetition.
Counter-controlled repetition requires:
1) the name of a control variable (the variable count )
2) the initial value of the control variable ( count is initialized to
1 in this case )
3) the condition that tests for the final value of the control
variable (i.e., whether looping should continue) ;
4) the increment (or decrement) by which the control variable is
modified each time through the loop.

30
for statement
n The for statement is used for repeating a statement or series of
statements as long as a given conditional expression evaluates
to true.

n One of the main differences between while statement and for

statement is that in addition to a condition, you can also
include code in the for statement
- to initialize a counter variable and
- changes its value with each iteration

n The syntax of the for statement:

for (initialization expression; condition; update statement)

statement

31
Enter the for statement

Initialization expression

false
test the
condition ?

true

Execute the
statement (s)

Exit the for

statement
Execute the update
statement

32
Example 4.6.1
//#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int count;
for (count = 1; count <= 10; count++)
cout << count << " ";
return 0;
}

The output of the above program:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

33
break statement in loop
n The break statement causes an exit from the innermost enclosing
loop.

Example:
while (count <= 10)
{
cout << “Enter a number: “; cin >> num;
if (num > 76) {
cout << “you lose!\n”;
break;
}
else
cout << “Keep on trucking!\n”;
count++;
}
//break jumps to here
34
continue statement
n The continue statement halts a looping statement and restarts the
loop with a new iteration.
int count = 0;
while (count < 30) {
cout << “Enter a grade: “;
cin >> grade;
if (grade < 0 || grade > 100)
continue;
total = total + grade;
count++;
}

n In the above program, invalid grades are simply ignored and only
valid grades are added to the total.

35
The null statement
n All statements must be terminated by a semicolon. A semicolon with
nothing preceding it is also a valid statement, called the null
statement. Thus, the statement
;
is a null statement.
Example:
if (a > 0)
b = 7;
else ;

goto statement
A goto statement is a kind of jump statement. Its destination is specified
by a label within the statement. A label is simply an identifier followed by
a statement, separated by a colon.
Example:
if (a > 20)
goto esc;
else cout << a*a;
esc: cout << endl;
36
NESTED LOOPS
In many situations, it is convenient to use a loop contained
within another loop. Such loops are called nested loops.
n Example 4.7.1
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
const int MAXI = 5; The output of the
program:
const int MAXJ = 4;
int i, j; i is now 1
for(i = 1; i <= MAXI; i++) // start of outer loop j=1 j=2 j=3 j=4
{ i is now 2
j=1 j=2 j=3 j=4
cout << "\n i is now " << i << endl; i is now 3
for(j = 1; j <= MAXJ; j++) // start of inner loop j=1 j=2 j=3 j=4
cout << " j = " << j; // end of inner loop i is now 4
} // end of outer loop j=1 j=2 j=3 j=4
i is now 5
cout << endl; j=1 j=2 j=3 j=4
return 0;
} 39