Transistor Notes (BJT) ECE 2210 A.

Stolp
3/25/00 rev, 11/21/06
Imagine, if you will, a hydraulic device where the flow in a small pipe controls a valve in a
larger pipe. The greater the flow in the small pipe the more it opens the valve in the
large pipe. Take a look at the figure to the right. As an engineering student you should
immediately see that this could be a useful device. One use might be as a
flow-controlled on/off valve (switch). Or, depending on the flows and pressures involved,
it could be used as an amplifier. That is, it could be used to make some hydraulic
signal larger and more powerful. (A signal is a flow or pressure which conveys
information and an amplifier is a device which increases the power of a signal.)
The electrical equivalent of this flow-controlled valve is a transistor.
Specifically the NPN bipolar junction transistor (BJT). (There are
other types.) The symbol for a transistor is shown below. Notice that it's a
three-terminal device. That's because the control current (into the base) and
the controlled current (into the collector) join together to form a single current
out of the bottom (the emitter current). The valve drawn below is a more
accurate analogy for the electrical transistor.
Collector
IC

Base
IB

IE

Emitter
NPN transistor
A transistor has three terminals-- the base, the collector, and the emitter. The current flow from the
collector to the emitter (through the transistor) is controlled by the current flow from the base to the
emitter. A small base current can control a much larger collector current. Often they are related by a
simple factor, called beta (β). For a given base current, the transistor will allow β times as much
collector current. The key word here is allow. The transistor doesn't make the current flow-- some
outside power source does that. It simply regulates the current like the valve above. Big power
transistors usually have a βs between 20 and 100. For little signal transistors, β is usually between 100
and 400. Darlington transistors (really two transistors in one package) can have βs in the 1000s.
A transistor can be used as a current controlled switch. When there's no base current, it's off, like
an open switch. When there is a base current, it's on. If something outside of the transistor is
limiting the collector current to less than β times the base current then the transistor will turn on as
much as it can, like a closed switch. A transistor that is off is operating in its "cutoff" region. A
transistor that is fully on is operating in its "saturation" region. A transistor that is partially on is in
active control of its collector current (β times the base current) and is operating in its "active"
region. (Note the valve analogy has a problem with the "open" and "closed" terms.)
There are many types of transistors. PNP transistors work like the NPN transistors, except that all
the currents and voltages are backwards. Field-effect transistors (FETs) are are controlled by
voltage instead of current and come in many varieties. In this class we'll only work with NPN
transistors.
Transistor Notes (BJT) p1
 Silicon diodes are made of two layers of doped silicon, a P layer is
the anode and an N layer is the cathode. A P-N junction is a diode.
Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) consist of three layers
of doped silicon. The NPN transistor has a thin layer of
P-doped silicon sandwiched between two layers of
N-doped silicon. Each P-N junction can act like a diode.
In fact, this is a fairly good way to check a transistor with
an ohmmeter (set to the diode setting).
The base-emitter junction always acts like a diode, but
because the base is very thin, it makes the other junction act
like a controlled valve (you probably don't want to know the
details, so call it magic).
A bipolar junction transistor contains
Transistor Symbols
PNP two diode junctions
Cutoff Active Saturation
reverse reverse forward

reverse forward forward

Junction bias

Notice the subscripts Replace vBE with vEB and

v BE = v B vE vCE with vEC in equations below
v CE = v C vE

Modes or regions of operation (vBE and vCE are approximate)

Cutoff (off) Active (partially on) Saturation (fully on)
vBE < 0.7V vBE ~ 0.7V vBE ~ 0.7V
|
iB = 0 iB > 0 iB > 0 | input from
| logic circuits
vCE > 0.2V vCE ~ 0.2V
|
iC = 0 iC = βiB = αiE α~1 iC < βiB limited by something |
controlled by the transistor outside of the transistor |
| Motor Driver
The Transistor as a switch
One of the most common uses of a transistor is as a current-controlled switch. Transistor switches
are the basis for all digital circuits, but that's probably not where you'll use the transistor. More
likely, you'll want to control a high-current device, like a motor, with anintegrated-circuit output from
a computer or logic circuit . The small integrated circuit won't be able to supply enough current to
run the motor, so you'll use a transistor to switch the larger current that flows through the motor. The
input is hooked to the base of the transistor. (Often through a current limiting resistor, since VB will
only be 0.7V when the transistor is on.) A small IB can switch on the much larger IC and VCE can be
as low as 0.2V.
VCC: The terminal marked VCC above is just a circuit terminal hooked to a power supply, drawn in
dotted lines here, but usually not shown at all. Power supply wires, like ground wires are often not
shown explicitly on schematics. It makes the schematics a little less cluttered and easier to read.
Diode: If you're switching an inductive load, like a motor, you should add a diode so that you're not
trying to switch off the motor current instantly. The diode (called a flyback diode when used like this)
provides a path for the current still flowing through the motor when the transistor is switched off.
Transistor Notes (BJT) p2
H-bridge: Of course, if you want to make the motor turn in both
directions you'll need a more complex circuit. Look at the circuit at right,
it's has the shape of an H, hence the name. If transistors Q 1 and Q4 are
on, then the current flows as shown, left-to-right through the motor. If
transistors Q 2 and Q3 are on, then the current flows the other way through
the motor and the motor will turn in the opposite direction. (The motor
here is a permanent-magnet DC motor.) In my circuit, the top two
transistors are PNPs, which makes the circuit more efficient. The
H-bridge could also be made with all NPNs or with power MOSFET
transistors.
An H-bridge requires four inputs, all operated in concert. To turn on Q1 and Q4,
as shown, Vin1 would have to be low and Vin4 would have to be high. At the same time, the other
two transistors would have to be off, so Vin2 would have to be high and Vin3 would have to be low.
If the control circuit makes a mistake and turns on Q1 and Q3 (or
Q2 and Q4) at the same time you'll have a toaster instead of a
motor driver, at least for a short while.
The circuit at left requires only two inputs.
Transistors Q5 and Q6 work as inverters, when
their inputs are high, their outputs are low and
vice-versa. The resistors are known as pull-up
resistors.
The H-bridge should also include flyback diodes.

Linear Amplifiers
The objective of a linear amplifier is to output a faithful reproduction of an input signal, only bigger.
A voltage amplifier makes the signal voltage bigger. A current amplifier makes the signal current
bigger. Many amplifiers do both. All amplifiers should make the signal power bigger (depends
somewhat on the load). Of course that means that they need a source of power, generally DC
power from a battery or power supply. The signals are usually AC.

Unlike transistor switches, which operate in cutoff and saturation, linear amplifiers must operate in the
active region. Important relations: (active region)
v BE = v B v E = 0.7 . V v CE = v C v E > 0.7 . V (~ 0.2V if saturated)
i C = β. i B i C = α. i E ~ i E
Bias:
Outside of the active region the input (base current) doesn't linearly control the output (collector
current). To work as an linear amplifier, a transistor must operate in the active region. That means
that the transistor must be turned on part way even when there's no signal at all. Look back at the
valve analogy, if small fluctuations in the horizontal pipe flow (iB) should produce larger but similar
fluctuations in the vertical pipe flow (iC), then there must always be some flow. If either flow ever
stops, the horizontal pipe flow (iB) is no longer in control.
All voltages and currents can be shown in
To work in the active region iB and iC must be positive for all three different ways
values of the AC signals. i B and iC must be biased to some examples meaning
positive DC value. We use capital letters (IB and IC) for these CAPCAP V
B I C DC, Bias
DC bias values and lower case letters (ib and ic) for the AC
smsm vb i c AC, signal
signals that will appear as fluctuations of these DC values
smCAP vB iC DC and AC Together
Transistor Notes (BJT) p3
The objective of bias then, is to partially turn on the transistor, to turn it, sort-of, half-way on. Now if
I twiddle i B, iC will show a similar, but bigger, twiddle-- that's the whole idea. The transistor should
never go into cutoff for any expected input signal, otherwise you'll getclipping at the output.
Clipping is a form of distortion, where the output no longer looks like the input.
Furthermore, the transistor must not saturate. That will also cause clipping at the output.

Because β can vary widely from transistor to transistor of the same part number and VBE changes
with temperature, achieving a stable bias can be a bit of a problem. Usually an emitter resistor
(RE) is needed to stabilize the bias.

DC Analysis in the active region

DC analysis applies to both switching and bias, although the circuits we'll look
at here will include an RE and we'll be working in the active region, meaning they
are bias circuits. The key to DC analysis with an RE is usually finding V B.
The circuit at right shows a typical bias arrangement. The equations below
are for that circuit, adapt them as necessary to fit your actual circuit.
If you can neglect IB:
Often in quick-and-dirty analysis you can neglect the base current, IB. In that case:
R B2 VE
V B = V CC. V E = V B 0.7 . V IE = ~ IC V C = V CC I C. R C
R B1 R B2 RE

This assumption is OK if: R B1 || R B2 << β. R E

Quick check: R B1 < 10. R E and/or R B2 < 10. R E Should result in <10% error if β =100

If you can't neglect IB:

Then you need to make a Thevenin equivalent of the base bias resistors.

R B2 1
R BB = (Thevenin Eq.)
V BB = V CC. 1 1
R B1 R B2
R B1 R B2

From the base's point-of-view, the emitter resistor will look β( + 1)

times bigger than it really is. This is because (β + 1) times as
much current flows through RE than into the base. We can
ignore the fact that the current is bigger if we pretend that the
resistor is bigger. That leads to the simplified circuit. (Usually
we use β as the factor rather than (β + 1), after all β just isn't that
well known anyway.)

V BB 0.7 . V
IB = I C = β. I B ~ I E V E = I E. R E ~ I C. R E V B= V E 0.7 . V
R BB β. R E
V C = V CC I C. R C

VE
OR: V B = I B. β. R E 0.7 . V V E= V B 0.7 . V IE = ~ IC V C = V CC I C. R C
RE

Transistor Notes (BJT) p4

Examples, DC (Bias) Analysis
V CC 20. V Given:
1) V B 3 . V, regardless of current into base
RC 10. kΩ V CC 20. V R C 10. kΩ R E 2.7 . kΩ

Find IC, VC, VCE, and PQ:

Solution:
VB 3.V VE VB 0.7 . V V E = 2.3 V
RE 2.7 . kΩ
VE
IE I E = 0.852 mA ~ I C IE
RE
VC V CC I C. R C V C = 11.48 V

V CE VC VE V CE = 9.18 V > 0.2V, OK, is in active region

PQ V CE. I C P Q = 7.82 mW

2) V CC 10. V Given: may neglect IB

V CC 10. V VC 7.0 . V R B1 8. kΩ R B2 2. kΩ RE 220. Ω
IC RC
R B1 8. kΩ Find VB, VE, IC, RC, VCE, IRB2, and PQ:
VC 7.0 . V
Solution:
R B2
VB V CC. VB =2 V
R B1 R B2

I RB2 RE 220. Ω VE VB 0.7 . V V E = 1.3 V

R B2 2. kΩ
VE
IE I E = 5.91 mA ~ IC IE
RE

V CC VC
RC R C = 508 Ω V CE VC VE V CE = 5.7 V > 0.2V, OK, is in active region
IC
VB
I RB2 I RB2 = 1 mA PQ V CE. I C P Q = 33.68 mW
R B2

V CC 12. V Given: may NOT neglect IB β 150

3)
V CC 12. V VE 2.0 . V VC 6.V I RB2 0.1 . mA IC 4 . mA
R B1 IC 4 . mA RC
Find RE, RC, VB, IB, RB2, and RB1:
VC 6.V
Solution:
V CE VC VE V CE = 4 V > 0.2V, is in active region
VE 2.0 . V VE
IE ~ IC IE IC RE R E = 500 Ω
R B2 RE IE
V CC VC
RC R C = 1.5 kΩ
IC
IC
I RB2 0.1 . mA VB VE 0.7 . V V B = 2.7 V IB I B = 0.027 mA
β
VB V CC VB
R B2 R B2 = 27 kΩ R B1 R B1 = 73.4 kΩ
I RB2 I RB2 IB
Transistor Notes (BJT) p5
 Ω Ω

AC Analysis of Common emitter (CE) amplifier

Signals
With an RE, any AC signal applied to the base
16
will then also appear just as big at the emitter
volts
(just lower by 0.7V DC). The AC signal current
through RE, will be about the same as through
R C, so the AC signal voltage across RC will be 12
vC
bigger than that across RE by the ratio of RC/RE.
Recalling that the signal at the emitter is about
the same as the signal at the base... 8 VC

vc RC
base to collector AC gain = = 4 vB
vb RE difference VB
~ 0.7V vE VE

vE follows vB, just 0.7V DC lower

If a capacitor is placed in parallel with RE then the effective AC resistance in the emitter goes way down and the gain
goes way up. In that case we need a way to estimate the AC resistance within the base-emitter junction itself.
25. mV
This is called the small-signal emitter resistance: re=
IC

To find the gains when the input has a source resistance and the output is connected to a load resistor, the
calculations become a little more complex. YOU DON'T NEED TO KNOW THE FOLLOWING MATERIAL.
R E is the DC resistance from emitter to ground
R e is the AC signal resistance from emitter to ground, may be zero
Input impedance: R i = R B1 || R B2 || β. r e Re

Output impedance: R o = R C || r o <-- ro Often neglected

AC collector resistance: r c = R C || R L || r o
ro is a characteristic of the transistor, and is often neglected
vo rc
Voltage gain: A v = =
vb re Re
vo Ri rc
OR: = .
vs RS Ri re Re
io rc R R
Current gain: A i = = . i = A . i
v
ii re Re RL RL

There are several other types of transistor amplifiers, but we won't look at them here.

AC Signal Example

RC 1 . kΩ
If the vs signal were applied at the base, an AC signal would
also appear at the collector. How much larger would it be?
(Voltage gain).

RE 120. Ω vc RC
base to collector AC gain = = = 8.33 times bigger
vb RE

Transistor Notes (BJT) p6