CGENCHEM can then be seen by looking at the graduations on the side of

WEEK 1-2 -- MATTER AND ITS PROPERTIES the said vessel.

Chemistry is the study of matter and energy and the
interactions between them. Chemistry tends to focus on the Solids
properties of substances and the interactions between different In the solid state, the substances are characterized by
types of matter, particularly reactions that involve electrons. a definite shape and definite volume because the molecules
Even though it is challenging, chemistry is meaningful, useful, that make up the solid are packed closely together. The Holy
and possible to master. Chemistry can explain so much of the Bible has the same shape and volume whether it is placed in a
everyday world around us. large container or on a table top.
Most solids are crystalline wherein the individual
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass. Mass, molecules composing the solid occupy definite positions in the
on the other hand, is the amount of matter present in a sample crystal structure. Examples of crystalline solids are sugar, table
of any material. After going through this chapter, you will salt, and many other minerals. Other solids can also occur
appreciate that there are different types of materials, or matter, when liquids or gasses are cooled such as an ice that
around us and you will understand why these materials behave happened when a cooled liquid has become solid. Other
like they do and classify them according to their distinct examples of solids include wood, metal, and rock at room
properties. temperature.

Energy is the capacity to cause change, to do work, or to Liquids

transfer heat. There are many forms of energy such as In the liquid state, the substances have a definite
mechanical energy, chemical energy, and heat energy. volume but take the shape of its container. Examples of liquids
Mechanical energy results from the movement or the location include water, alcohol, and oil. Gasses may liquefy when they
of an object, chemical energy is converted into other forms of cool, as is the case with water vapor. Solids may also liquefy
energy when the food is digested, and heat energy makes our when they heat up; molten lava is an example of solid rock
clothes wrinkle-free when we iron them. which has liquefied as a result of intense heat.
Kinetic energy is the energy due to the motion of an
object. Atoms and their components are in motion, so all matter
Gases
possesses kinetic energy. On a larger scale, any object in
motion has kinetic energy and it can easily be transferred In the gaseous state, the substances have neither a
between objects. definite volume nor a definite shape. Some gases can be seen
Potential energy is the energy an object possesses and felt, while others are intangible for human beings.
due to its position relative to other objects. It is the stored Examples of gases are air, oxygen, and hydrogen. Earth's
energy of position possessed by an object. For example, the atmosphere is made up of gases including nitrogen, oxygen,
pendulum is storing energy when it is held at an elevated and carbon dioxide, and other particulates.
position.

Figure 1.1 As the pendulum swings back and forth, there is a constant exchange between
kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy.
Figure 1.2 Water molecules in different phases of matter.

1-1 States of Matter

Plasma
Three physical states of matter are common in everyday life:
solid, liquid, and gas. Plasma, the fourth state of matter, exists Plasma has neither a definite volume nor a definite
in special conditions like the ones found in the stars and neon shape. Plasma often is seen in ionized gases, but it is distinct
signs. Matter can be observed in any of these states. The from a gas because it possesses unique properties. Free
classification of these substances is based on whether its electrical charges cause the plasma to be electrically
shape and volume are definite or indefinite. conductive. The plasma may be formed by heating and ionizing
The volume of an object is a measure of the amount of space a gas. Examples of plasma include stars, lightning, fluorescent
occupied by the object. The volume of a sample of matter can lights, and neon signs.
be measured depending on the state of the given material. For
solids with common three-dimensional shape, we can find its
volume by measuring its dimensions in whatever unit of length Phase Changes
is appropriate (e.g. meters, centimeters or millimeters) and
then applying the correct formula to those measurements to Phase changes typically occur when the temperature
determine its volume. or pressure of a system is altered. When temperature or
To find the exact volume of an irregularly-shaped solid object, pressure increases, molecules interact more with each other.
we can use the fluid displacement – a method that involves When pressure increases or temperature decreases, it's easier
immersing the object in a volumetric vessel with liquid (usually for atoms and molecules to settle into a more rigid structure.
water) and the volume of the immersed object will be exactly When pressure is released, it's easier for particles to move
equal to the volume of the displaced fluid. away from each other.
Likewise, the volume of liquids can be easily measured by
pouring it into a graduated measuring vessel then its volume
 The elements of the periodic table are grouped as
metals, metalloids, and nonmetals. Most elements are metals.
Metals are usually solid at room temperature (mercury is an
exception), have a high luster (shiny), have a metallic
appearance, a good conductors of heat and electricity,
malleable (can be bent and pounded into thin sheets), ductile
(can be drawn into wire), can corrode or oxidize in air and sea
water, usually dense (exceptions include lithium, potassium,
and sodium), and may have a very high melting point.
Examples of metals include gold, iron, sodium, and copper.
Figure 1.3 A phase change is when a substance changes from a solid, liquid, or
gas to a different state.
Metalloids have some of the properties of metals and
some nonmetallic characteristic. Metalloids are dull or shiny,
usually conduct heat and electricity (though not as well as
metals), often make good semiconductors, often exist in
several forms, often ductile, often malleable, and may gain or
lose electrons in reactions. Usually considered under this
classification are the chemical elements boron, silicon,
Solid Liquid Gas
germanium, arsenic, antimony, and tellurium. The rare
Rigid Not rigid Not rigid elements polonium and astatine are also sometimes included.
Fixed shape and Flows and takes Fills any Nonmetals exhibit very different properties from
volume the shape of container metals. Examples of nonmetals include oxygen, chlorine, and
container completely and argon. Nonmetals display some or all of the following
expands infinitely characteristics: dull appearance, usually brittle, poor
Slightly Slightly conductors of heat and electricity, usually less dense,
compressible compressible Easily compared to metals, and usually low melting point of solids
compressed (compared with metals).
Figure 1.4 A comparison of some physical properties of matter. From left to right: quartz (solid),
water (liquid), and nitrogen dioxide (gas). A compound, on the other hand, is a chemical
species that is formed when two or more atoms join together
1-2 Classifying Matter chemically, with covalent or ionic bonds. Compounds may be
Matter can be classified according to its properties categorized according to the type of chemical bonds holding
and composition. Figure 1.5 shows that matter can exist as a the atoms together: (a) molecules are held together by
pure substance or as a mixture. covalent bonds, (b) ionic compounds are held together by ionic
bonds, (c) intermetallic compounds are held together by
metallic bonds, (d) complexes are often held together by
coordinate covalent bonds.

Examples of compounds include table salt or sodium

chloride (NaCl, an ionic compound), sucrose (a molecule),
nitrogen gas (N2, a covalent molecule), a sample of copper
(intermetallic), and water (H2O, a covalent molecule).

Pure Substance Mixture

A pure substance is a sample of matter with both A mixture is defined as the result of combining two or
definite and constant composition and distinct chemical more substances, such that each maintains its chemical
properties. A pure substance consists only of one type of atom, identity. Chemical bonds between the components are neither
molecule, or compound. A pure substance can either be an broken nor formed. Note that even though the chemical
element or a compound (Figure 1.6) properties of the components haven't changed, a mixture may
exhibit new physical properties, like boiling point and melting
point. For example, mixing together water and alcohol
produces a mixture that has a higher boiling point and lower
melting point than alcohol (lower boiling point and higher
boiling point than water).
Two broad categories of mixtures are heterogeneous
and homogeneous mixtures. Heterogeneous mixtures are not
uniform throughout the composition (e.g. gravel), while
homogeneous mixtures have the same phase and
composition, no matter where you sample them (e.g., air).
The distinction between heterogeneous and
A chemical element, or an element, is defined as a homogeneous mixtures is a matter of magnification or scale.
material which cannot be broken down or changed into another For example, even air can appear to be heterogeneous if your
substance using chemical means. Elements may be thought of sample only contains a few molecules, while a bag of mixed
as the basic chemical building blocks of matter. There are 118 vegetables may appear homogeneous if your sample is an
known elements. Each element is identified according to the entire truckload full of them. Also note, even if a sample
number of protons it has in its atomic nucleus. A new element consists of a single element, it may form a heterogeneous
may be created by adding more protons to an atom. mixture. One example would be a mixture of pencil lead and
diamonds (both carbon). Another example could be a mixture for units of length, mass, and time. An example of English
of gold powder and nuggets. system measurement is Nara, the Philippine’s national tree,
WEEK 3 -- MEASUREMENT AND HANDLING NUMBERS being 100 feet tall.
To measure something is to determine a certain set of its
properties in reference to a standard. At its simplest, it is a form Table 2.1 Seven Base SI Units
of counting. Properties can include (but are not limited to) size, Property Defined Unit Name Abbreviation
weight, duration, quality, or merely amount. Measurements are Mass Kilogram kg
so important to our daily life that we often communicate in Length Meter m
measurement terms without thinking about it. One does not Time Second s
have to be an engineer to measure the height and weight of a Temperature Kelvin K
child and record it on a growth chart for future reference, or to Amount of Mole mol
track the fuel efficiency of a tricycle in kilometer per gallon substance
upon filling up at the pump. When a package is mailed, or a Electric current Ampere A
bag checked at the airport, one is mindful of the necessity of Luminous intensity Candela cd
measuring the weight of the item.
These seven base units can be combined in different
2-1 Measurement Systems ways to have other common units. For instance, a land area
Quantitative measurements use numbers and units. Units can can be expressed as square meters (m 2), and a blood volume
be pure (feet, meters, seconds) or mixed (peso per liter, as cubic meters (m3). The base unit may be modified by the
kilometer per hour). But qualitative measurements are also use of a metric prefix. These prefixes are used to indicate
regularly made, typically in terms of general reference. Terms fractions and multipliers of ten. The same metric prefixes are
such as all, some, every, most, and their opposites are used in used with all units of measurement. Some common prefixes
qualitative measurement descriptions. are listed in Table 2.2.
Moreover, qualitative comparisons are used as a form of Table 2.2 Metric Prefixes
measurement. For example, higher, wider, larger, and better
Prefix Name Prefix Symbol Exponential Value
(and their superlatives – ending in est) are qualitative terms
mega- M 106
implying that something is in some way bigger than something
else (or possibly its own self over time). If something is kilo- K 103
observed to have increased, one understands that it has deci- D 10-1
expanded in some way over what it used to be. centi- C 10-2
milli- M 10-3
micro- Μ 10-6
nano- N 10-9
pico- P 10-12

2-2 Units of Measurement

The 1960 International System builds on the MKS system of
units - a physical system of measurement that uses the meter,
kilogram, and second as base units. Its seven basic units, from
which other units are derived, are explained below.

Figure 2.1 Metric system units are becoming evident on kilometer post. Mass is the measurement of the quantity of matter a
substance contains. The kilogram is the basic unit of mass and
The word metric is derived from the Greek word metron, which is defined as the mass of a platinum-iridium cylinder in the
means “measure”. Measurements should be calibrated or keeping of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures
compared against a set of standards in a system so that the in Sèvres, France.
measuring device can deliver a value if the measurement were
repeated. The following are the commonly used measurement Length is the measurement or extent of something
systems: between two points. The meter is the basic unit of length and is
Metric System. There is one base unit for each type defined as the distance traveled by light in a vacuum in
of measurement in the metric system. The two general forms of 1/299,792,458 second.
the metric system are the MKS system (meter, kilogram,
second as base units) and CGS system (centimeter, gram, and Time can be defined as the progression of events
second as base units). There are many units in SI and other from the past to the present into the future. It is not something
forms of the metric system that are built upon combinations of that we can sense but we can always measure its passage.
base units. These are called derived units. The second is the basic unit of time, the duration of
International System of Units (SI). The modern 9,192,631,770 periods of radiation associated with a specified
version of the metric system is the SI, French Système transition of the cesium-133 atom.
Internationale d’Unités, which is the international decimal
system of weights and measures derived from and extending Temperature is the measurement of the degree of
the metric system of units. It was adopted by the 11th General hotness or coldness of a certain object. It is also defined as the
Conference on Weights and Measures in 1960 and has measure of the internal energy of a system. Temperatures are
undergone several revisions. The seven base units of the SI often expressed on the Kelvin (absolute) temperature scale.
are defined in Table 2.1.
English System. The British or Imperial system of The amount of substance refers to the fixed number
measurements was common before SI units were adopted. of items given that its identities were specified. The mole,
Although Britain has largely adopted the SI system, the United abbreviated as mol, is the basic unit of amount and is defined
States and some Caribbean countries still use the English as containing as many elementary entities of a substance as
system. This system is based on the foot-pound-second units, there are atoms in 0.012 kg of pure carbon-12 atoms.
 Electric current is the rate of charge flow past a would be not viable to determine the accuracy with certainty.
given point in an electric circuit. The ampere is the basic unit of Some measurements may be inaccurate because of the
electric current, and is also known as the current that, if determinate error/ systematic error – an error that is repeated
maintained in two wires placed one meter apart in a vacuum, in each measurement due to faulty handling method or poorly
would produce a force of 2 × 10−7 Newton per meter of length. calibrated instruments.

Luminous intensity is the quantity of visible light that The precision of a measurement is defined as the
is emitted in unit time per unit solid angle. The candela is the SI closeness of repeated measurements that agree with one
unit for luminous intensity, and is defined as the intensity in a another. For instance, the volume of an herbal extract used in
given direction of a source emitting radiation of frequency 540 an investigatory project is reported to be 42.33 mL, 42.31 mL,
× 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of and 42.32 mL in three measurements. The result may be
1
/683 watt per steradian. considered precise, but its accuracy is still in question unless
correct methods and calibrated instruments were used.
The signatory states of the 26th General Conference
on Weights and Measures (Conférence Générale des Poids et A good analogy for understanding accuracy and
Mesures, CGPM) last November 16, 2018 in Versailles agreed precision is to imagine the game of tumbang preso. If the
to a proposal to fundamentally reform the International System player throws the slippers with accuracy, the aim will always
of Units (SI). This resolution stipulates that from May 20, 2019 take the slippers close to the empty can or hit the empty can. If
– World Metrology Day – all SI units will be based on the the player throws the slippers with precision, the aim will
values laid down for seven selected natural constants. always take the slippers to the same location which may or
may not hit the empty can. A good player will be both accurate
The kilogram, the ampere, the mole, and the kelvin and precise by throwing the slippers the same way each time
would be redefined in terms of fundamental physical constants. and each time making it hit the empty can.
For the kilogram, the Planck’s constant, h, would be used
which would be defined to be equal to 6.62607015 × 10 −34 joule 2-4 Scientific Calculations
second. For the ampere, the charge of the electron, e, would Scientific Notation
be equal to 1.602176634 × 10−19 coulomb. For the Kelvin, it When we deal with very large or very small numbers,
would be redefined such that the Boltzmann constant, k, would we use scientific notation. The stars in our Milky Way galaxy
be equal to 1.380649 × 10 −23 joule per kelvin, and the mole contain approximately 250,000,000,000 stars and the amount
would be redefined such that the Avogadro constant (NA) would of all the sand in the earth is 7,500,000,000,000,000,000 grains
be equal to 6.02214076 × 1023 per mole. of sand.
It would be very inconvenient for us to write all these
GOOD TO KNOW
zeroes. To address this, we use scientific (exponential)
Units of Measurement in the Philippines
Various units of measurement were used in the notation. We place one nonzero digit to the left of the decimal.
Philippines to measure various quantities
including mass, area, and capacity. The metric Another example is the mass of an electron which is
system has been compulsory in the country
since 1860, during the late Spanish colonial 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 910 938 97 kg.
period. A mixture of Spanish units and This time, we place one nonzero digit to the right of the
indigenous units were used alongside with decimal.
American units in 1900s.

Mass Significant Figures

A number of units were used to measure mass. Significant figures indicate how precisely
One catty was equal to about 600 grams. Some measurements are. In calculations, it is important to retain only
other units are given below:
those numbers that are significant. The following are the rules
1 punto = 1/3 catty 1 caban in the use of significant figures.
= 97 catty
1 chinanta = 12 catty 1 pecul =
100 catty 1. Nonzero digits are always significant
1 lachsa = 48 catty 1 jeydon
= 1,000 catty
For example, 413 g has three significant figures while
A caban of rice was equal to 60.33 kg, while a 19.87 m has four significant figures.
caban of cocoa was equal to 37.87 kg.
Currently, a caban of any time of rice is 50 kg.
2. Zeroes at the beginning of a number (used just to
Area
One belita was equal to 2795 m2. Some other position the decimal point) are never significant.
units are given below: These are called leading zeroes.
1 loan = 0.1 balita
1 quignon = 10 balita For example, 0.02 mL has one significant figure while
1 stub = 100 balita 0.00125 g has three significant figures. Consequently, it could
Capacity be written as 2.0 x 10 –2 mL and 1.25 x 10 –3 g in using scientific
Several units were used to measure capacity.
Some are given below: notation.
1 kaban = 25 ganta
1 ganta = 8 chupa
1 chupa = 3.75 mL 3. Zeroes between nonzero digits are always significant.
1 apatan = 1/4 chupa These are called confined zeroes.

2-3 Accuracy and Precision For example, 1.01 cm three significant figures while 2009 L has
The accuracy of a measurement is defined as the four significant figures, respectively.
closeness between the measurement obtained and the true
value/correct value. Because we rarely know the true value, it
 4. Zeroes after the last nonzero sometimes significant,
and sometimes they are not. These are called trailing
zeroes.
a. Trailing zeroes at the end of a
number that contains a decimal
point are always significant

For example, 42.0 km has three significant figures

while 360.00 m has five significant figures. Densities of common substances are listed on the below table.
Table 2.3 Densities of Common Substances
b. Trailing zeroes at the end of a Substance Physical State Density (g/cm3)
Hydrogen Gas 0.000089
number that does not contain a
Carbon dioxide Gas 0.0019
decimal point may or may not be
Ethyl alcohol Liquid 0.789
significant.
Water Liquid 1.00
Table Salt Solid 2.16
For example, 56,800 L could mean three, four, or five
Aluminum Solid 2.70
significant figures. To avoid confusion, the use of decimal point
Iron Solid 7.86
must be employed. 5.68 x 104 L gives us three significant
Copper Solid 8.92
figures; 5.680 x 104 L gives us four significant figures; and
5.6800 x 104 L gives us five significant figures. Silver Solid 10.50
Mercury Liquid 13.59
Gold Solid 19.30
5. Exact numbers can be considered to have an
unlimited number of significant figures. This applies to Temperature is an indicator of how hot or cold an
defined quantities. object is. It can be measured using a thermometer or a
calorimeter. Temperature is different from heat, although the
For example, there are exactly 2.54 centimeters in 1 two concepts are linked. Temperature is a measure of the
inch; 1,000 milliliters in 1 liter; or by definition, the value of internal energy of a system, while heat is a measure of how
speed of light is 299,792, 458 meters per second. energy is transferred from one system (or body) to another, or,
how temperatures in one system are raised or lowered by
interaction with another.
6. In addition and subtraction, the sum or difference has
the same number of decimal places as there are in Several temperature scales exist. In the Philippines
the measurement with the fewest decimal places. and most of the rest of the world, the SI unit Centigrade (or
7. For example, when we add 26.8 g and 57.52 g it gives Celsius) is used in. In the United States, however, the
us 84.3 g (calculator answer gives us 84.32) Fahrenheit temperature is most commonly used The Kelvin
scale is used often in physics and is adjusted so that 0 degrees
26.8 g Kelvin is equal to absolute zero, which is, in theory, the coldest
+ 57.52 g possible temperature that can be attained.
84.32 g
Answer: 84.3 g In Celsius scale, the normal freezing and boiling
points of water serve as reference points, having the value of
0° for the former and 100° for the latter. In the absolute
temperature scale, the freezing point of water is 273 K and the
8. In multiplication and division, an answer contains no boiling point is 373 K. The relationship between the Celsius
more significant figures than the least number of and the absolute temperature are as follows.
significant figures used in the operation.

For example, when we multiply 22.48 m by 1.41 m it

gives us 31.7 m2 (calculator answer gives us 31.6968)
Conversion of units is important because not all
measurements are expressed in the same units. It is necessary
that the units of the quantities match to arrive with the correct
answer. The relationship of the Fahrenheit and Celsius can also be
stated in an equation format.
2-5 Density, Heat and Temperature
Density is an intrinsic physical property of a substance
that can be used to determine unknown sample of matter. The
density can be calculated as follows:

WEEK 4-5 -- ATOMIC THEORY AND PERIODIC

or PROPERTIES
All matter is made up of small particles called atoms and each
Usually, densities are calculated according to their phases: type of it corresponds to a certain element. In this chapter, the
basic types of subatomic particles will be discussed, as well as
how these particles are arrange themselves within an atom,
and the relationship between an atom’s subatomic structure was able to prove the existence of a neutral particle in the
and its chemical identity. nucleus.

Atomic Models and Structures

The idea of having the simplest form of matter started with the
proposal that matter is made up of tiny particles that are not
divisible. Democritus, a Greek philosopher (470-380B.C.) is the
father of modern atomic thought. He claimed that matter was
made up of small, hard particles that he called “atomos”. Figure 3.3 An atom of lithium shown using the planetary model. The electrons are in circular
orbits around the nucleus.

In 1808, the English chemist and physicist John Dalton created

Somewhere in between, in 1926, Erwin Schrӧdinger,
the atomic theory. He viewed atoms as small, solid spheres.
an Austrian physicist, used mathematical equations to describe
His atomic theory has 4 statements:
the possibility of the position of an electron in the electron
1. atoms are tiny, invisible particles
cloud. It is known as the quantum mechanical model of an
2. atoms of an element are all the same
atom.
3. atoms of different elements are different
4. atoms combine to form compounds
Unlike the “mini solar system” model, it does not
define the exact path of an electron, it just predicts the possible
Further discoveries about the atom came about in
location of the electron. The quantum mechanical model is
1897, Sir Joseph John Thomson, an English Physicist
based on quantum theory, stating the Uncertainty Principle,
discovered the electrons. He visualized the atom as negatively
that it is impossible to know the exact position and movement
charged electrons (raisins) surrounded by positively charged
of an electron at the same time.
“pudding”.

Figure 3.1 Comparison of the Thomson and Rutherford Model. On the

left, the plum pudding model of the atom was assumed that there was nothing
dense or heavy enough inside the gold atoms to deflect the massive α from their
Figure 3.5 Timeline of the development of atomic models
paths. On the right, Rutherford observed that there was really a nucleus.

Ernest Rutherford, Baron Rutherford of Nelson, of Periodic Table

Cambridge, discovered the protons and the nucleus in 1910 Do you know who described the first periodic table of
with his gold-foil experiment showed that the atom has positive the elements that organized the elements by increasing atomic
particles in its center and is mostly empty space. It has a very weight and according to trends in their properties?
dense (+) center which he called the nucleus. If you answered "Dmitri Mendeleev," then you might
be incorrect. The actual inventor of the periodic table is
Key Takeaways: Who Invented the Periodic Table?
 While Dmitri Mendeleev usually gets credit for the
invention of the modern periodic table in 1869,
Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois
organized the elements by atomic weight five
years earlier.
 While Mendeleev and Chancourtois arranged
elements by atomic weight, the modern periodic
table is ordered according to increasing atomic
number (a concept unknown in the 19th century.)
 Lothar Meyer (1864) and John Newlands (1865)
Figure 3.2 Rutherford's gold foil experiment, a beam of α particles that was shot both proposed tables that organized elements
at a thin sheet of gold foil. Most of the α particles passed straight through the gold
foil, but a small number were deflected slightly, and an even smaller fraction were
according to periodic properties.
someone rarely mentioned in chemistry history books:
deflected more than 90° from their path.
Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois.
In 1913 the Danish physicist Neils Bohr, improved the
work of Baron Rutherford, where he proposed that electrons History
move around the nucleus in specific “shells” or orbitals. That Most people think Mendeleev invented the modern
every atom has a specific number of electron shells. His atomic periodic table.
model is known as the miniature solar system model. James Dmitri Mendeleev presented his periodic table of the
Chadwick (1932) discovered the neutrons because these do elements based on increasing atomic weight on March 6, 1869,
not have charges. Tirelessly working with Rutherford until he in a presentation to the Russian Chemical Society. While
Mendeleev's table was the first to gain some acceptance in the Ionization energy: the energy required to remove an
scientific community, it was not the first table of its kind. electron from an ion or gaseous atom
Some elements were known since ancient times, such Atomic radius: half the distance between the centers
as gold, sulfur, and carbon. Alchemists began to discover and of two atoms that are touching each other
identify new elements in the 17th century. Electronegativity: the measure of the ability of an
By the beginning of the 19th century, about 47 atom to form a chemical bond
elements had been discovered, providing enough data for Electron affinity: the ability of an atom to accept an
chemists to begin to see patterns. John Newlands had electron
published his Law of Octaves in 1865. The Law of Octaves
had two elements in one box and did not allow space for Trends or Periodicity
undiscovered elements, so it was criticized and did not gain The periodicity of these properties follows trends as
recognition. you move across a row or period of the periodic table or down
A year earlier (1864) Lothar Meyer published a a column or group:
periodic table that described the placement of 28 elements. Moving Left → Right
Meyer's periodic table ordered the elements into groups Ionization Energy Increases
arranged in order of their atomic weights. His periodic table Electronegativity Increases
arranged the elements into six families according to their Atomic Radius Decreases
valence, which was the first attempt to classify the elements
according to this property. Moving Top → Bottom
While many people are aware of Meyer's contribution Ionization Energy Decreases
to the understanding of element periodicity and the Electronegativity Decreases
development of the periodic table, many have not heard of Atomic Radius Increases
Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois.
De Chancourtois was the first scientist to arrange the
chemical elements in order of their atomic weights. In 1862
(five years before Mendeleev), de Chancourtois presented a
paper describing his arrangement of the elements to the
French Academy of Sciences.
The paper was published in the Academy's
journal, Comptes Rendus, but without the actual table. The
periodic table did appear in another publication, but it was not
as widely read as the academy's journal.
De Chancourtois was a geologist and his paper dealt
primarily with geological concepts, so his periodic table did not
gain the attention of the chemists of the day

Difference from the Modern Periodic Table

Both de Chancourtois and Mendeleev organized
elements by increasing atomic weight. This makes sense
because the structure of the atom was not understood at the
time, so the concepts of protons and isotopes had yet to be
described.
The modern periodic table orders the elements
according to increasing atomic number rather than increasing
atomic weight. For the most part, this doesn't change the order
of the elements, but it's an important distinction between older
and modern tables.
The earlier tables were true periodic tables since they
grouped the elements according to the periodicity of their
chemical and physical properties.

Periodicity
Periodicity refers to the recurring trends that are seen
in the element properties. These trends became apparent to
Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev (1834–1907) when he
arranged the elements in a table in order of increasing mass.
Based on the properties that were displayed by the known
elements, Mendeleev was able to predict where there were
"holes" in his table, or elements yet to be discovered.
The modern periodic table is very similar to
Mendeleev's table, but elements today are ordered by
increasing atomic number, which reflects the number
of protons in an atom. There aren't any "undiscovered"
elements, although new elements can be created that have
even higher numbers of protons.

What Are the Periodic Properties?

The periodic properties are: