I. INTRODUCTION 1.

1 Objectives The objectives of this lab were to investigate the DC and AC characteristics of common-emitter and common-collector amplifiers. 1.2 Background & Theory This experiment focused on two types of BJT amplifiers; common-emitter and common-collector amplifiers. While both amplifier configurations have some common characteristics, such as a self-biasing scheme and a linear output, the similarities end there. Common-Emitter Amplifiers: Figure 1 shows the common emitter amplifier.

Figure 1. Common-Emitter Amplifier This type of amplifier has high voltage (Av) and current gain (Ai). Resistances of the amplifier are described by a high input and output resistance. With these characteristics, this amplifier is used to drive relatively high resistor loads, and in applications where small voltage signals need to be amplified to larger values. Bear in mind, that since this amplifier cannot drive low resistance loads, it is cascaded with a buffer acting as a driver. The way gains (input and output) along with input resistance can be seen in Equations 1, 2 and 3.

Eqn. 1

Eqns. 2 & 3 Where hib is given by VT/ICQ and RB = R1||R2. Common-Collector Amplifiers: Figure 2 shows the circuit for a common-collector amplifier.

Figure 2. Common-Collector Amplifier Also known as a unity voltage-gain amplifier, or an emitter follower amplifier, the input resistance for this amplifier is dependant on the biasing resistors (R1 and R2 in Figure 2) as well as the collector current. Due to the voltage-gain of one (hence the name unity voltage-gain amplifier) this amplifier is used as a buffer, providing isolations between two circuits while acting as a driving capability for low resistance loads. . The way gains (input and output) along with input resistance can be seen in Equations 4, 5, and 6.

Eqns. 4 & 5

Eqn. 6 From the equations, it can be seen that gain is unity (approximately) as long as hib << RE || RL.

II. METHODOLOGY 2.1 Equipment and Parts Digital Multi-meter (DMM): EXTECH 38332 SER#: M99009963 Circuit Bread Board: Elenco Digital/ Analog Trainer Model: XK-150 SER#: NA Resistors: 1 x 1.02 k, 1 x 10.3 k, 1 x 47 , 2 x 1 k, 1 x 10 k, 1 x 2.2 k Capacitors: 2 x 100 F Transistors: 2N3904 Power Supply Oscilloscope: TEXTRONIX TDS 210 2.2 Procedure 1: Common-Emitter Amplifier Circuit in Figure 1 was built using the following resistor values: R1 = 1.02 k, R2 = 10.3 k, Re = 47 , Rc=RL= 1 k, Vcc = 12V. These resistances were gotten by using standard resistors and then measuring them to the actual wanted values. IC, VBE, and VCE values were measured to find the Q-point. Voltage gain was measured by using the function generator to deliver 200 mVpp at 1 kHz and capturing the input waveform. Then the output signal swing was determined by clipping the output waveform. The clipped waveform was then captured. A sense resistor (50) was then added to the circuit (in series with C1). The function generator was then used to deliver 200 mVpp, and the waveform generated across the sense resistor was captured, and thus input current was estimated by measuring input

voltage, while output current was estimated by finding the voltage across the load resistor. Finally, current gain was calculated from the input and output currents. 2.3 Procedure 2: Common-Collector Amplifier Circuit in Figure 2 was built using the following values: R1 = 10 k, R2 = 2.2 k, Re=RL= 1 k, Vcc = 12 V. IC, VBE, and VCE values were measured to find the Q-point. Voltage gain was measured by using the function generator to deliver 200 mVpp at 1 kHz and capturing the input waveform. Then the output signal swing was determined by clipping the output waveform. The clipped waveform was then captured. A sense resistor of 50 was then added to the circuit (in series with C1). The function generator was then used to deliver 200 mVpp, and the waveform generated across the sense resistor was captured, and thus input current was estimated by measuring input voltage, while output current was estimated by finding the voltage across the load resistor. Finally, current gain was calculated from the input and output currents.

III. RESULTS & DISCUSSION 3.1 Procedure 1 Results Table one shows the wanted values of resistances vs. their actual values. Table 1. Nominal vs. Measured Resistances Nominal Values (k) 1.02 10.3 0.047 1 2.2 Measured Values (k) 1.0115 9.912 0.046 0.972, 0.9845 2.178

I/O waveforms can be found in Appendix A, while clipped waveforms can be found in Appendix B.

Table 2 shows all values found for Procedure 1 (Common-emitter amplifier) prior to adding the sense resistor. Table 2. Procedure 1 Results (Before Sense Resistor) Ic (mA) VBE (V) VCE (V) VO (V) VI (mV) Av= (Vo/VI) MAX o/p swing (V) MAX i/p swing (V) 11.7 0.738 4.99 1.4 200 7 7.6 1

With the addition of the 50 (actually 46.95 ) resistor, the results determined can be found in Table 3. Table 3. Procedure 1 Results (After Sense Resistor) RS () VI (mV) II=(VI/RS) (mA) VO (mV) IO=(VO/RS) (mA) AI=(IO/II) 46.95 101 2.15 36.8 0.784 0.364

The waveform across the sense resistor can be found in Appendix C.

3.2 Procedure 2 Results Results of the common-collector amplifier, prior to adding the sense resistor, can be found in Table 4. Table 4. Procedure 2 Results (Before Sense Resistor) Ic (mA) VBE (V) VCE (V) VO (V) VI (mV) Av= (Vo/VI) 8.1 0.407 3.553 1.27 1.37 1

I/O waveforms for Procedure 2 can be found in Appendix D, while clipped waveforms can be found in Appendix E. With the addition of the sense resistor, results found were as follows: Table 5. Procedure 2 Results (After Sense Resistor) RS () VI (mV) II=(VI/RS) (mA) VO (mV) IO=(VO/RS) (mA) AI=(IO/II) 46.95 120 2.56 176 3.75 1.46

The waveform across the sense resistor can be found in Appendix F.

3.3 Questions Compare the Q point for each amplifier. Explain any differences. Q-point for common-emitter was (11.7mA, 0.738 V, 4.99 V) while Q-point for common-collector was (8.1 mA, 0.407 V, 3.553 V). VCE is the most affected due to the removal of RC in procedure 2. What is the use of the capacitances in the amplifier circuits in Fig 1 and Fig. 2? How will very high or very low values of the capacitance affect the performance of the amplifier? Capacitors are used to couple in an AC signal, or to bypass an AC signal. Very low capacitor values will make an open circuit to low frequencies. High values are usually not a problem, unless they are electrolytics with a lot of leakage current.

Why do we require a sense resistor to measure current gain? Resistor's voltage is directly proportional to the current, so a resistor can be used to measure the current gain.

Why must the sense resistor be small in comparison with the amplifier input impedance? To prevent the amplifiers input impedance from loading the sense resistor.

What are the two factors which could affect the maximum signal swing? Note that the maximum signal swing is determined by the onset of distortion. You must know all the distortion-causing factors in the circuit? The magnitude of the input signal and the current gain (hfe) of the amplifier along with the magnitude of the amplifiers source Voltage.

IV CONCLUSION To conclude, the experiment was successful in showcasing how BJT amplifiers were and what the main differences were between common-emitter amplifiers, and commoncollector amplifiers. Q-points found were only for DC values, and unless clipped, were relatively linear. Capacitors within the amplifiers helped regulated steady flow of current, as when in DC were shorted, while in AC they coupled the voltage. Common-emitter amplifiers have high input and output resistances as well high current and voltage gains. Common-collector amplifiers have voltage gains of approximately one and thus are a good way of being a buffer to provide driving capabilities for low resistance loads.