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A Review of Phytochemicals and Bioactive Properties in

Address: IEC University, IEC School of Pharmacy, Baddi, Solan,

H.P. Pin code -174103

Abstract:

Due to unhealthful current dietary habits including the intake of foods heavy in sugar and fat, natural plant-based
foods have been employed more and more in recent decades to promote human health. Aboriginal people have
exploited several native animals for food and medicine. It is crucial to comprehend the health-promoting bioactive
profile of native Australian plants. The horticultural and food industries have made commercial use of members of
the Proteaceae family, including the genera of Protea, Macadamia, and Grevillea. Certain discoveries about the
Persoonia species, a genus belonging to the Proteaceae family, have been documented by researchers. This review's
objective was to present an overview of the genus Persoonia and the family Proteaceae, including topics such as
distribution, phytochemicals, traditional and commercial usage, bioactive qualities, possible benefits, and difficulties.
The present research examined bioactive chemicals and their characteristics associated with the health benefits of the
Proteaceae family, specifically the Persoonia genus, with a view to exploring their possible uses in the food business.

Keywords: Proteaceae; indigenous fruits; phytochemicals; bioactive properties; functional ingredients

Introduction:

Fruits and vegetables are rich in antioxidant components, such as tocopherols, phenolics, carotenoids, and
anthocyanins [1]. Roughly 20% of all plants have been studied for their potential medicinal uses, which have improved
healthcare by curing cancer and other dangerous disorders [2]. Numerous different types of bioactive chemicals can
be produced by plants. Fruits and vegetables store large amounts of phytochemicals that may shield against harm from
free radicals [3]. Beneficial phytochemical-containing plants can serve as natural antioxidants, enhancing the body's
requirements [4]. Numerous plants are rich sources of antioxidants, according to numerous research. For example,
flavonoids, tannins, and chemicals present in plants—as well as vitamins A, C, and E all function as antioxidants [3].
Because of their high nutritional content and therapeutic qualities, eating fruits and vegetables has been associated
with a number of health advantages [5]. By preventing or postponing the oxidation of food items brought on by
reactive oxygen species (ROS), antioxidants manage and minimize oxidative lignins—phenolic damage to food
products, thereby extending their shelf life and improving their quality [6]. Ascorbic acid, beta-carotene, and many
phenolics all have important functions in lowering inflammation, postponing the aging process, and averting some
types of cancer [7]. Many organizations and health care systems worldwide have advised people to increase their
intake of fruits and vegetables [8]. People have been looking to nature for medicines to treat their illnesses since
ancient times. The first people to use therapeutic herbs did so out of instinct, just like animals do. The use of medicinal
plants to cure sickness shifted away from an empirical foundation as it became apparent over time why people were
turning to different plants for the treatment of different illnesses [9]. The herbal medicine market was valued at 170
billion USD in 2022. Projections show that this market will grow to 600 billion USD by 2033, with a 15% compound
annual growth rate (CAGR) from 2023 to 2033.[10] . Pharmaceutical companies worldwide that are searching for
novel treatments can benefit greatly from the use of natural products in medicine [11]. It's estimated that Bangladesh
is home to about 6,500 different plant species, of which more than 500 are known to have therapeutic qualities, and
of which 250 are regularly used to make medicines. To determine whether portions of these plants are valuable,
however, the majority are not being studied chemically, pharmacologically, or toxicologically [12]. Throughout

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history, mangroves and their derivatives have been utilized extensively for both non-therapeutic and medicinal uses
worldwide. Reports have indicated that plant extracts originating from mangroves exhibit demonstrated efficacy
against diseases that affect humans, animals, and plants [13]. The unusual conditions these plants live in—high
moisture, significant tidal fluctuations, high salt, etc.—may be the cause of their diversity in activity. Under these
harsh circumstances, these plants may alter their morphology, physiognomy, and biochemical pathways in order to
survive [5]. Bangladesh is home to the world's biggest single block of Sundarbans mangrove forests, an ecosystem
rich in plant species that is globally significant [13]. Polygonum minus (P. minus), a member of the Polygonaceae
family, is frequently referred to as kesum in Malay and pigmy knot weed in English[14]. Because of its pleasant and
fragrant scent, this plant is frequently used as a flavoring in the making of laksa, ulam (salad), and other delicious
Malay dishes. Southeast Asian nations include Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand (Phak pai), and Vietnam are home to
the plant. The plant yields essential oil that has a high concentration of aliphatic aldehydes (72.54%)[15], and the
Malaysian government has identified it as a crop capable of generating essential oil in the Herbal Product
Blueprint[16]. The plant grows naturally, particularly in moist places like side ditches or the vicinity of rivers and
lakes. P. minus is a low-growing shrub that reaches a maximum height of 1.0 m in lowlands and 1.5 m in highlands.
It is thin and creeps. The leaves are dark green, fragrant, lanceolate, and 5-7 cm long by 0.5-2.0 cm wide (Figure 1).
They are placed alternately on the stalk. The cylindrical stem has short internodes, nodal segments of simple roots,
and a dark green tint with hints of reddish color[17]. Apical inflorescence is present, with lenticular black or dark
brown-colored fruits and tiny, 1.5–2.0 mm long, white or purple-colored flowersDespite being a common ingredient
in Malayse cuisine as an appetizer and flavoring for food, P. minus has historically been utilized in herbal medicine
as a treatment for dandruff and stomach issues in Malaysia. Aromatherapy[18] and the perfume industry[17] both
employ the essential oil that is extracted from P. minus leaves, which is applied to hair to eliminate dandruff.
Numerous pharmacological characteristics of P. minus have also been identified, including antibacterial activity [19],
cytotoxic action against HeLa (human cervical carcinoma) [20], antioxidant activity [21], and anticancer activity
[22,23].

Phytochemicals:

Research on the phytochemical properties of natural plants is opening up new avenues for drug discovery, which is
crucial for meeting medical needs and identifying possible therapeutic benefits for human health. Primary and
secondary metabolites are the two forms of organic molecules that plants can make; secondary metabolites are
generated from primary metabolites and are intermediate or produced in pathways of stress response simulation [24].
Over the past two decades, there has been a significant growth in scholarly interest in phytochemicals, despite the
incomplete understanding of the mechanisms underlying secondary metabolites [25]. Phytochemical studies are useful
for drug discovery and development in a variety of industries, including food (dairy products, additives, colors, or
spices), horticulture (pesticides or nutrient additions), pharmaceuticals (drugs, poisons, or stimulants), and
manufacturing (fuels or coloring additives). Phytochemicals can be broadly categorized into six groups, which include
lipids, carbohydrates, alkaloids, quinones, phenolic compounds, and terpenoids [70]. These groups of molecules have
benefits for human health in addition to being crucial for plant growth.
At now, phytochemical profiling has been conducted on only 30% of Proteaceae species, with less than 10% of these
species having had their chemicals isolated and purified. The most often used and studied genera are Grevillea and
Protea [26]. having been documented in earlier research as 362 species in Grevillea and 112 species in Protea .
Proteaceae is a family of less than 400 known substances, divided into three major groups: alkaloids (13%)[ 27,28],
quinones (8%), and phenolic compounds (69%). Given the high concentration of phenols and polyphenols in the
Proteaceae family, these species have a wide range of possible bioactive characteristics, including antiviral,
antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and antiallergic effects. Within the family Proteaceae, the three largest
classes of phytochemicals are phenolic glucosides, alkylresorcinols and their derivatives, and tropane alkaloids [27]
From 15 to 39 (Icariside B1, Kaur-16-ene, and Farnesylacetone)—compounds not found in the previously examined
studies [27,28]—only the newly identified phytochemicals from the earlier studies were included till 2023

Bioactive properties:

Fruits are a valuable source of nutrients and dietary energy, as they offer fiber, minerals, vitamins, and phytochemicals.
Their nutritional and health benefits have led to their consumption. Numerous fruits have demonstrated potential
protective properties against several diseases, including cancer, obesity, chronic illnesses, eye diseases, and
cardiovascular diseases [29,30]. Approximately 25,000 plants have been identified in Australia as of right now, 2000
of which are edible and some of which are transported outside [31]. Australian native fruits grow seasonally and are

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readily available in both arid and non-arid areas of the country [32]. which can meet clients' needs all year long. A
number of native fruits, including quandong, riberry, pepper berries, lemon aspen, Davidson's plum, Kakadu plum,
and bush tomato, have become popular in Australia and gained economic traction. The difficulty of commercializing
and satisfying both domestic and foreign market demands has caused the Australian native food business to grow
slowly [33]. On the other hand, these plants offer a potentially valuable supply of consumable fruits that possess
bioactive qualities like anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antioxidant, and antibacterial effects [34].

Antioxidant Activity:

The oxidative stress caused by imbalances between antioxidants and free radicals in the human body may be the cause
of various ailments, aging, cancer, and respiratory illnesses [35]. Numerous free radicals, such as hydroxyl,
superoxide, nitric oxide, hydroperoxyl, nitrogen dioxide, and lipid peroxyl radicals, that are created when cells
metabolize oxygen might cause this imbalance [36]. Antioxidant absorption, however, can lessen the amount of free
radicals in the body to ward against illness. Therefore, it is helpful to determine the antioxidant activity of plants and
their derived (food) products. The techniques for measuring antioxidant activity have advanced significantly in the
last several years. Using spectrometry, the evaluation of antioxidant activity is mostly split into two categories: single
electron transfer (SET) and hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) tests, with the exception of chromatographical and
electrochemical approaches (Figure 1). While the mechanism of SET measures the ability of antioxidants to reduce
metals, carbonyls, and radicals by donation of an electron, the mechanism of HAT measures the ability of antioxidants
to donate hydrogen to free radicals [36]. The oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), the total peroxyl radical-
trapping antioxidant parameter (TRAP), and the total oxyradical scavenging capacity (TOSC) assays are typical
methods of HAT assays. On the other hand, common examples of SET assays are the ferric reducing antioxidant
power (FRAP), the cupric antioxidant capacity (CUPRACA), and the total phenolic content (TPC) using Folin-
Ciocalteu reagent [35]. Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)
radical scavenging capacity assay are two further coupled mechanisms of SET and HAT [92]. Although lipophilic
substances cannot be detected by TPC, FRAP, or DPPH, these techniques are currently routinely used to assess the
antioxidant activity of plants [35,36]. It is advised, based on Chaves's research, to take into account at least two distinct
approaches when measuring antioxidant activity during the study[37].

Antimicrobial Activity:

Human health is compromised by food borne bacteria, which may result in various ailments. Bacillus, Salmonella,
Campylobacter, Escherichia, Staphylococcus, and Listeria spp. are among the common foodborne pathogens
mentioned by the New South Wales Food Authority [38]. For instance, between 0.5 to 8 hours, individuals with a
Staphylococcus aureus infection may experience symptoms such as vomiting and stomach pains. In addition, the
discovery of antibiotics helps treat human ailments, but it also causes microbes to develop drug resistance. Finding
novel antibiotic compounds is therefore a key goal for developing new medications. Numerous research investigations
have demonstrated that a variety of chemicals found in natural sources may have antibacterial capabilities, such
Terminalia carpentariae [39], Terminalia ferdinandiana [40], Acacia floribunda [41]Macadamia integriflora [42], and
Hakea sericea [43]. Antimicrobial activity may now be tested using a number of standardized techniques, the most
often used of which are the dilution and diffusion tests [44]. Other techniques include the time-kill test, flow
cytofluorometric method, ATP bioluminescence assay, diffusion assay, and bioautography. This is mostly due to the
fact that approaches other than the diffusion and dilution tests call for specialized tools and more intricate statistical
analysis. The official and recognized methods for testing antimicrobial susceptibility are the agar disk and the well
diffusion method [44]. Nevertheless, both methods are unable to differentiate between bacteriostatic and bactericidal
effects. Consequently, the least concentration of antimicrobial medications required to detectably impede the
development of microorganisms—also known as the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)—can be ascertained
by dilution procedures, a quantitative measuring technique. The lowest concentration of antimicrobial agents that kill
99% of bacteria may be found using the minimum bactericidal and fungicidal concentration (MBC/MFC) method.
Certain dye reagents, such as 2,3,5-triphenyltetrazolium chloride (TTC) [45], resazurin [46], and 3-[4,5-
dimethylthiazol-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) [44], have been studied as indicators to improve the
accuracy of visual findings.

In bioactive investigations of the Proteaceae family, three genera of particular relevance are Protea, Grevillea, and
Hakea. When comparing the Proteaceae plant research to other assays, antimicrobial activity was the most highly
measured. The Proteaceae family of bacteria is mostly investigated using five microbes: E. Col (20 studies), S. aureus
(19), P. aeruginosa (11), C. albicans (9), and B. cereus (9). M. integrifolia fruit has been tested against E. coli, showing

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the maximum microbiological activity at a MIC of 5.3 µg/mL [42], In contrast to the >100 μg/mL MIC value in the
stem of Roupala brasiliensis [47], the leaves of Embothrium coccineum [48], the bark of Darlingia darlingiana [49],
and other species, the MIC value in our study is 31.125 ± 0.2 μg/mL. The stem of Roupala brasiliensis exhibited the
highest level of antimicrobial activity in S. aureus investigations, with a MIC value of 15.6 μg/mL [50]. Meanwhile,
G. avellana aerial tissues shown antibacterial activity against P. aeruginosa, with a MIC value of 64 µg/mL [51].
Comparing M. integriflora (leaf) to prior investigations on C. albicans and B. cereus, the leaf showed the highest MIC
values, at 6.5 μg/mL and 5.8 μg/mL, respectively [42].

Cytotoxicity:

One of the most important health issues in the world today is cancer. The World Health Organization (WHO) reported
that the number of cancer-related fatalities increased from around 4 million in 2014 to 10 million in 2018 [52].
Furthermore, it was estimated that over 60% of natural products, or more than 3000 plants, were the source of
anticancer medications with additional value [53]. As a result, curiosity for the identification of anticancer drugs has
grown. An in vitro investigation called cytotoxicity research is used to examine how medicinal drugs affect the growth,
destruction, and reproduction of cells. These days, the four primary cytotoxicity tests that are often employed are
luminometric, colorimetric, fluorometric, and dye exclusion[54]. Among the colorimetric cell proliferation tests, the
methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) assay is the most often used in research. Nevertheless, application issues arise
from the MTT assay's excessive sensitivity. As an instance, kaempferol and (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate may lower
the MTT to formazan, influencing the outcomes [55].

The cytotoxic study of the Proteaceae species included a variety of tests, such as trypan blue dye [56]. The assays are
as follows: MTT [57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65], XTT [66], MTS [67,68,69,70], WST-1 [71], lethality assays for brine
shrimp [72,73,74], resazurin reduction test [75], and fluorescein diacetate assay [76The cell line used in the majority
of investigations was HepG2, which is an isolated case of hepatocellular carcinoma. The reason for this might be
because, with a survival rate of 20.6% worldwide, esophageal (20.6%) and pancreatic (11.5%) cancers are the two
most common urgent health concerns, followed by liver (20.3%) tumors [77].K. excelsa's inner stem demonstrated
strong anticancer activity against P388 with an IC50 value less than 1 µg/mL, according to recently published
Proteaceae family research [78]. The activity of the compounds in the Proteaceae family was examined in almost half
of the cytotoxicity studies conducted on them; some of these compounds have been the subject of prior research in
other families. According to a summary published earlier [79], 2-methoxyjuglone was detected in about 20 species
belonging to the groups Juglandaceae, Sterculiaceae, and Proteaceae; this finding was weaker than that of the research,
which reported an IC50 value of 2.2 µg/mL [80]. In addition, 2.-methoxyjuglone demonstrated anticancer efficacy in
vitro against a variety of human cancer cells, primarily examining breast cancer, colon adenocarcinoma, and
hepatocellular carcinoma cells [188]. Another harmful substance present in G. robusta is graviquinone, which it
demonstrates against MCF-7 (IC50: 15.0 ± 3.0 μM), NCI-H460 (10.8 ± 2.3 μM), and SF-268 cell lines (5.9 ± 0.1 μM)
[80]. It also possesses cytotoxic properties against additional cell lines, with IC50 values ranging from 0.03 to 11.83
μM [81], such as lung tumors, squamous cell carcinoma, immortalized cells, and thymic lymphoma. As a result,
graviquinone may be an exceptional cytotoxic agent for the treatment of several tumors. The chemical methyl 2,5-
dihydroxycinnamate, which is present in G. robusta, has been found in the leaves and branches of Philadelphus
coronaries [82] and Murraya paniculate [83]. It has the potential to exhibit cytotoxic effects on several types of tumors.
At 11.3 ± 2.1 and 19.4 ± 1.9 µg/mL, respectively, hydroquinone from H. lobata leaves inhibited the MGC-803 and
HEEC cell lines [62]. This substance has been examined and identified in both terrestrial and aquatic plants, as
reported in cytotoxicity and antioxidant research.[84,85,86]

Anti-Inflammatory Activity:

A biological response to damaging stimuli, inflammation causes redness, diarrhea, swelling, discomfort, and even loss
of function [87]. Acute and chronic inflammation are the two different categories of inflammation. While the human
body uses inflammation to fight against external invaders, over 99% of inflammatory illnesses are severe, life-
threatening, or can cause death, such as asthma [87]. Currently, steroidal and nonsteroidal synthetic molecular
medications are used to treat pain and inflammation, but they frequently have toxic and unfavorable side effects [87,
88]. stomach side effects, such as bleeding, diarrhea, and stomach erosion, may occur with the combination of aspirin
and mefenamic acid. Since many contemporary medications are also widely utilized by Aboriginal peoples, research
has been done on plant-based anti-inflammatory drugs that have fewer adverse effects. The Aboriginal Dharawal
people, for example, employ plants of the Eucalyptus genus as anti-inflammatory drugs [89]. Ten mechanisms of

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cellular inhibition are employed in anti-inflammation activity: hormones related to arachidonic acid, cytokines,
signaling pathways, nitric oxide (NO), reactive oxygen species (ROS), inflammatory mediators, immunological
regulation, gut microbiota, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-dependent anti-inflammatory drugs [90,91].

Anti-inflammatory activity, which was often given directly to the target cells, was also evaluated using animals as
the study subject. Among the reported Proteaceae species (F. saligna, H. terminalis, H. salicifolia, and T.
speciossissima), the roots of H. terminalis showed the strongest anti-inflammatory efficacy in NO expression, with an
IC50 value of 11.98 ± 0.71 µg/mL. Several animals (F. speciosa: chicks; L. hirsute and G. robusta: pigs; G. robusta
and L. hieronymi: rats) were employed in animal model experiments to examine the anti-inflammatory effects of
several Proteaceae species. Through the inhibition of animal edema, these animal models are frequently employed in
anti-inflammatory investigations [91]. Their bioactivity is affected by various extraction techniques, sample
preparation, solvent usage, and sample location, as the anti-inflammatory activity shown. Different solvents were used
to extract P. simplex, and the results showed a variety of inhibition at the same concentration [92]. Furthermore, in a
research on G. avellana, varying sample roasting procedures resulted in a variance in inhibitory activity [93]. In order
to better inform future research, it is crucial to look at the consequences of sample processing.

Two investigations only examined the anti-inflammatory properties of phytochemicals, focusing on H. terminalis [57]
and L. hieronymi [94]. Bisresorcinol, which is present in the trunk of H. terminalis, possesses anti-aging properties
against tyrosinase, collagenase, and elastase at 156.7 ± 0.7, 33.2 ± 0.5, and 22.8 µM/L, respectively, and anti-
inflammatory properties in RAW 264.7 cells with an IC50 value of 71.15 ± 6.66 mg/mL [57]. It's possible that the
primary cause of the anti-aging effect is the hydrogen bonds and π-electrons that bind the bisresorcinol and enzyme.
Additionally, Grevillea glauca stems contain bisresorcinol and its derivatives [95]. Another substance contained in the
Proteaceae family, oleanolic acid, has been thoroughly examined and documented in several research papers and
patent applications, indicating its potential as a strong anti-inflammatory drug from 1980 to the present [96,97]. To
find out whether the plant chemicals have any promise as anti-inflammatory medicines, further thorough research on
the subject is advised.
With the exception of the fruits, all research on the Proteaceae family's anti-inflammatory properties has chosen to
examine the leaves, flowers, stems, roots, nuts, honey, barks, and trunks.

Antiviral Activity:

A pandemic event typically happens throughout a person's lifetime due to the genetic variety of viruses. While
numerous antiviral medications have been created in the past, viral resistance and the poor quality of some
conventional medications prevent many pharmaceuticals from successfully targeting viruses. The application of plant
materials to treat viral infections is therefore becoming more and more popular. Previous research that mainly focused
on the herpes simplex virus (HSV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), influenza virus, and human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) have evaluated over 100 species [98]. The antiviral activity of several Proteaceae species has been investigated.
Specifically, conocurvone, a derivative of naphthoquinone that is present in C. incurvum, can impede the effects of
HIV-1RF in order to safeguard the T4-lymphoblastoid cell line [99]. Plants lacking Hakea saligna roots shown
potential activity against the Ranikhet disease virus [100], with the barks of D. darlingiana and B. bleasdalei
demonstrating action against HSV [101]. Neither Lomatia ferruginea leaves nor the barks of Banksia integrifolia,
Cardwellia sublimis, or Buckinghamia celsissima had any antiviral action against HSV or HIV. Thus far, research on
the inhibitory effects of several Proteaceae plants on viruses other than HIV, HSV, and Ranikhet sickness is limited.
Antiviral research in the Proteaceae family is quite scarce in comparison to other in vitro bioactive investigations.

Other Bioactivities:

The Proteaceae family being explored for various bioactive characteristics that may be beneficial to human health.
Human health depends on healthy food, as parasites may cause a number of diseases that can be contracted from food
sources. Many tropical parasite infections, including trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, and malaria,
can lead to significant illnesses and problems. Treatment for parasites has been applied to several plant groups,
including Rutaceae, Myrtaceae, Papaveraceae, and Moraceae [102]. One of the plants with the potential to cure human
parasites is the Proteaceae family. As of right now, the Proteaceae family's antiparasitic research has only chosen to
examine Schistosoma mansoni, Leishmania species, and malaria. Botulin, quercetin-3-O-β-d-glucoside, and
quercetin-3-O-β-d-rhamnoside have all been extracted from R. montana, and its aerial portions have demonstrated
antiparasitic efficacy against S. mansoni [103]. At MIC values of 50 and 23.7 µg/mL, respectively, the wood of G.
robusta and O. grandiflora showed in vitro antiparasitic activity against Leishmania promastigotes [71,104]. Malaria

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is one of the biggest health issues in the world and can lead to very deadly illnesses. Research on antimalarial properties
has been conducted on two plants belonging to the Proteaceae family. Faurea speciosa leaves and branches showed
encouraging inhibitory action against Plasmodium spp. [,105,106]. Additionally, L. concinnum has long been used to
treat malaria [107]. Proteaceae species have been suggested to have potential use in antiparasitic activity, with the aim
of enhancing drug resistance and creating new plant-based products. Additionally, two investigations utilizing G.
robusta and Serruria furcellata examined the melanogenesis inhibitory action; this may have been caused by the high
value of arbutin derivatives [108, 109]. These two species might thus be used as skin-lightening and anti-chloasma
agents. Arbutin and its derivatives have also been shown to be present in a greater variety of native species and to
have promise as skin-lightening agents. Proteaceae member S. furcellata shown tyrosinase inhibitory properties to
prevent melanin production [109] and may be employed as a possible inhibitor of freckles. The plant Kermadecia
rotundifolia exhibited acetylcholinesterase inhibition [110]. It has the potential to replace Western medications and
lessen the negative effects of chemical medications by acting as an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor. Additionally capable
of treating cardiovascular conditions are the Proteaceae family of plants. Striata and robusta striatal have been shown
in one research to be strong inhibitors of plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase, suggesting that they may be employed to
stimulate failing hearts [111].

Traditional and Commercial use:

The Proteaceae family has contributed to a variety of items in the culinary, medicinal, horticultural, and material
industries, offering potential economic worth.Several Proteaceae species have produced food security through their
fruits, seeds, nuts, and flowers. The worldwide nut market is significantly impacted by the fact that Australia produced
and exported more than 50,000 tons of macadamia nuts in 2020 [112]. Compared to the value in 1987, this is a 30-
fold increase and a 1.5-fold increase over the similar number for 2014 [113]. Toxic cyanogenic glycosides that humans
cannot ingest are found in Macadamia jansenii and Macadamia ternifolia, but only Macadamia integrifolia and
Macadamia tetraphylla may be eaten as food to give nutrients and perhaps medicinal compounds
[113,114,115].Aboriginal people have long employed Proteaceae plants for a variety of therapeutic purposes,
including inflammatory treatments, gastroenteritis, lung infections, eye infections, sore throats, skin infections, kidney
difficulties, and liver illnesses . Oreocallis grandiflora, for instance, has flavonoids in its leaves and flowers, which
may be utilized to treat diabetes and inflammation [71]. Numerous Proteaceae plants have anti-aging or skin-lightening
properties. Certain species, nevertheless, are dangerous to humans. For example, direct contact with flowers or trees
of the Greville genus can cause allergic contact dermatitis in those who are sensitive to resorcinol [116]. One other
commercial application of the Proteaceae family is cultivation. Although Persoonia longifolia has been cultivated in
the UK since 1850, it is not commonly utilized in Australia [117]. The Proteaceae family has three important cultivars:
Protea, Leucospermum, and Leucadendron. However, additional Proteaceae species can also be used for decorative
purposes. For example, the species Grevillea's drought tolerance makes it a suitable plant for landscaping, whereas
the genus Banksia has been commercialized as cut and dried flowers [118]. Since the majority of Proteaceae species
are shrubs or trees, they provide a good supply of lumber and support the materials industry. For instance, boomerangs
are made from Grevillea and Hakea [119].

In Aboriginal cultures in Australia, the species Persoonia has long been utilized as food and medicine. For instance,
the indigenous Aboriginal people of the Madjedbebe region still highly value the P. falcata fruit, which was once eaten
as a plant-based diet between 65,000 and 53,000 years ago [120]. Various studies have shown that Persoonia species,
such as P. pinifolia, P. linearis, and P. levis, are edible, particularly the best and softest fruits that are on the ground
and taste like nibbling delicious candy floss [121,122,123,124]. The pulp is often consumed by New South Wales
aboriginal people and the skin is discarded [122]. Depending on their way of life, some Aboriginal peoples consume
the entire fruit sans the seed. Eating the entire fruit, however, is beneficial to human health since its many sections
contain unique nutrients, metabolites, and bioactive chemicals [125], all of which need more research to establish their
connections. When fully ripe, P. levis was referred to be the most often consumed "Indigenous bush lollies" [123].
Additionally, P. virgata has the potential to be grown for ornamentation [121]. Because of the saponins and tannins
they contain, P. falcata's leaves and wood have been used as a plant-based medication for chest infections, diarrhea,
and sore eyes [126, 127]. Additionally, certain Persoonia species, such as P. linearis and P. laurina, when used as a
protective infusion, might stop fishing lines and thread from fraying [128, 129].

Conclusion:

Due to their reduced costs, easy local harvesting, and few side effects related to minerals, herbal plants are becoming
more and more in demand globally. In addition to guaranteeing food security and offering dietary diversity, a variety

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of herbal plants are being employed to produce novel medications. Numerous Proteaceae species may find use in a
variety of sectors. These plants have historically been utilized by Australian Aboriginal groups as food and medicine,
but pharmacokinetic and clinical research are needed to assess their safety, effectiveness, and bioavailability. Only a
few species in the Proteaceae family have been quantified, and phytochemical research is still sparse in this family.
For the fruit components of Proteaceae species, however, little phytochemical data is currently available. Numerous
investigations on Proteaceae species' nutritional value and bioactivity have been carried out; yet, plant bioactivity is
influenced by sample location, harvest time, extraction technique, and solvent selection. To increase the generation of
bioactive qualities from natural plant sources, more research into these impacts is required. It may be worthwhile to
investigate the various plant tissues belonging to the Proteaceae family in order to see whether they might be used as
native products or in functional meals. Promising antibacterial and anti-inflammatory qualities have been
demonstrated by Persoonia spp.; these qualities may be used as functional components or nutraceuticals in the future.
Further research on nutrition and bioactivity in Persoonia species is advised. In general, Proteaceae fruit shows
promise as a food that can support socioeconomic growth, environmental sustainability, and food consumption;
nevertheless, further research is required to determine its safety.

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