Devices that produce light by heating a suitable material to a high temperature are Incandescence light

source . When any solid or gas is heated, commonly by combustion or resistance to an electric current,
it gives off light of a colour (spectral balance) characteristic of the material. Examples are tungsten
filament Bulbs.

Types of Incandescent Lamp

Incandescent lamps are available in two types like gas-filled lamps and
halogen lamps.

Gas-Filled Lamps
These lamps are used to generate light from an incandescent filament that
operates in an inert gas ambiance. The addition of the inert gas will suppress
the evaporation of the filament, which enhances the life span of the lamp.

Incandescent Lamp Fluorescent Lamp

Incandescent lamps are old. Fluorescent lamps are new.
The life span of an incandescent light bulb is about
1K hours. The life span of a fluorescent bulb is about 9K hours
To get the same brightness as an incandescent lamp, we
The most commonly used incandescent bulb is a 60- need a 6 to 8 watt LED bulb or13 to 15-watt fluorescent
watt bulb. bulbs.
These lamps emit mercury vapor that is dangerous to Toxic materials like mercury & phosphorus which are
the environment. dangerous are used in Fluorescent lamp.
The cost of these lamps is high as compared to
fluorescent lamps. The cost of these lamps is low.
These bulbs generate light by heating a filament until These lamps generate light by exciting a gas & causing
it begins to emit light. it to blaze.
As compared to fluorescent lamps, their
characteristics are not better. These lamps have better characteristics.
It consumes 4 to 8 times more powerful as compared
to fluorescent lamps. It consumes less power.
These lamps are costly. These lamps are cheaper.
These bulbs generate warmer light. These bulbs don’t generate warmer light.
These lamps are used in table lamps, hallway lighting, These lamps are used in classrooms, offices, cafeterias,
accent lighting, etc. etc.
These lamps use more power to attain a similar filament temperature as
compared to vacuum lamps. The gas around the filament cools while
evaporation is suppressed & decreases the relocation of faded tungsten
toward the wall of the bulb. The maximum operating temperature of these
lamps will generate more output light for each watt of i/p power to use in
dangerous applications.

Halogen Lamp
The latest incandescent lamps are halogen lamps which provide several
benefits over the normal incandescent lamp. The life & efficiency of these
lamps decreases because of the slow fading of the filament & black deposit
within the bulb.

Incandescent Lamp Vs Fluorescent Lamp

The difference between Incandescent Lamp Vs Fluorescent Lamp includes the
following.
Advantages
The advantages of Incandescent lamps include the following.
• These lamps are not costly.
• It generates warmer colors.
• Light output is high.
• Manufacturing cost is less.
• Easily dimmed with rheostats.
• It turns on immediately.
• In the winter seasons, these lights are very helpful in increasing the
room temperature.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of Incandescent lamps include the following.
• It is not energy efficient
• The lamp lifetime is low as compared to other bulbs.
• It is a warm light source, so needs to cool the room if required
• It is very delicate, so we need to handle it very carefully.
• Not suitable for large areas.
• It generates less lumen for each watt about 5-20 lumens for every
watt.
Applications
The incandescent lamp uses include the following.

•These lamps are normally used in table lamps, desk lamps, hallway
lighting, accent lighting, chandeliers, closets, etc.
• These lamps are widely used in commercial & household lighting.
Which gas is used in the incandescent lamp?
Argon gas is used in an incandescent lamp.

What is another name of the incandescent lamp?

Incandescent lamps are also called electric light bulbs, tungsten lamps,
candescent lamps, candent lamps, bulb, light-bulb, electric light, etc.

What is a tungsten light?

The tungsten light is the most common type of incandescent light bulb which
is used to provide light for indoor areas like home or office.

What is an example of incandescent light?

The examples are; GLS Light Bulbs. Globe Light Bulb. Frosted Bulb. Par LED
Light Bulb, Household Reflector Lamp, etc.

Thus, this is all about an overview of an Incandescent Lamp and its working
with applications.
The color temperature of these bulbs ranges from white color to yellow. If it is
very important to verify the color temperature of a lamp before purchase
because when the color temperature of the bulb is high then the bulb is
cooler, so it generates white light. Once the color temperature of the bulb is
low, then the bulb generates yellow color or warm light output. Each type of
bulb is very different; however, the average lifespan of an incandescent bulb
has at least 1K hours. Here is a question for you, are Incandescent lamps
energy efficient?

Fluorescent light sources used in spectroscopy and microscopy include light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
and laser diodes, mercury or xenon arc-lamps, and halogen lamps. Each light source differs in the
way wavelengths of light are delivered. Halogen lamps deliver continuous wavelengths of light in the
near-ultraviolet to some parts of the infrared wavelengths, while mercury or xenon arc-lamps deliver
continuous light in the UV and visible light ranges. While LEDs only deliver light in narrow
wavelength ranges, these lights can be combined to provide a wide spectrum from the ultraviolet to
the infrared range. When choosing a fluorescent light source, it is important to consider the
wavelengths required, its compatibility with your instrument, and the cost—while LEDs have higher
upfront cost, their lifetime cost is often lower than other light sources.

Principles of operation

A fluorescent lamp generates light from collisions in a hot gas (‘plasma’) of free accelerated electrons with atoms–
typically mercury – in which electrons are bumped up to higher energy levels and then fall back while emitting at two
UV emission lines (254 nm and 185 nm). The thus created UV radiation is then converted into visible light by UV
excitation of a fluorescent coating on the glass envelope of the lamp. The chemical composition of this coating is
selected to emit in a desired spectrum.

Construction

A fluorescent lamp tube is filled with a gas containing low pressure mercury vapour and noble gases at a total
pressure of about 0.3% of the atmospheric pressure. In the most common construction, a pair of filament emitters,
one at each end of the tube, is heated by a current and is used to emit electrons which excite the noble gases and
the mercury gas by impact ionisation. This ionisation can only take place in intact light bulbs. Therefore, adverse
health effects from this ionisation process are not possible. Furthermore, lamps are often equipped with two
envelopes, thus dramatically reducing the amount of UV radiation emitted.

Optical Transducerer

The optical transducer convert light into electrical quantity. They are also called as photoelectric
transducers. The optical transducer can be classified as photo emissive, photoconductive and
photovoltaic transducers. The photo emissive devices operate on the principle that radiation falling
on a cathode causes electrons to be emitted from the cathode surface.
The photoconductive devices operate on the principle that whenever a material is illuminated, its
resistance changes. The photovoltaic cells generate an output voltage that is proportional to the
radiation intensity. The radiation that is incident may be x-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet, infrared or
visible light.

An optical transducer converts light rays into an electronic signal. The purpose of an optical
transducer is to measure a physical quantity of light and, depending on the type of transducer, then
translates it into a form that is readable by an integrated measuring device.

•Photoconductive devices used to measure the resistance by

converting a change of incident light into a change of resistance.
• The photovoltaic cell (solar cell) converts an amount of incident light
into an output voltage.
• The Photodiodes convert an amount of incident light into an output
current.
Phototransistors are a type of bipolar transistor where the base-collector
junction is exposed to light. This results in the same behavior of a photodiode,
but with an internal gain.

The operating principle is the transmitting and receiving of light in an optical

sensor, the object to be detected reflects or interrupts a light beam sent out by
an emitting diode. Depending on the type of device, the interruption or
reflection of the light beam is evaluated. This makes it possible to detect objects
independently of the material they are constructed from (wood, metal, plastic or
other). Special devices even allow for a detection of transparent objects or
those with different colors or variations in contrast. Different types of optical
sensors as explained below.

Different Types of Optical Sensors

Through-Beam Sensors
The system consists of two separate components the transmitter and the
receiver are placed opposite to each other. The transmitter projects a light beam
onto the receiver. An interruption of the light beam is interpreted as a switch
signal by the receiver. It is irrelevant where the interruption occurs.

Advantage: Large operating distances can be achieved and the recognition is

independent of the object’s surface structure, color or reflectivity.
To guarantee a high operational dependability it must be assured that the object
is sufficiently large to interrupt the light beam completely.
Retro-Reflective Sensors
Transmitter and receiver are both in the same house, through a reflector the
emitted light beam is directed back to the receiver. An interruption of the light
beam initiates a switching operation. Where the interruption occurs is of no
importance.

Advantage: Retro-reflective sensors enable large operating distances with

switching points, which are exactly reproducible requiring little mounting effort.
All objects interrupting the light beam are accurately detected independently of
their surface structure or color.
Diffuse Reflection Sensors
Both transmitter and receiver are in one housing. The transmitted light is
reflected by the object to be detected.
Advantage: The diffused light intensity at the receiver serves as the switching
condition. Regardless of the sensitivity setting the rear part always reflects
better than the front part. This leads to the consequence to erroneous switching
operations.
Different Light Sources For Optical Sensors

There are many types of light sources. The sun and light from burning torch
flames were the first light sources used to study optics. As a matter of fact, light
coming from certain (exited) matter (e.g., iodine, chlorine, and mercury ions)
still provides the reference points in the optical spectrum. One of the key
components in optical communication is the monochromatic light source. In
optical communications, light sources must be monochromatic, compact, and
long lasting. Here are two different types of light source.
1. LED (Light Emitting Diode)
During the recombination process of electrons with holes at the junctions of n-
doped and p-doped semiconductors, energy is released in the form of light. The
excitation takes place by applying an external voltage and the recombination
may be taking place, or it may be stimulated as another photon. This facilitates
coupling the LED light with an optical device.

A LED is a p-n semiconductor device that emits light when a voltage is applied
across its two terminals

2. LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission

Radiation)
A laser is created, when the electrons in the atoms in special glasses, crystals,
or gasses absorb energy from an electrical current they become excited. The
excited electrons move from a lower-energy orbit to a higher-energy orbit
around the atom’s nucleus. When they return to their normal or ground state
this leads to the electrons emit photons (particles of light). These photons are
all at the same wavelength and coherent. The ordinary visible light comprises
multiple wavelengths and is not coherent.
 LASAR Light Emission
Process

Applications of Optical Sensors

Application of these optical sensors ranges from computers to motion detectors.
For optical sensors to work effectively, they must be the correct type for the
application, so that they maintain their sensitivity to the property they measure.
Optical sensors are integral parts of many common devices, including
computers, copy machines (xerox) and light fixtures that turn on automatically
in the dark. And some of the common applications include alarm systems,
synchros for photographic flashes and systems that can detect the presence of
objects.

Ambient Light Sensors

mostly we have seen this sensor on our mobile handsets. It will extend the
battery life and enables easy-to-view displays that are optimized for the
environment.
 Ambient Light Sensors

Biomedical Applications
optical sensors have robust applications in the biomedical field. Some of the
examples Breath analysis using tunable diode laser, Optical heart-rate
monitors an optical heart-rate monitor measures your heart rate using light. A
LED shines through the skin, and an optical sensor examines the light that
reflected back. Since blood absorbs more light, fluctuations in light level can be
translated into heart rate. This process is called as photoplethysmography.

Optical Sensor Based Liquid Level Indicator

Optical Sensor Based Liquid Level Indicator consist of two main parts an
infrared LED coupled with a light transistor, and a transparent prism tip in the
front. The LED projects an infrared light outward, when the sensor tip is
surrounded by air the light reacts by bouncing back with-in the tip before
returning to the transistor. When the sensor is dipped in liquid, the light
disperses throughout and less is returned to the transistor. The amount of
reflected light to the transistor affects output levels, making point level sensing
possible

Optical Level Sensor

Have you got the basic information of an optical sensor? We acknowledge that
the above-given information clarifies the basics of optical sensor concept with
related images and various real-time applications. Furthermore, any doubts
regarding this concept or to implement any sensor-based projects, please give
your suggestions and comments on this article you can write in the comment
section below. Here is a question for you, what are the different light sources of
an optical sensor?

The most sensitive method for strain measuring is based on the piezo-optical effect,
which consists in changing the polarization of light propagating in a transparent
stressed material. Such sensors have a significantly higher sensitivity than strain-
resistive ones due to the fundamentally high light polarization sensitivity to change in
the state of the substance in which light propagates.

Piezo-optical effect and piezo-optical transducers

The piezo-optical effect (also called “photoelasticity”) used for precision stress (deformation)
measurements is known since the 1930s [28]. If a light wave with a linear (circular) polarization
(Figure 2) is incident upon transparent material (photoelastic element) under the load F, an
additional phase difference Δ∆ between the polarization components, perpendicular and parallel
to the stress axis, arises due to the double refraction [20]. As a result, the light polarization in the
general case becomes elliptical. The magnitude of the phase difference Δ∆ is determined by the
expression

Optical Transducers
An optical transducer is based on optical transduction of a signal, and
consists of ultraviolet (10–390 nm), visible (390–700 nm), and infrared
(700 nm–1 mm) spectrophotometry in transmission. Optical
transducer functions, such as absorption, fluorescence,
phosphorescence, refractive index, and chemiluminescence were
explored briefly to validate the biological recognition in the biosensor.
The advantage of using optical biosensors is that devices can be
miniaturized using fiber optics, quantum dot detection, and
semiconductor photos. Optical biosensors based on fiber optics
convert emissions to a fluorescent signal that can be detectable.
Hybridization between the DNA probe and analyte target was detected
by using an ethidium bromide fluorescence marker (Chen et al.,
2000; Peterson et al., 2001; Qiao et al., 2008). The measurement was
calculated by using total internal reflection in optical fiber in proportion
to the amount of intercalating ethidium bromide into DNA.

Photoelectric transducers are among the elements used to convert light energy into
electrical one. In this article from Linquip, we want to talk about these useful elements and
explain how they work as well as their application. If you are curious to know more about
them, then keep on reading…

What is a photoelectric transducer?

This transducer type has been designed to convert light energy into electrical energy.
Photoelectric transducers are made from semiconductor materials. They use a
photosensitive element that is capable of ejecting electrons. This process happens when the
photoelectric transducer absorbs a beam of light that shines on the semiconductor material.
This discharge results in inducing the current in the system. The total absorbed light is equal
to the current’s magnitude.

hotoelectric transducers absorb the beam of light and hence, the material’s electrons are
energized. This process results in the movement of the electrons. This movement creates
different situations depending on the desired process:
 • A change in the output voltage of the semiconductor may be one of the effects
that the mobility of electrons produces.
• A change in the semiconductor’s output current is among the effects that can be
the result of the electron’s movement.
• The final result that can be seen because of the movement of the electrons is a
change in the material’s resistance.
Photo emissive devices work when a beam of light shines on a cathode, separating the
electrons from the surface of the cathode. The photoconductive systems work when the
illumination causes the resistance of the material to change. And the last principle is for the
photovoltaic cells. They generate an output voltage that is related to the radiation intensity.
This radiation can be visible light, infrared, gamma rays, ultraviolet, or X-rays.

Different photoelectric transducer types

Transducers have different types, each suitable for specific applications. They include:

• PhotoJunction
• PhotoConductive Cell
• Photovoltaic Cell
• PhotoEmissive Cell or Tubes
These four types are the most popular ones available on the market, each of them unique in
their own way. Now, we’ll dive into each one to get to know them in detail.

PhotoJunction

This photoelectric transducer type contains forms: phototransistors and photodiodes.

The photoelectric transducer is a light-sensitive device used to convert

light energy into electrical energy. It is made up of semiconductor
material that emits electrons when a beam of light falls on it.

The light contains energized particles called photons when strikes the
photosensitive element of the photoelectrical transducer. The energy of
photons is converted into kinetic energy of the electrons in the
semiconducting material, thus induces a current in the material.

Classification of Photoelectric Transducers :

The various photoelectric transducers that convert light energy into
electrical energy are photoemissive transducer, photovoltaic transducer,
photoconductive transducer, photodiode, and phototransistor.
The principle of working of a photo-emissive transducer is based on the
emission of electrons when the transducer is exposed to sunlight. In
some special combination of material like cesium-antimony, when it is
exposed to sunlight, the photons of the light beam incident on the
surface of the material causes electrons to break their atomic bonds
and are emitted.
This phenomenon is called the Photo-emissive Effect. The arrangement
consists of a glass tube in which photo-emissive material is enclosed.
There are three types of photo-emissive transducers,

• Vacuum phototube
• Gas-filled phototube
• Photomultiplier tube.
Vacuum Phototube :
A vacuum phototube consists of an anode rod and a cathode plate
enclosed in a vacuum glass tube. The cathode plate is coated with
photoemissive material, which emits electrons when the light beam falls
on it.

The electrons emitted are attracted by the anode rod by keeping the
anode at positive potential. The amount of electrons emitted is
proportional to the intensity of light. Thus the magnitude of current
flowing in the circuit depends upon the intensity of incident light on the
cathode.

It is the most popular and most widely used photo-emissive transducer.

The working of the photomultiplier is similar to the vacuum phototube,
but the electrons emitted from the cathode are not immediately drawn
to the anode. But they are made to attracted by another electrode
called dynode D1.
Again the dynode D1 emits secondary electrons due to incident electrons
of the cathode. These secondary electrons when strike dynode D 2, it
emits electrons which are finally collected by the anode. Thus electrons
are multiplied in numbers at each dynode by secondary emission.

Photovoltaic transducers operate on the principle of the Photovoltaic

effect, i.e., when light strikes a junction of certain dissimilar metals, a
voltage is generated. It is basically a PN-junction diode with
appropriately doped semiconductors. The semiconductor materials that
can be used in the cell are silicon, germanium, selenium, indium
arsenide, antimonide.

When the cell is exposed to light, a voltage is generated across the

junction. A different feature of this transducer is that it does not require
any auxiliary power source. However, the output of the cell is low and is
not a linear function of the input. The most common application of
photovoltaic cells is in the light exposure meter in photographic work.

Advantages of Photovoltaic Transducer :

• They generate voltage without using any form of external
source.
• They produce a fast response.
Applications of Photovoltaic Transducer :
• They can be used as energy converters.
• Used in space crafts, data processing industries, switching and
trigger circuits, earth-based applications.
• Can be used to determine the width of material processing.
• Cells with gold doped germanium material can be used as
infrared detectors.
• Photoconductive cells or transducers are one type of
photodetector. It works on the principle of photoconductive effect.
When light strikes a semiconductor material, there is a decrease in
the resistance of the material, thereby producing an increase in
the current. Such materials which change their resistance when
exposed to light are called photoconductive materials. Those
 materials are cadmium, selenide-lead sulfide, doped germanium,
etc.

•
• The cell consists of a thin layer of light-sensitive semiconductor
material coated between two electrodes on a ceramic base as
shown in the figure. An ammeter is incorporated into the circuit to
measure the change in current in the circuit, in accordance with
the change in resistance of the photoconductive cell.

• When light rays fall on semiconductor material, charge carriers will

be released which increases the flow of current in the circuit
produced by the applied electrical field.

With an increase in the intensity of light, the resistance of

semiconductor material decreases, thereby increasing current and vice
versa. The change in the current with respect to the change in
resistance is noted by an ammeter.

Advantages of Photoconductive Transducer :

• The photoconductive cell made up of cadmium sulfoselenide
can be used in the infrared region.
• They can be operated using low voltages.
Disadvantages of Photoconductive Transducer :
• The resistance varies due to the change in temperature for
particular light intensity.
• They cannot be used for analog applications.
Applications of Photoconductive Transducer :
• They are effectively sued in relay control circuits, burglar
alarms, and light-controlled switches.
 • They are used to measure the attenuation of light.
• In industrial control equipment to count the number of
packages moving on conveyor belts etc.
A photodiode acts as a light-sensitive device and converts the
illuminated light into an electrical signal. Therefore, it is also known as a
photodetector. It is formed by placing a semiconductor PN junction in a
sealed glass or plastic casing such that the radiations of light are
allowed to fall on the surface across the junction when illuminated.

The photodiode is connected in reverse bias condition and when there is

no illumination a small leakage current of the order of a fraction of 1 μA
flows across the junction. However, when the junction is properly
illuminated the current raises. This increase in the current is directly
proportional to the intensity of light rays.

Therefore, this linearity is maintained by maintaining the bias voltage at

a constant value. In the dark condition, a small leakage current called a
dark current will flow through the diode.

Advantages of Photodiode :
• They possess a good frequency response compared to
photoconductors.
• They produce a spectral response.
• They have good linearity.
• The problem of noise is low.
Disadvantages of Photodiode :
• The active area of the photodiode is very small.
 • Requirement of bias voltage to maintain the linearity over a
wide range.
• The dark current increases rapidly with an increase in
temperature.
• If the illumination level is low then a very low voltage is
available at the output which needs amplification.
Applications of Photodiode :
• Photodiodes are widely used in high-quality light meters and
demodulations.
• Since the response time of photodiodes is very fast, they are
used in film soundtrack recorders.
• They are used in optical communication systems to detect the
modulated light.
Phototransistor :
Phototransistors are similar to regular NPN or PNP or FET transistors
with three layers but with a light-sensitive base region as shown below.
The working is similar to a normal transistor but there is no electrical
connection to the base region and the base current is obtained from
light energy.

The input is given to the collector and output is obtained from the
emitter. When the light beam strikes the base region of the
phototransistor. It generates electron-hole pairs which give rise to base
current under the influence of the applied electric field.
Under the dark condition, there is no base current produced but a small
leakage current (order of nA) will flow from collector to emitter known
as dark current. As the light intensity increases, the base current
increases, which in turn increases the collector current. The base
current produced is directly proportional to the light intensity.