Final Exam Review

Bingpu Zhou

Final Exam: 2021-12-16, 09:30-12:30, E3-4043

 Multiple choice 單項選擇題

• Final exam occupies 30%
 True or false 判斷題
of the final grade.
 Problems 問答題
2021/11/23 1
 Outline
 You may not be allowed to take the exam if you are late by more
than 30 min.
 Please remain seated while the exam answer sheets and scripts are
collected and counted.

 Lecture note & computer & book & discussion are not allowed
during the examination.

 All the questions in the exam will be selected out from this review
note, or similar with the questions previously raised.
 You need to bring
- a calculator, - a pencil/pen, - and your Student ID card.

 Dictionary is allowed during the examination.

2
 Outline - Content Coverage
 Chapter1: Measurement
 Chapter2: Motion & Vector
25%  Chapter3: Force & Motion
 Chapter4: Energy

Mid-term
 Chapter5: Rotation
Examination

 Chapter6: Rolling
75%  Chapter7: Fluids
 Chapter8: Oscillations

Final Examination  Chapter9: Waves

• All will be covered.  Chapter10: Heat & Gas

3
 Chapters 1-10 of APAC1001
College Physics
for Final Exam Review

Measurement Motion Force Energy Rotation

Rolling Fluids Oscillation Wave Heat

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2.1 Kinematics: Position, Displacement, and Average Velocity

 Average velocity is the ratio between:

 A displacement, ∆x

 To the time interval in which the displacement occurred, ∆t

 Rate of Change in Position

 Instantaneous velocity, or just velocity, v, is:

o At a single/specific moment in time

o Obtained from average velocity by shrinking ∆t

Δt → 0

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2.3 Acceleration

 A change in a particle's velocity is

acceleration
 Average acceleration over a time
interval ∆t is

 Instantaneous acceleration (or just acceleration), a, for

a single moment in time is:

Instantaneous Acceleration
 First derivative of velocity
 Second derivative of position
How to find out the v from a???

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2.3.1 Constant Acceleration

 5 basic equations for case of constant acceleration.

 Be sure a is constant before using the equations in the table.

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2.3.1 Constant Acceleration

 If the acceleration is not a constant, how to solve it?

 Integrating velocity:
- Given a graph of an object's velocity v versus time t, we can integrate to find
position
 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gives:

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2.4 Vectors and their Components

 Vector addition is commutative

o We can add vectors in any order

 Vector addition is associative

o We can group vector addition however we like

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2.4 Vectors and their Components

 Rather than using a graphical method, vectors can be added by

components
o A component is the projection of a vector on an axis

 The components of a vector can be

positive or negative.
 They are unchanged if the vector is
shifted in any direction (but not
rotated).

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2.4.2 Multiplying Vectors

 A dot product is: the product of the magnitude of one vector times the
scalar component of the other vector in the direction of the first vector

 Multiplying two vectors: the vector product

o The cross product of two vectors with magnitudes a & b, separated
by angle φ, produces a vector with magnitude:

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2.6 Projectile Motion

 A projectile is
o A particle moving in the vertical plane
o With some initial velocity
 The motion of a projectile is projectile motion
 Launched with an initial velocity v0

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2.6 Projectile Motion

 Therefore we can decompose two-dimensional motion into 2 one-

dimensional problems.

Only gravity on vertical direction!

 Horizontal motion:
o No acceleration, so velocity is constant

 Vertical motion:
o Acceleration (a) is always -g

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3.1 Newton's First and Second Laws
 Summarize these behaviors as:

 As an equation, we write:

 Identify the body in question, and only include forces that act on that body!
 Separate the problem axes (they are independent):

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3.4 Friction in Static & Kinetic Situations

 Frictional force or friction:

o Occurs when one object slides or attempts to
slide over another
o Directed along the surface, opposite to the
direction of intended motion

 Two types of friction

 The static frictional force:
o The opposing force that prevents an object from moving
o Can have any magnitude from 0 N up to a maximum
 The kinetic frictional force:
o Has only one value
o Generally smaller than maximum static frictional force

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3.6 Uniform Circular Motion

 Circular motion requires a

centripetal acceleration

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4.2 Work & Kinetic Energy

 Kinetic energy:

 For an angle φ between force and displacement:

 As vectors we can write:

F F
 Notes on these equations:
o Force is constant
d
o Work can be positive or negative

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4.3.3 Work Done by a General Variable Force

 We take a one-dimensional
example
 We need to integrate the work
equation (which normally
applies only for a constant
force) over the change in
position
 We can show this process by an
approximation with rectangles
under the curve

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4.5 Potential Energy

 When only conservative forces act on a particle, we find many problems can be
simplified:

 A result of this is that:

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4.10 Center of Mass

 For two particles separated by a distance d, where the origin is

chosen at the position of particle 1:

 For many particles, we can generalize the equation, where

M = m1 + m2 + . . . + mn:

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4.10 Center of Mass

 For solid bodies, we take the limit of an infinite sum of

infinitely small particles → integration!

 Coordinate-by-coordinate, we write:

 Here M is the mass of the object

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4.12 Linear Momentum

 The linear momentum is defined as:

(different from angular momentum)

 The momentum:
o Vector: Points in the same direction as the velocity
o Can only be changed by a net external force

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4.12 Linear Momentum

 We can sum momenta for a system of particles to find:

 The net external force on a system changes linear momentum

 Without a net external force, the total linear momentum of a system of
particles cannot change

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4.13 Collision and Impulse (vector)

 In a collision, momentum of a particle can change

 Force and change of momentum:

ti: collision starts

tf: collision finishes

 We define the impulse J acting during a collision

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4.15 Momentum and Kinetic Energy in Collisions

For one dimensional collision:

Remember:
1. Momentum are conserved for all kinds of collisions, no matter
elastic or inelastic;
2. KE is conserved for elastic collision, not conserved for inelastic
collision. Completely inelastic collision loses the largest amount of
KE.
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5.1 Rotational Variables

How to define angle?

 Measure using radians (rad): dimensionless

 Define angular displacement as (during

a time interval):

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5.1 Rotational Variables

 Average angular velocity: angular displacement during a time

interval

 Instantaneous angular velocity: limit as Δt → 0

ω2
 Average angular acceleration: angular velocity
change during a time interval (if ω is not constant)
ω1

 Instantaneous angular velocity: limit as Δt → 0

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5.1 Rotational Variables

Angular Velocity: vector

 Right-hand rule to determine direction;
 If the body rotates around the axis, then the
vector points along the axis of rotation
 Normal to the plane of motion

Angular Acceleration:
vector

Decreased ω Increased ω Decreased ω Increased ω

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5.3 Relating the Linear and Angular Variables

 Linear and angular variables are

related by r, r: perpendicular distance from
the rotational axis

S
 Position (note θ must be in radians):

 Differentiating, and we have the speed (note

ω must be in radian measure):

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5.3 Relating the Linear and Angular Variables

Liner acceleration is consisted of two components.

1. Tangential acceleration (radians):

α: angular acceleration
• responsible for the changes in the magnitude of linear velocity υ
• Tangent to the path of the point

2. Write the radial acceleration in terms of angular

velocity (radians, directed radially inward):
• responsible for the changes in the direction of linear velocity υ
• Directed radially inward

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5.3 Relating the Linear and Angular Variables

Liner acceleration is consisted of

two components.
 1. Tangential acceleration
(radians)

 2. Radial acceleration
(radians)

Liner acceleration
Q: for α, at, and ar, which cannot be
zero for a circular motion?

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5.4 Kinetic Energy of Rotation

 We can write:

 And rewrite the kinetic energy (KE or K) of a rotating body as:

 Use these equations for a finite set of individual rotating particles

 SI Unit for I: kilogram-square meter (kg·m2)

 If, integrating over a continuous body:

 In principle we can always use this equation

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5.5 Rotational Inertia

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5.5 Rotational Inertia

 If we know the moment of inertia for the center of mass axis, we can find
the moment of inertia for a parallel axis with the parallel-axis theorem:

 Icom: the rotational inertia of the body about

an axis through the body’s COM
 h: the perpendicular distance between the
given axis and the axis through the COM
 Note the axes must be parallel, and the first
must go through the center of mass

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5.6 Torque

 We can resolve the force into components

to see how it affects the rotation
 The force is within the plane of the page;
 The force is applied at point P;
 F and r make the angle Φ;

 The ability of F to rotate the body depends on:

- Magnitude of the tangential component Ft;
- How far from O.

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5.6 Torque

Torque is a vector quantity. Right Hand Rule for Torque

The direction is perpendicular to the plane

determined by the moment arm and the force.
F
τ r

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5.7 Newton's Second Law for Rotation

Torque & Angular Acceleration

 When a rigid object is subject to a net torque
(≠0), it will undergo an angular acceleration.

 The angular acceleration is directly proportional to

the net torque

Tangential Acceleration
• at = r α
• Ft = mat
• Ft r= m r2α
• Ft r= mat r τ I
• The angular acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass in a rotating system.
• Proportional to the net torque.
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5.8 Work and Rotational Kinetic Energy

 The rotational work-kinetic energy theorem states:

 If we consider the instantaneous work done by the Ft:

𝑾 = න 𝑭𝒕 ∙ 𝒅𝒔 = න 𝑭𝒕 ∙ 𝒅𝜽 ∙ 𝒓

= ‫𝜽𝒅 𝝉 ׬ = 𝜽𝒅 ∙ 𝒓 𝒕𝑭 ׬‬

 The work done in a rotation about a fixed axis can be

calculated by:

 Which, for a constant torque, reduces to:

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6.1 Rolling as Translation and Rotation Combined

 The combinational motion is defined by:

1. The COM (point O) & the point P that has contact with
the surface move forward at constant speed:

2. The points of the wheel rotate around the COM as it

moves:
(multiple with time, t)

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6.1 Rolling as Translation and Rotation Combined

If, treat rolling as pure rotation (at typical moment) ?

 Another way to look at the rolling

motion
 The axis is always extending through
the point where the wheel contacts
with the surface when moving.

 Also owns the υcom & angular speed ω

 How about the velocity at the top?
- the top: largest rotation radius.

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Recall: parallel-axis theorem

Rotational Translational
kinetic energy kinetic energy

2021/11/23 41
6.3 Angular Momentum

 Here we investigate the angular counterpart to

linear momentum
 The definition: the particle with respect to the
origin O is a vector quantity defined as

 The unit of angular momentum is kg m2/s, or J s

 This is for point object…

2021/11/23 42
6.3 Angular Momentum

Newton's Second Law in Linear Form

Cross product with r

 We rewrite Newton's second law as:

Newton's Second Law in Angular Form

 The torque and the angular momentum must be defined with respect to
the same point (usually the origin of the coordinate)

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6.3 Angular Momentum

Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body

 We sum the angular momenta of the particles to find the angular

momentum of a system of particles:

 The rate of change of the net angular momentum is:

 In other words, the net torque is defined by this change:

2021/11/23 44
6.3 Angular Momentum

Angular Momentum of a Rigid Body

Conservation of Angular Momentum

 The law of conservation of angular momentum states
that, for an isolated system,
(net initial angular momentum) = (net final angular
momentum)

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Equilibrium

 Consider a book resting on a table, a puck sliding with constant velocity, a

rotating ceiling fan, a rolling bicycle wheel with constant velocity
 These objects have the characteristics that:
1. The linear momentum of the center of mass is constant
2. The angular momentum about the center of mass, or any other point, is
constant
 Such objects are in equilibrium

2021/11/23 46
7.1 Fluid Density and Pressure

 The density, ρ, is defined as the mass per unit volume:

 In theory, the density at a point is the limit for an infinitesimal volume, but we
assume a fluid sample is large relative to atomic dimensions and has uniform
density. Then

 The pressure, force acting on an area, is defined as:

 We could take the limit of this for infinitesimal area,

but if the force is uniform over a flat area A we
write

2021/11/23 47
7.2 Fluids at Rest

 Level 1: the surface of water

 Level 2: distance h below the surface
 P0: atmospheric pressure (1.013e5 Pa).

We have:

 y1 = 0, p1 = p0 & y2 = -h, p2 = p

For a depth h below the surface in a liquid this becomes:

2021/11/23 48
7.3 Pascal's Principle

 Pascal's principle governs the transmission of pressure through an

incompressible (can not change the volume based on external forces) fluid:

 Consider a cylinder of fluid

 Increase pext, and p at any point must change

 Independent of h

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7.3 Pascal's Principle

 Hydraulic pressure is an important application based on Pascal’s Principle

 Describes the basis for a hydraulic lever
 How the force can be transmitted within the fluid medium???

 Input and output forces related by:

 If A0>Ai, then F0 is larger than Fi.

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7.4 Archimedes' Principle

Buoyant Force
 F = B = P2A-P1A
= (P2-P1) A = ρfluid g h A = ρfluid g V

Archimedes' Principle states that:

Where mf is the mass of displaced fluid

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7.5 The Equation of Continuity

• Flow speed increases when the cross-sectional area through which the fluid flows
decreases;
• The volume in should be equal to the volume out during the same period.

 We can rewrite the equation as:

 where RV is the volume flow rate of the

fluid (volume passing a point per unit time)

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7.5 The Equation of Continuity

 If the fluid density is uniform, we can multiply by the density to get the
mass flow rate:

2021/11/23 53
7.6 Bernoulli's Equation

Bernoulli's Equation: energy conservation in dynamic fluids

 Applying the conservation of energy to the equal
volumes of input and output fluid:

 The ½ ρv2 term is called the fluid's kinetic energy

density (per unit volume)
 p: pressure/flow energy density (per unit volume)
 ρgy: potential energy density (per unit volume)

 Horizontal pipe:

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8.0 Oscillations in our life - some definitions

 Frequency: the frequency of an oscillation is the number of

times per second that it completes a full oscillation (cycle)

 Unit of hertz: 1 Hz = 1 oscillation per second = 1 s-1

 The time in seconds for one full cycle is the period

 Any motion that repeats regularly is called periodic

2021/11/23 55
8.0 Oscillations in our life - some definitions

 For the block & spring system: we know the relationship

between the force of the spring and the displacement.

• Hooke’s law:

F = -kx

• What is the motion formula, the

relationship between x and t?
𝒅𝟐 𝒙
𝒎 𝟐 + 𝒌𝒙 = 𝟎
F = ma=-kx 𝒅𝒕

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8.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

 xm is how far the particle moves in

either direction: the amplitude

 The argument of the cosine is the phase

 The constant Φ is called the phase

angle or phase constant

 It can be adjusted for the initial

conditions of motion at t = 0

 ω: angular frequency

2021/11/23 57
8.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

 The velocity can be found by the time derivative of the position:

 The velocity depends on time;

 The value ωxm is the velocity amplitude vm

2021/11/23 58
8.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

 The acceleration can be found by the time derivative of the velocity function,
or 2nd derivative of position:

 The value ω2xm is the acceleration amplitude am

 Acceleration related to position:

2021/11/23 59
8.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

Acceleration Displacement

1. The particle’s acceleration is opposite its displacement;

2. The two quantities are related by a constant of ω2.

2021/11/23 60
8.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

 Relating this to Hooke's law we see the similarity

F = -kx

• We thus know the frequency of the spring & box system;

• A large angular frequency (and thus a small period) goes with a stiff spring
(large k) and a light block (small m).
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8.2 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

 U (PE): Potential energy - associated entirely with the spring -

how much the spring is stretched or compressed

 K (KE): Kinetic energy - associated entirely with the block -

depends on how fast the block is moving

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8.3 Pendulums

 A simple pendulum: a bob of mass m

suspended from an un-stretchable, massless
string

 Bob feels a restoring torque (tangential

component):

 Relating this to moment of inertia:

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8.3 Pendulums

 If ɵ is small (<15°), we can approximate

sin ɵ with ɵ.

sin ɵ ≈ ɵ
 e.g., sin 5° = sin (0.0873 rad) = 0.0872

 Angular acceleration proportional to

position but opposite in sign

 Holds when angular amplitude θm of the motion must be small

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8.3 Pendulums

 The angular frequency is:

 The period is:

 The period is (for simple pendulum, I = mL2):

• Small angle swinging

• Period: No relationship with the mass

2021/11/23 65
8.3 Pendulums

 A physical (real) pendulum has a complicated mass distribution

 C: center of mass
 h: distance between COM and Origin

 Assuming the pendulum is a uniform

rod of length L:

 Then solve for g:

h = L/2

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8.4 Damped Simple Harmonic Motion

 The liquid exerts a damping (frictional) force proportional

to velocity (accurate for slow motion)

 b is a damping constant, depends

on the vane and the viscosity of the fluid

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8.4 Damped Simple Harmonic Motion

 Use Newton's second law and rearrange to find:

 Solution to this differential equation is:

 With angular frequency:

k b2   2 b2 
 '    2    0  2 
 m 4m   4m 

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9.1 Transverse Waves

1. Transverse Wave
• A typical string element moves up and down
continuously as the wave passes.
• Each element that is disturbed moves transverse
(perpendicular) to the direction of propagation of the
wave.

2. Longitudinal Wave
• A sound wave: in an air-filled pipe by moving a
piston back and forth.
• In a longitudinal wave: the elements of the
medium undergo displacements parallel to the
motion of the wave.

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9.1 Transverse Waves

We need a function to give the shape of the wave,

among y, x, and time t:

• y: the transverse displacement of

any string element as a function h of
time t & position x;
• Generally a sine function is used to
describe (positive direction):

If, Opposite direction (-x):

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9.1 Transverse Waves

• Period (T): the time that any string element

takes to move through one full oscillation

• Angular Frequency (ω): radian per second

This graph is different

from the snapshot !!!
• Frequency (f): hertz or kilohertz

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9.1 Transverse Waves

• The phase should be the same:

k(x+x) - ω(t+t) = kx - ωt
kx = ωt

or

• A general equation that can be applied to many types of waves.

• The wave speed is one wavelength per period.
• The wave moves a distance of one wavelength in one period of oscillation.

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9.3 Interference of Waves

Principle of Superposition of waves

• Consider two waves passing in the medium,
with opposite directions at the same time.

• y1(x, t) & y2(x, t): the displacements that the

string would experience if each wave traveled
alone.
• The displacement of the string when the waves
overlap is then the algebraic sum

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9.3 Interference of Waves

• Suppose we send two waves, with same amplitude & frequency &
wavelength, along a stretched string in the same direction?

Based on the principle of superposition we have the resultant wave:

• The resultant wave due to the interference of two sinusoidal transverse waves, is also a
sinusoidal transverse wave, with an amplitude and an oscillating term.

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9.3 Interference of Waves

1. If the waves are exactly in phase (peak to peak & valley to valley)

Wave 1
Combine to
Wave 2 double the displacement

2. If the waves are exactly out of phase (peak to valley & valley to peak)

Wave 1
Ø = π rad or 180o
Wave 2 Combine to
cancel the displacement
(remain as straight line)

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9.3 Interference of Waves

Q: Under which condition (phase difference), can the

resultant wave amplitude remain at ym?

=ym

=1/2

Ø =120º or 240º
2021/11/23 76
9.4 Standing Waves and Resonance

(1) Nodes: where the string never moves (zero oscillation), as the black dots indicated
(2) Antinodes: halfway between adjacent nodes, where the amplitude of the resultant wave is a
maximum
(3) Standing waves: we call such wave patterns as standing waves, because they do not move
left or right. The location of the maxima and minima do not change!

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9.4 Standing Waves and Resonance

To analyze by math:

Displacement Magnitude Oscillating term

gives amplitude
at position x
2021/11/23 78
9.4 Standing Waves and Resonance

Standing waves:

Displacement Magnitude Oscillating term

gives amplitude
at position x

Consider the amplitude:

What does it mean?

 The amplitude of a standing wave is not a constant for all x.

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9.4 Standing Waves and Resonance

Consider the amplitude:

(1) if sin (kx) = 0: we have the amplitude is always zero

Means that adjacent nodes are separated by λ/2.

(2) if |sin (kx)| = 1: we have the amplitude is maximum value of 2ym

Means that antinodes are separated by λ/2 and halfway between nodes.

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9.4 Standing Waves and Resonance

We call such standing waves as

produced at resonance.

• The corresponding frequencies are called resonant frequencies.

• Each corresponding standing wave pattern is called as an oscillation mode.
• The fixed ends should be two of the nodes!!!

(1) The most fundamental: first harmonic

because the ends are fixed, they should be the nodes.

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9.4 Standing Waves and Resonance

• The collection of all possible oscillation modes is called harmonic series;

• n: harmonic number of the nth harmonic.

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9.6 The Doppler Effect

The Doppler effect

• a change in the observed frequency of a wave when the source or the
detector moves relative to the transmitting medium (such as air).

• For sound, the observed frequency ƒ’ is given in terms of the source

frequency ƒ by

v: the speed of sound through the air;

vD: the detector’s speed relative to the air;
vS: the source’s speed relative to the air.

 How to decide the plus or minus signs is based on the rule below:

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9.6 The Doppler Effect

• In the numerator:
the plus sign applies when the detector moves toward the source and the
minus sign applies when the detector moves away from the source.

• In the denominator:
the minus sign means the source moves toward the detector and the plus sign
applies when the source moves away from the detector.

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10.1 Temperature

• One of the central concepts of thermodynamics is

temperature.
• Physicists measure temperature on the Kelvin scale,
which is marked in units called kelvins (K).

• The Kelvin temperature scale: mostly used for basic scientific work;

• The Celsius temperature scale: popular for daily and commercial use

with T in kelvins.

The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics - basics about the temperature

2021/11/23 85
10.2 Thermal Expansion

Linear Expansion L
• All objects change size with changes in temperature.
• For a temperature change ΔT, a change ΔL in any
linear dimension L is given by ΔL

𝑳′ = 𝑳 + 𝜟𝑳 = 𝑳(𝟏 + 𝜶𝜟𝑻)
• α is the coefficient of linear expansion.
• α may vary with temperature, but we typically take it as a constant
for particular material.

Volume Expansion
• If the temperature of a solid or liquid whose volume V is increased by an
amount ΔT, the increase in volume is found to be:

• β is the coefficient of volume expansion and is

related to linear expansion in this way,

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10.3 Absorption of Heat

 Heat is negative when energy is transferred

from a system’s thermal energy to the
environment.

 Heat is positive when energy is transferred to a

system’s thermal energy from the environment.

 Heat can be negative or positive, depending on the direction from/to the system.
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10.4 Heat Transfer Mechanisms

2. Convection
• Convection occurs when temperature differences
cause an energy transfer by motion within a fluid
(gas or liquid).

• Natural processes:
1. Atmospheric convection in determining global climate
patterns and daily weather variations.
2. Huge energy transfers take place within the oceans.

The rate of energy transport by convection is roughly:

• proportional to the surface area
• proportional to the temperature difference between the environmental surface
and convecting fluid.

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10.4 Heat Transfer Mechanisms

3. Thermal Radiation

• Radiation is an energy transfer via the emission of electromagnetic

energy.

• Namely, via electromagnetic waves, e.g. the sun.

• This means that no medium is required for heat transfer via radiation
- thermal radiation can travel through vacuum.

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10.4 Heat Transfer Mechanisms

1. Thermal Conduction
• Consider a slab with area A and thickness L, whose faces
have temperatures TH and TC;
• Q is the energy transferred as heat from the hot to the cold
face, within time t;
The conduction rate Pcond at which energy is conducted
through a slab is (the amount of energy transferred per
unit time)

• A: the slab has area A,

• k: the thermal conductivity of the material. • Considered as a good thermal
conductor if k is high.

• Conversely, if you want to insulate your house or keep the temperature, you will need the
poor heat conductor. A high value of thermal resistance R is a good thermal insulator.

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10.4 Heat Transfer Mechanisms

Conduction through a Composite Slab

• The heat transfer is a steady-state process.
• The rate of energy transfer will not change with
time;
• Tx: the temperature of the interface between two
materials;
• The conduction rate Pcond at which energy is
conducted through a slab is:

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10.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics

• A gas may exchange energy with its surroundings

through work.
• The amount of work W done by a gas as it expands
or contracts from an initial volume Vi to a final
volume Vf is considered as a ‘thermodynamic
process’ with value of:

A gas confined to a cylinder

with a movable piston.

• Non-zero work needs a volume change!!!

• Integration is necessary as pressure of the gas (p) may vary during the
volume change. We will talk about the integral later about this case.

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10.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics

• Now we consider that the gas does positive work to the piston;
• There are actually many ways for the gas to go through state i to state f to
push the piston up.
• i - a: constant pressure; you increase the
temperature to allow the volume increase;
Positive work and heat absorbed herein.
• i - f: volume expands and pressure
• a - f: constant volume; no work done but
decreases for the positive work to
energy lost as heat (temperature decreases).
the piston.

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10.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics

• The work (W) and heat (Q) will have different values if we consider different
processes (paths).

• The gas can also undergo a close

• You can also do negative work! thermodynamic cycle;
• Compression: Vf > Vi • from i to f: expansion and positive work;
from f to i: compression and negative work.

𝑉𝑖
𝑊 = න 𝑑𝑊 = න 𝑝𝑑𝑉
𝑉𝑓

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10.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics

• The first law of thermodynamics applies the conservation of energy principle.

• Eint: internal energy - intrinsic property of the system.

• The first law of thermodynamics states that the change in internal energy of a
system equals the net heat transfer into the system minus the net work
done by the system.
• The first law gives the relationship between heat transfer, work done, and the
change in internal energy of a system.

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10.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics

Typical cases based on the first law of thermodynamics:

• Adiabatic process: thermally insulated, and no transfer of energy as heat occurs between
the system and the environment;
• Constant volume: the volume of the system is held as constant which means that the
system can do no work (zero work done).
• Closed cycle: the system is restored to the initial state. No intrinsic property - including
the internal energy - can possibly change.

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10.6 Ideal Gases

• The formula relates the pressure, volume, and temperature of the interested ideal gas.
• n: the number of moles of the gas;
• R: a constant (8.31 J/mol·K) called the gas constant.

• One mole of a substance contains NA (Avogadro’s number) elementary

units
• NA is found experimentally to be

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10.6 Ideal Gases

• Suppose we have an ideal gas in a piston-cylinder

system;

• The gas expands from initial volume Vi to final

volume Vf while keep the temperature T as
constant.

• How about the work done by the gas during the

isothermal (constant-temperature) change from
volume Vi to volume Vf ?

• If Constant Volume: we have Vf=Vi, then W=0.

• If Constant Pressure: 𝑽𝒇
𝑾 = න 𝒑𝒅𝑽 = 𝒑∆𝑽
𝑽𝒊

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