Lesson 3

Basic Statistics
Refresher
 Determine the basic statistical
concepts
1
Analyze the different properties

Lesson of measurement and scales,

measures of central tendency,

Objectives
measures of variability, and
correlational analysis
2
Realize the significance of
statistics in testing and
assessment
3
 Scales of Measurement

Measurement
-Act of assigning
numbers or symbols
to characteristics of
things according to
rules

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Scales of Measurement
Scales
- Set of numbers whose
properties model
empirical properties of
the objects to which the
numbers are assigned
a. Continuous Scale –
measures continuous
variable
b. Discrete Scale –
categorization has no
much meaning

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Properties of
Scale
1. Magnitude

the property of
“moreness”
2. Equal Intervals
- the difference between
two points at any place
on the scale has the
same meaning as the
difference between two
other points that differ
by the same number of
scale units
3. Absolute Zero

- obtained when
nothing of the
property being
measured exists
 Describing
Data

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Distributions

•A set of test scores arrayed for

recording or study
Raw Score

• Straightforward,
unmodified accounting of
performance that is
usually numerical
Frequency Distributions

• Displays scores on a variable or

a measure to reflect how
frequently each value was
obtained
 Tabular Form

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 Graph Form
1. Histogram – a graph
with vertical lines drown
at the true limits of each
test score forming a
SERIES OF
CONTIGUOUS
RECTANGLES

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 Graph Form
2. Bar Graph –
numbers indicative of
frequency appear of
Y- Axis; categorization
in X-Axis

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 Graph Form
3. Frequency Polygon –
expressed by a continuous line
connecting the points where
test scores or class intervals
meet frequencies

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 Percentile Ranks
- Answers the question,
“What percent of the scores
fall below a particular score
(Xi)?”

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 Percentile
- the specific scores or points
within a distribution
- divide the total frequency for
a set of observations into
hundredths

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 Measures of Central
Tendency

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Measures of Central Tendency
• A statistic that indicates the average or
midmost score between the extreme scores
in a distribution
Mean
• Most commonly used
• Most appropriate measure of
central tendency for INTERVAL
AND RATIO DATA
Median
• Middle score in distribution
• Most appropriate for ORDINAL,
INTERVAL AND RATIO DATA
• Useful when few scores fall at the high end
or relatively few scores fall at the low end
Mode
• Most frequently occurring score
• Appropriate in NOMINAL data
• NOT COMMONLY USED
• It is useful in analysis of a
qualitative or verbal nature
 Measures of Variability

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Variability

- An indication of how
scores in a distribution
are scattered or
dispersed
Variability

• Range (Highest Score

– Lowest Score)
Variability

• Interquartile and Semi

Interquartile Ranges
Interquartile range
(Q3 – Q1)
Standard
Deviation (s2)
- a measure of variability
equal to the square root of
the average squared
deviations about the mean
- it is equal to the square
root of the variance
Variance
- equal to the
arithmetic mean of the
squares of the
differences between
the scores in a
distribution and their
mean
Skewness
- Symmetry is absent
- Presence or Absence of
symmetry in a distribution
is simply one characteristic
by which a distribution can
be described
Kurtosis
- The steepness of a
distribution in its center
- Platy – flat
- Lepto – peaked
- Meso – middle
 Normal Curve
• - Scientists referred to it as
Laplace-Gaussian Curve
• - Karl Pearson is credited with
being the first to refer to the
curve as NORMAL CURVE
• - Also called as Gaussian

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 Normal Curve
• A bell-shaped, smooth,
mathematically defined curve that
is highest at its center
• The mean, the median, and the
mode all have the same value
• A normal curve HAS TWO TAILS
• oTails – area on the normal curve
between 2 and 3 standard
deviations above the mean

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 Standard Scores
• A raw score that has been
converted from one scale to
another scale, where the latter
scale has some arbitrarily set
mean and standard deviation
• More easily INTERPRETABLE
than raw scores

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 Z – Scores
• Mean = 0; SD = 1
• Is equal to the difference
between a particular raw
score and the mean divided
by standard deviation

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 T-Scores/ McCall’s T
• Mean = 50; SD = 10
• Devised by W.A. McCall
• Named a T-score in honor of his
professor E.L. Thorndike
• None of the scores is Negative

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 Stanine
• Mean = 5; SD = 2

STEN
• Mean = 5.5; SD = 2

DIQ
• Mean = 100; SD = 15

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 CORRELATION AND
INFERENCE

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Inferences (deduced conclusions)
•How some things (such
as traits, abilities, or
interests) are related to
other things (such as
behavior)
Coefficient of correlation
(or correlation coefficient)
•A number that provides
us with an index of the
strength of the
relationship between two
things
THE CONCEPT OF CORRELATION
• An expression of the degree and direction of
correspondence between two things
• Degree (Weak – Strong)
• Direction (Positive, Negative, No Correlation)
• LINEAR relationship
• ONLY TWO (2) VARIABLES
• Numerical in nature
• NO CAUSATION but CAN PREDICT
 1. Pearson R
• Most widely used
• Also known as the Pearson correlation coefficient
and the Pearson product-moment coefficient of
correlation
• Used when variables are Linear and Continuous
• Pearson and Z-Score are correlated because both
are concerned with the location of an individual in
a distribution
• The smaller the P-VALUE, the more significant
the relationship
• Larger CORRELATION, means more related to
each other
• Coefficient of Determinism (r2)
• An indication of how much variance is shared by
the X and Y variables
• Evaluates the strength of relationship
2. Spearman Rho
• One commonly used
ALTERNATIVE statistic
• Aka Rank-order
Correlation Coefficient/
Rank- difference
correlation coefficient
• Used when Small sample
size (fewer than 30
pairs) and Ordinal Data
3. Point-Biserial Correlation
•Relationship when one
of the variables are
•Dichotomous and the
other is Continuous
4. Phi-Coefficient
•Used when BOTH
variables are
Dichotomous
Graphic Representation of
Correlation
• Scatterplot
• a simple graphing of the coordinate points
for values of the X-variable (placed along
the graph’s horizontal axis) and the Y-
variable (placed along the graph’s vertical
axis)
• provide a quick indication of the direction
and magnitude of the relationship, if any,
between the two variables
• useful in revealing the presence of
curvilinearity in a relationship
• also makes the spotting of outliers
relatively easy
Graphic Representation of
Correlation
• Outliers - an extremely atypical point located at a relatively long
distance—an outlying distance— from the rest of the
coordinate points in a scatterplot
WHY OUTLIERS EXIST?
• Simply the result of administering a test to a very small sample
of testtakers
• Sometimes help identify a testtaker who did not understand the
instructions, was not able to follow instructions, or was simply
oppositional and did not follow instructions
• Sometimes provides a hint of deficiency in testing or scoring
Regression
• A reversion to the mean over time
or generations
• Analysis of relationships among
variables of understanding
• how one variable may predict other
(X) IV – Predictor Variable
(Y) DV – Outcome Variable
Multiple Regression
• The use of more than one
score to predict Y
• More predictors are NOT
necessarily better
Meta-Analysis
• Analysis of data from several studies
• A family of techniques used to statistically
combine information across studies to produce
single estimates of the data under study
• More weight can be given to studies that have
larger numbers of subjects
Meta-Analysis
Advantages:
(1) meta-analyses can be replicated;
(2) the conclusions of meta-analyses tend to be more reliable
and precise than the conclusions from single studies;
(3) there is more focus on effect size rather than statistical
significance alone;
(4) meta-analysis promotes evidence-based practice, which may
be defined as professional practice that is based on clinical and
research findings
thank you