Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer THT3701

STUDY UNIT 12

VAPOUR-COMPRESSION CYCLE

12.1 Learning objectives

After students have studied this unit, they should be able to

• analyse and perform cyclic calculations for the Carnot refrigeration cycle
• state the difficulties experienced with the Carnot refrigeration cycle
• analyse and perform cyclic calculations for vapour-compression refrigeration systems
• apply a pressure-enthalpy chart in the analysis of the performance of a vapour-
compression refrigeration system
• perform various cyclic calculations for different types of refrigerants

12.2 Introduction

In vapour-compression refrigeration systems, compressors activate the primary working fluid

by compressing it to a higher pressure and higher temperature level after producing a
refrigeration effect. The compressed fluid then transfers its heat to the sink and thus condenses
to a liquid form. This liquid is then throttled to a lower pressure and lower temperature vapour
to produce a refrigerating effect during evaporation.
The vapour-compression cycle is the most important and most widely used refrigeration
cycle in practice. In this study unit, the modification of the classical Carnot cycle to achieve
the actual vapour cycle, as dictated by practical considerations, is discussed.
The primary working fluid used for absorbing heat at a low pressure and low
temperature, and releasing it at a higher pressure and higher temperature in refrigeration
systems, is referred to as a refrigerant. Various substances are used as refrigerants. The choice
of a suitable refrigerant is influenced by numerous factors that are discussed in study unit 3.
In refrigeration practice, enthalpy is one of the most important properties sought, and
the pressure can usually be determined easily. For this reason, the pressure-enthalpy diagram,
which is the graphic means of presenting refrigerant properties, is also discussed.

In this section we also define some of the common terms used in industrial refrigeration
systems to help students to get a better understanding of the content:

• A heat pump (HP) is a refrigerating system used to transfer heat into a space or
substance. The term “heat pump” is used because energy is transferred against the
natural temperature gradient from a low temperature to a higher one.
• A heat engine is a system that converts heat or thermal energy to mechanical energy
that can be used to do mechanical work.

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• The isentropic process is an idealised thermodynamic process that is both adiabatic

and reversible.
• The adiabatic process is a process that occurs without the transfer of heat or mass of
substances between a system and its surroundings. Energy is transferred to the
surroundings only as work.
• A reversible process is a process whose direction can be "reversed" by inducing
infinitesimal changes to some property of the system via its surroundings. Throughout
the entire reversible process, the system is in thermodynamic equilibrium with its
surroundings.
• Refrigeration capacity is the amount of mass that must be transferred per unit time
from the cold chamber and it decides the mass flow rate of a given refrigerant.

12.3 The Carnot cycle for refrigeration and heat pump

The efficiency of the Carnot cycle cannot be exceeded when operating between two given
temperatures. The Carnot cycle operating as a heat engine is familiar from the study of
thermodynamics. The Carnot heat engine receives energy at a high level of temperature,
converts a portion of the energy into work and discharges the remainder to a heat sink at a low
level of temperature. The Carnot cycle for refrigeration performs the reverse effect of the heat
engine, because it transfers energy from a low level of temperature, requires the addition of
external work and discharges energy to a high level of temperature.
The performances of the refrigerator and the HP are defined by what is known as the
coefficient of performance (COP). The COP is an index of performance of a thermodynamic
cycle. Because the COP can be greater than 1, it is used instead of thermal efficiency.
While the Carnot cycle offers a high coefficient of performance, practical
considerations require certain revisions, which eventually transform it into the actual vapour
cycle.
Figure 12.1 shows a reversed heat engine cycle, where a quantity of heat, Q2, is
transferred from a cold source at temperature T2. The quantity of heat, Q2, is also called the
refrigerating effect.

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Figure 12.1 Reversed heat engine

The first law of thermodynamics gives

Or, W + Q2 = Q1. (12-1)

Q2 is the important quantity for a refrigerator; for a heat pump, it is Q1. The work input, W,
determines the running cost. The quantity of heat, Q1, is called the heating effect. It should be
noted that there is no difference in operation between a refrigerator and a heat pump.
Therefore,

and (12-2)

. (12-3)

is also known as the performance ratio.

The best COP will be given by a cycle that is a Carnot cycle. A Carnot cycle using a wet vapour
as the working substance is shown diagrammatically in figure 12.2(a). The most widely used
refrigerators and heat pumps are those that use a liquefiable vapour as the working substance
or refrigerant.

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Figure 12.2 Reversed heat engine system operating on the Carnot cycle

The cycle is indicated on the T-s (temperature-entropy) diagram of figure 12.2(b). The cycle
events are as follows:
1–2. Wet vapour at state 1 enters the compressor and is compressed isentropically to state 2.
2–3. The vapour enters the condenser at state 2 and is condensed to constant pressure (isobaric)
and temperature (isothermal) to state 3, when it is completely liquid. Q1 is the heat rejected
during this process.
3–4. The liquid is expanded isentropically behind the piston doing work.
4–1. The refrigerant enters the evaporator where heat is extracted isothermally.

Then, from the T-s diagram (figure 2.2(b)) since the areas are proportional to the heat
quantities:

(12-4)

(12-5)

(12-6)

(12-7)

(12-8)

(per unit refrigerating capacity) (12-9)

(per unit refrigerating capacity) (12-10)

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It is important to note that the COPref and COPhp decrease with increased temperature difference
(T1 – T2).

Question 12.1
What is the important requirement of the Carnot cycle?

Question 12.2
Why is the Carnot cycle impractical?

Example 12.1
A refrigerator has working temperatures in the evaporator and condenser coils of –30 °C and
32 °C respectively. What is the maximum COP possible? If the actual refrigerator has a COP
of 0.75 of the maximum, calculate the required power input for a refrigerating effect of 5 kW.

Solution 12.1
T1 = 32+273 = 305 K and T2 = -30+273 = 243 K

Actual COPref = 0.75 x 3.92 = 2.94

Example 12.2
The pressure in the evaporator of an ammonia refrigerator is 1.902 bar and the pressure in the
condenser is 12.37 bar. Analyse the thermal performance if the Carnot cycle is used.

Solution 12.2

From the property table of ammonia, the evaporation temperature at the pressure of 1.902 bar
is –20 °C and the condensing temperature at 12.37 bar is 32 °C.

T1 = 32 +273 = 305°C and T2 = -253 °C

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State 2: h2 = 1467.03 kJ/kg, s2 = 4.9509 kJ/kgK

State 1: s1 = s2 = 4.9509 kJ/kgK, then:

Therefore:

h1 = 88.68 + 0.874 x 1329.1 = 1249.71 kJ/kg

State 3: h3 = 332.17 kJ/kg, s3 = 1.2319 kJ/kgK

State 4: s4 = s3 = 1.2319 kJ/kgK, then:

Therefore, h4 = 88.68 + 0.165 x 1329.1 = 308.34 kJ/kg.

Therefore:
The refrigerating effect Q2 = h1 – h4 = 1249.71 – 308.34 = 941.4 kJ/kg.
The heating effect Q2 = h2 – h3 = 1467.03 – 332.17 = 1134.86 kJ/kg.

The mass flow rate for unit refrigeration capacity (1 kW) is

The mass flow rate for unit heating capacity (1kW) is

.
The summary of the performance is given in table 12.1.

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Table 12.1 Performance summary for reversed Carnot cycle

Cycle Reversed
Carnot cycle
Evaporating temperature (°C) –20
Condensing temperature (°C) 32
Refrigerating effect (kJ/kg) 941.4
Heat pumping effect (kJ/kg) 1134.86
Compression work input (kJ/kg) 217.32
COPref 4.87
COPhp 5.87
Mass flow rate/unit capacity (refrigeration) 1.0
(g/s)
Mass flow rate/unit capacity (heat pump) (g/s) 0.88
Discharge temperature (°C) 32.0

12.4 Vapour-compression cycles

The evaporation and condensation processes take place when the refrigerant is receiving or
rejecting the specific enthalpy of vaporisation. These processes are constant temperature and
constant pressure processes. A vapour compression cycle is one in which these two processes
correspond to those of the reversed Carnot cycle for a vapour. This enables the temperature
range to be kept low. Certain practical considerations have led to modifications to the ideal
cycle discussed in section 2.3.

12.4.1 Replacement of the expansion engine by a throttle valve

• For throttling, initial enthalpy equals the final enthalpy.
• The process of throttling is highly irreversible.

Figure 2.3 Reversed cycle using a throttling valve

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• The refrigerating effect, Q2 = T2 (s1 – s4) = h1 – h4, is reduced by using a throttle valve
instead of the expansion cylinder.

12.4.2 Conditions at the compressor inlet (the standard vapour-compression

cycle)
• It is desirable to continue the evaporation process until the vapour is dry saturated (see
figure 12.4).
• In a practical unit, this process is extended to give the vapour a definite amount of
superheat at the exit of the evaporator.
• Superheated refrigerant at the evaporator exit helps to prevent the carry-over of liquid
refrigerant into the compressor where it interferes with the lubrication.
• Isentropic compression takes the refrigerant into superheat region.

Figure 12.4 T-s diagram for a reversed cycle with superheated vapour in the compressor

• Now the rejection of heat in the condenser cannot be carried out at a constant
temperature.

Question 12.3
The pressure in the evaporator of an ammonia refrigerator is 1.902 bar and the pressure in the
condenser is 12.37 bar. Analyse the thermal performance if the standard cycle is used.
(Hint: Use a similar method as in example 2.)
The summary of the comparison of performance of the two cycles is given in table 12.2.

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Table 12.2 Comparison of the thermal performance analysis between the reversed Carnot cycle and the standard
refrigeration cycle

Cycle Reversed Standard

Carnot cycle refrigeration cycle
Evaporating temperature (°C) –20 –20
Condensing temperature (°C) 32 32
Refrigerating effect (kJ/kg) 941.4 1085.62
Heat pumping effect (kJ/kg) 1134.86 1362.49
Compression work input (kJ/kg) 217.32 276.87
COPref 4.87 3.92
COPhp 5.87 4.92
Mass flow rate/unit capacity (refrigeration) 1.0 0.92
(g/s)
Mass flow rate/unit capacity (heat pump) (g/s) 0.88 0.73
Discharge temperature (°C) 32.0 115.2

12.4.3 Subcooling of the condensed vapour

• The condensed vapour can be cooled at constant pressure to a temperature below that
of the saturation temperature corresponding to the condenser pressure. This effect is
shown in figure 12.5.
• Therefore, the refrigerating effect in process 4–1 is increased.
• The subcooling temperature range is 3–8 K (and superheating can be 7 K).

Figure 12.5 T-s diagram for a reversed cycle with subcooling in the condenser

• From steady-flow energy equation:

Q2 = h1 – h4, i.e. refrigerating effect.
W = h2 – h1, i.e. work done on the refrigerant.
• Q1 = h2 – h3, i.e. heat rejected by the refrigerant.
• h3 = h4, i.e. isenthalpic process.

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• Furthermore, the volume flow rate ( is the parameter that determines the size of the
compressor and other cycle components, and it can be calculated from
.

Question 12.4
What are the benefits of subcooling and superheating in a refrigeration cycle?

12.4.4 Combined subcooling and superheating

The process for combined subcooling and superheating can be achieved by means of a heat
exchanger (an intercooler) between suction and discharge lines, as shown in figure 12.6.

Figure 12.6 Combined subcooling and superheating on a reversed cycle

Question 12.5
The pressure in the evaporator of an ammonia refrigerator is 1.902 bar and the pressure in the
condenser is 12.37 bar. Analyse the thermal performance if the refrigeration cycle with a
superheating degree of 5 °C and a subcooling degree of 3 °C is used.
Add the results of this analysis to those given in table1 2.2 and discuss.

12.5 Pressure-enthalpy diagram

Here refrigeration cycles are presented on a pressure-enthalpy (p-h) diagram instead of a T-s
diagram. The pressure-enthalpy diagram is more convenient for refrigeration cycles since the
enthalpies required for calculation can be read off directly. The essential features of the p-h
diagram are shown in figure 12.7. A typical refrigeration cycle is shown on a p-h diagram in
figure 2.8.

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Figure 12.7 Sketch of a pressure-enthalpy chart for a refrigerant

The pressure-enthalpy is sometimes referred to as the Mollier diagram. It is the usual

graphic means of representing refrigerant properties. The coordinates pressure and enthalpy
have been selected because it is easy to determine the pressure, while the enthalpy is one of the
most important properties and provides an indication of the energy content.

Figure 2.8 Reversed cycle on a p-h diagram

Process 1–2: Enthalpy increases.

Process 2–3: Heat is removed in the condenser at constant pressure.
Process 3–4: Enthalpy remains constant. Temperature is reduced to evaporator temp.
Process 4–1: Heat is absorbed in the evaporator at constant pressure. Enthalpy increases.

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12.5.1 Performance of the standard vapour-compression cycle

With the help of the pressure-enthalpy diagram, significant quantities of the standard vapour-
compression cycle can be determined. These quantities are the work of compression, the heat
rejection rate, the refrigerating effect, the coefficient of performance, the volume rate of flow
per kilowatt of refrigeration and the power per kilowatt of refrigeration.
The work of compression in kJ/kg is the change in enthalpy in process 1–2 in figure
12.9(a) or h1 – h2. From the steady flow equation, where changes in kinetic and potential energy
are negligible:
h1 + q = h2 + w (12-11)
In the adiabatic compression the heat transfer q is negligible, therefore the work w equals h1 –
h2. This difference is negative, which indicates that work is done on the system.
The heat rejection in kJ/kg is the heat transferred from the refrigerant in process 2–3,
which is h3 – h2, whose negative value indicates heat transfer from the refrigerant (heat
rejection). This value is used in sizing the condenser and calculating the required flow
quantities of the condenser cooling fluid.
The refrigerating effect in kJ/kg is the heat transferred (heat absorption) in process 4–
1, or h4 – h1. The COP of the standard vapour-compression cycle is therefore

. (12-12)

An efficient refrigeration system has a low value of power per kilowatt of refrigeration,
but a high COP.

Figure 12.9 (a) The standard vapour-compression cycle on the pressure-enthalpy diagram, (b) flow diagram

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Figure 12.10 shows how a standard cycle (red line) and subcooling and superheating (purple
line) can be represented on a p-h chart. (A refrigerant 134a or R134a chart is used.)

Figure 12.10 Pressure-enthalpy chart for refrigerant 134a

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Example 12.3
A vapour-compression plant using R134a operates with an evaporator pressure of 293 kPa and
a condenser saturation pressure of 1130 kPa. The vapour entering the compressor is saturated
at 293 kPa and the liquid leaving the condenser is saturated at 1130 kPa. The compressor
discharge temperature is 64 °C. Analyse the thermal performance of the refrigeration cycle.

Solution 12.3

State 1

Given:
 pressure = 293 kPa
 saturated vapour
Then from the chart:
 temp = 0 °C
 spec vol = 0,069 m³/kg
 enthalpy = 396,5 kJ/kg
 entropy = 1,72 kJ/kg.K

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State 2

Given:
 pressure = 1130 kPa
 dis temp = 64 °C
Then from the chart:
 spec vol = 0,020 m³/kg
 enthalpy = 443 kJ/kg
 entropy = 1,78 kJ/kg.K
State 3

Given:
 pressure = 1130 kPa
 saturated liquid
Then from the chart:
 cond temp = 44 °C
 enthalpy = 261,8 kJ/kg
 density = 1130 kg/m³ (spec vol = 0,000885 m³/kg)
State 4

Given:
 pressure = 293 kPa
 expansion: isentropic
h4 = h3 = 261,8 kJ/kg
The analysis

Work done on refrigerant during compression:

Work = h2 – h1 = 443 – 396,5 = 46,5 kJ/kg
Heat rejection = h2 – h3 = 443 – 261,8 = 181,2 kJ/kg
Refrigerating effect = h1 – h4 = 396,5 – 261,8 = 134,7 kJ/kg

Power input = x Q1-2 = x (h2 – h1)

Total heat rejection = x (h2 – h3)

This fulfils the first law of thermodynamics, which states that in order to bring refrigerant back
to an expansion device in the same condition, all energy and heat input must be removed.

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Question 12.6
A cold storage plant is used to cool 5000 litres of milk per hour from 30 °C to 4 °C, and the
heat leakage into the plant is estimated to be 40 kW. The refrigerant used is ammonia and the
temperature required in the evaporator is –6 °C. The compressor delivery pressure is 10.34 bar
and the condenser liquid is undercooled to 24 °C before throttling. The plant has a brine
circulation system and the rise in temperature of the brine is 5 K. Assume that the vapour is
dry saturated on leaving the evaporator and that the compression process is isentropic.
Calculate:
(1) the power input required taking the mechanical efficiency of the compressor as 80%
(2) the rate at which the brine must be circulated in litres per second
 For milk, specific heat is 3.77 kJ/kg K and density is 1030kg/m3.
 For brine, specific heat is 2.93 kJ/kg K and density is 1190 kg/m3.

12.6 Actual vapour-compression cycle

Compared with the standard cycle, the actual cycle suffers from insufficiencies. Some
comparisons are drawn by superimposing the actual cycle on the pressure-enthalpy diagram of
the standard cycle as in figure 12.11.

Figure 12.11 Actual vapour-compression cycle compared with standard cycle

The essential differences appear in the pressure drops in the condenser and evaporator,
in the subcooling of liquid and in the superheating of the vapour.

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(1) The standard cycle assumes no pressure drop in the condenser and evaporator.
However, the pressure of the refrigerant drops due to friction. As a result, the
compression process 1–2 would require more work than in the standard cycle.
(2) Subcooling of the liquid is a normal occurrence in the actual cycle.
(3) Superheating often occurs in the actual cycle (but not always).
(4) Lastly, the compression is no longer isentropic in the actual cycle.

12.7 Summary

Of the three basic refrigeration methods (vapour compression, absorption and thermoelectric)
the most common method in the RAC industry is the vapour compression, with the absorption
method a distant second choice. The following parameters play an important role in the
analysis of a vapour-compression refrigeration cycle:

Refrigerating effect
This important quantity represents the amount of heat supplied to the system from the
surroundings or heat extracted at low temperature. It is given by

where
= specific enthalpy at compressor suction, and
= specific enthalpy at evaporator inlet.

Work input
The work input or work supplied is important because it is the quantity that represents the
amount of energy to be consumed. It is given by

where
= specific enthalpy at compressor exhaust.

COP of vapour compression cycle

Refrigerator performances are defined by means of the coefficient of performance, COP, which
is given by

Or, .

Mass flow rate

The mass flow rate of a given refrigerant is determined by the refrigeration capacity when
working under specific conditions, that is

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The refrigeration capacity is the amount of heat that must be transferred per unit time from the
cold chamber. Hence, the mass flow rate of the refrigerant per kilowatt of refrigeration capacity
is given by

Volume flow rate

The volume flow rate is the quantity that determines the size of the compressor and the other
cycle components. It is given by

where
= the specific volume of the refrigerant at the compressor suction.

Discharge temperature
The discharge temperature of the compressor is represented by the temperature at the outlet of
the compressor.

12.8 Problems

Problem 12.1

A Carnot refrigeration cycle absorbs heat at –12 °C and rejects it at 40 °C.

(i) Calculate the coefficient of performance of this refrigeration cycle.

(ii) If the cycle is absorbing 15 kW at the –12 °C temperature, how much power is required?
(iii) If a Carnot heat pump operates between the same temperatures as the above refrigeration
cycle, what is the performance factor?
(iv) What is the rate of heat rejection at the 40 °C temperature if the heat pump absorbs 15 kW
at the –12 °C temperature?
Answer: 18 kW

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Problem 12.2
If in a standard vapour-compression cycle using refrigerant 22 the evaporating temperature is
–5 °C and the condensing temperature is 30 °C, sketch the cycle on pressure enthalpy
coordinates and calculate the following:
(i) the work of compression
(ii) the refrigerating effect
(iii) the heat rejected in the condenser in kJ/kg
(iv) COP
Answer: 6.47

Problem 12.3

An ideal refrigeration cycle operates with R134a as a working fluid. The temperature of the
refrigerant in the condenser and evaporator are 40 °C and –20 °C respectively. The mass flow
rate of the refrigerant is 0.1 kg/s. Determine the cooling capacity and the COP of the plant.

Problem 12.4
The pressure in the evaporator of an R134a refrigerator is 1.902 bar and the pressure in the
condenser is 12.37 bar. Analyse the thermal performance if the Carnot cycle is used.

Problem 12.5
The pressure in the evaporator of an R134a refrigerator is 1.902 bar and the pressure in the
condenser is 12.37 bar. Analyse the thermal performance if the standard cycle (see figure 12.4)
is used.

Problem 12.6
A refrigeration system using R22 is to have a refrigeration capacity of 80 kW. The cycle is a
standard vapour compression in which the evaporating temperature is –8 °C and the condensing
temperature 42 °C.
(i) Determine the volume flow rate of the refrigerant at the inlet to the compressor.
(ii) Calculate the power required by the compressor.
(iii) At the entrance of the evaporator, what is the fraction of vapour in the mixture expressed
both on a mass basis and volume basis?
Answers: 0.036 m3/s; 19.5 kW; 0.1558 kg/s; 0.0095 m3/s

Problem 12.7
A refrigeration R22 vapour-compression system includes a liquid to suction heat exchanger in
the system. The heat exchanger warms saturated vapour coming from the evaporator from –10
°C to 5 °C with liquid that comes from the condenser at 30 °C. The compressions are isentropic
in both cases listed below.

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(i) Calculate the coefficient of performance of the system without the heat exchanger, but
with the condensing temperature of 30 °C and an evaporating temperature of –10 °C.
(ii) Calculate the coefficient of performance of the system with the heat exchanger.
(iii) If the compressor is capable of pumping 12.0 ℓ/s measured at the compressor suction line,
what is the capacity of the system without the heat exchanger?
(iv) With the same compressor capacity as in (iii), what is the refrigeration capacity of the
system with the heat exchanger?
Answers: COPref = 5.43; COPhp = 6.43; COPref = 9.68; COPhp = 10.68; 30.25 kW;
50.68 kW

Problem 12.8
A standard vapour-compression cycle developing 50 kW of refrigeration using refrigerant 22
operates with a condensing temperature of 35 °C and an evaporating temperature of –10 °C.
Calculate:
(i) refrigerating effect in kJ/kg
(ii) circulation rate of refrigerant in kg/s
(iii) power required by the compressor in kW
(iv) coefficient of performance
(v) volume flow rate measured at the compressor suction
(vi) power per kW of refrigeration (i.e. kW/kW)
(vii) compressor discharge temperature
Answers: 158.5 kJ/kg; 0.315 kg/s; 10.6 kW; 4.72; 0.0206 m3/s; 0.212 kW/kW; 57 °C

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MULTIPRESSURE SYSTEMS

12.9 Learning objectives

After students have studied this unit, they should be able to

• justify the selection of single or multistage systems based on operating temperature

range
• classify multistage systems
• apply mass and energy balance equations in the analysis of multistage vapour
compression refrigeration systems

12.10 Introduction

A refrigeration system that has two or more low-side pressures is known as a multi-pressure
system or a compound vapour-compression system. The low-side pressure is the pressure of
the refrigerant between the expansion device and the compressor intake.
In situations where a high condensing temperature is required and/or a very low
evaporating temperature is needed, a single-stage compression system would bring about heavy
operating losses. To overcome the losses, it would be advantageous to employ compound or
multistage compression, which entails that compression is carried out in a series of cylinders.
First we discuss the two functions integral to multi-pressure systems, namely the removal of
flash gas and intercooling.

Question 12.7
What do you understand by compound or multistage vapour-compression systems?

Question 12.8
Discuss the limitations of single-stage vapour-compression refrigeration systems.

12.11 The removal of flash gas

Flash gas is refrigerant in gas form that is produced naturally when the condensed liquid is
subjected to boiling. The presence of flash gas in the throttling process reduces the efficiency
of the refrigeration cycle. It can also lead to improper working of the expansion system, and it
can increase superheating at the evaporator.
A saving in the power requirement of a refrigeration system results if the flash gas that
develops is removed and compressed before complete expansion. When saturated liquid
expands through an expansion valve, flash gas gradually increases. The equipment used to

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achieve the separation of the liquid from the vapour is called a flash tank or flash chamber (see
figure 12.12).
In the flash tank, part of the expansion is performed, liquid is separated from the vapour,
expansion of the liquid is continued (line 4) and vapour is recompressed without further
expansion (line 6). The end-point of part expansion (which should have been point 2) is
interrupted at point 3 by the separation process.

Figure 12.12 Flash tank for removing flash gas during expansion process

12.12 Intercooling

During multistage compression, the gas is cooled at constant pressure before it enters the next
cylinder. This cooling process between the stages is called intercooling. Intercooling between
stages reduces the work of compression per kilogram of vapour. In two-stage compression, an
intercooling from point 2 to point 4 on the pressure-displacement diagram in figure 12.13 saves
work. If the processes are reversible, the saving is represented by the shaded area.

Figure 12.13 Intercooling in two-stage compression

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Compression with intercooling is shown on the pressure-enthalpy diagram of a

refrigerant in figure 12.13. Process 4–5 shows a smaller increase in enthalpy than 2–3,
indicating that less work is required in 4–5.

Figure 12.14 Intercooling of a refrigerant in two-stage compression

Examining the equation for work in a reversible polytropic compression of a perfect gas is
another way of showing that the work of compression increases when the process moves out
farther into the superheat region:

(3-1)
where

is the pressure, Pa,

is the specific volume, m3/kg, and
is the polytropic exponent.

Subscript 1 refers to the entrance of the compressor.

Subscript 2 refers to the exit of the compressor.

Intercooling can be accomplished with a water-cooled heat exchanger (more suitable

for two-stage air compression) or by using liquid refrigerant (see figures 12.15(a) and (b)). The
water-cooled heat exchanger is usually not cold enough for refrigerant compression.
Intercooling with liquid refrigerant usually decreases the total power required when ammonia
is the refrigerant, but not when refrigerant 12 or 22 is used (see examples 1 and 2) due to the
difference of their properties.

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In figure 12.15(b), discharge gas from the low-stage compressor bubbles through the
cold liquid in the intercooler and leaves at point 4 as saturated vapour.

Figure 12.15 Intercooler with (a) a water-cooled heat exchanger and (b) liquid refrigerant

Example 12.4
Calculate the power needed to compress 1.2 kg/s of ammonia from saturated vapour at 80 kPa
to 1000 kPa by (a) single-stage compression and (b) two-stage compression with intercooling
by liquid refrigerant at 300 kPa.

Solution 12.4

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Table 12.3 shows a summary of the calculations with the subscripts referring to state points in
figure 12.14.

Table 12.3 Comparison of ammonia compression with and without intercooling.

Without intercooling, With intercooling, processes

processes 1–2 and 2–3 1–2, 2–4 and 4–5
h2–h1, kJ/kg 1588–1410 1588–1410
h3–h2, kJ/kg 1800–1588
h5–h4, kJ/kg …………… 1628–1450
Flow rate, kg/s, 1 to 2 1.2 1.2
2 to 3 1.2
4 to 5 ……………. 1.346
Power required, kW, 1 to 2 213.6 213.6
2 to 3 254.4
4 to 5 …………….. 239.6
Total power, kW 468.0 453.2

The high-stage compressor in the intercooled system must compress1.2 kg/s plus the flow rate
of refrigerant that evaporates to de-superheat the gas at point 2. The flow rate of ammonia
compressed in the high stage can be calculated by making a heat and a mass balance about the
intercooler, as shown in figure 12.16.

Figure 12.16 Heat and mass balance around intercooler

Heat balance:

Mass balance:

Solving gives

Intercooling the ammonia with liquid refrigerant reduces the power required from 468 to
453.2 kW.

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Further benefit of intercooling the ammonia:

Discharge temperature will be reduced from 146 °C to 77 °C. A lower discharge temperature
allows for better lubrication of the compressor, which results in its longer life.

Example 12.5
Compare a compression of 3.5 kg/s of refrigerant 22 (with that of ammonia) from saturated
vapour at 100 kPa to a condensing pressure of 1000 kPa by (a) single-stage compression and
(b) two-stage compression with intercooling by liquid refrigerant at 300 kPa.

Solution 12.5
Table 3.2 shows a summary of the calculations with the subscripts referring to state points in
figure 3.3.

Table 12.4 Comparison of refrigerant 22 compression with and without intercooling.

Without intercooling, With intercooling, processes

processes 1–2 and 2–3 1–2, 2-4 and 4–5
h2–h1, kJ/kg 416–387 416–387
h3–h2, kJ/kg 449–416
h5–h4, kJ/kg …………… 430–399
Flow rate, kg/s, 1 to 2 3.5 3.5
2 to 3 3.5
4 to 5 ……………. 3.74
Power required, kW, 1 to 2 101.5 101.5
2 to 3 115.5
4 to 5 …………….. 115.9
Total power, kW 217.0 217.4

For refrigerant 22, intercooling with liquid refrigerant midway during the compression is
ineffective. In an ammonia system, there is an optimum pressure at which the intercooling
should take place. In the compression of air by cooling water or by rejecting heat to ambient,
the intermediate pressure for minimum total power is

where

is the intercooler pressure, kPa,

is the suction pressure of low-stage compressor, kPa, and
is the discharge pressure of the high-stage compressor, kPa.

The development of the equation provides an approximate guideline for the optimal
intermediate pressure.

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12.13 One evaporator and one compressor

With one compressor and one evaporator, the flash chamber may function as shown in
figure 12.17.

Figure 12.17 System with one compressor and one evaporator using a flash tank

A pressure-reducing valve throttles the flash gas from the intermediate pressure to the
evaporator pressure because there is high suction pressure compressor available.

Question 12.9
Briefly explain why the system shown in figure 12.17 is not frequently used.

12.14 Two-stage compression with liquid intercooler

Figure 3.7 shows the schematic arrangement of the different components of a two-stage
compression with liquid intercooler, along with p-h diagram showing the processes involved.
The main components of the system are an evaporator, a low-pressure compressor, a liquid
intercooler, a high-pressure compressor, a condenser and an expansion valve.

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Figure 12.18 Two-stage compression with liquid intercooler

Question 12.10
Describe in your own words the sequence of operation (1–2; 2–3; 3–4; 4–5; 5–6–1) for the
system shown in figure 12.18.

12.15 Two evaporators and one compressor

The system which has two evaporators operating at different temperatures is common in
refrigeration. Low-temperature refrigeration may be required for a process and another may be
used to provide air conditioning for some offices. A dairy cooling milk and manufacturing ice
cream is another example of such a system. A frozen-food plant may require one evaporator at
–40 °C to quick-freeze the food and the other at –25 °C to hold the food after it is frozen. One
method of arrangement of this type of system is shown in figure 12.19(a). Figure 12.19(b)
shows the corresponding p-h diagram.

Figure 12.19
(a) One compressor and two evaporators with the air conditioning evaporator at –10 °C
(b) Pressure-enthalpy diagram for system of (a)

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Question 12.11
What are the drawbacks of the system in figure 12.19(a)?

To overcome the drawbacks of the system in figure 12.19(a), a revision may be made
as shown in figure 12.20(a). Figure 12.20(b) shows the corresponding p-h diagram. A pressure-
reducing valve installed after the high-temperature evaporator regulates the pressure and
maintains the temperature in the air conditioning evaporator.

Figure 12.20
(a) One compressor and two evaporators with a pressure-reducing valve to maintain a high temperature in the air
conditioning evaporator
(b) Pressure-enthalpy diagram for a system of (a)

The refrigerating effect in the high-temperature evaporator in figure 12.20(a) is greater

than it is in the system in figure 12.19(a). However, the system of figure 12.20(a) demands
more work per kilogram of refrigerant, but for the proper operation of the high-temperature
evaporator the system is nevertheless preferred.

12.16 Two compressors and one evaporator with intercooler and flash tank

This system is often the ideal way to serve one low-temperature evaporator. It requires less
power than a system with a single compressor.

Example 12.6
Calculate the power required by the two compressors in an ammonia system that serves a
250 kW evaporator at –25 °C. The system uses two-stage compression with intercooling and
removal of flash gas. The condensing temperature is 35 °C.

Solution 12.6

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First sketch the schematic diagram of the system (see figure 12.21(a)) and the corresponding
pressure-enthalpy diagram (see figure 12.21(b)). The functions of the intercooler and flash tank
are combined in one vessel.
The intermediate pressure for optimum economy can be calculated from

where

= saturation pressure at –25 °C = 152 kPa, and

= saturation pressure at 35 °C = 1352 kPa.

The enthalpies at all points are determined from the table of properties of liquid and
saturated vapour ammonia and the p-h diagram of superheated ammonia.
h1 = hg at –25 °C = 1430 kJ/kg
h2 = h at 453 kPa after isentropic compression = 1573
h3 = hg at 453 kPa = 1463
h4 = h at 1352 kPa after isentropic compression = 1620
h5 = hf at 35 °C = 366 h6 = h5 = 366
h7 = hf at 453 = 202 h8 = h7 = 202

The mass rates of flow through the compressors can be calculated by means of heat and
mass balances.
Heat balance about the evaporator:

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Figure 12.21
(a) Two compressors and one evaporator in example 12.6
(b) Pressure-enthalpy diagram for system in (a)

Heat and mass balance about the intercooler:

and

Low-stage power:

High-stage power:

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Total power =

This power requirement can be compared with that of a single-compressor system

developing 250 kW of refrigeration at –25 °C with a condensing temperature of 35 °C. The
pressure-enthalpy diagram is shown in figure 12.22. The enthalpies are as follows:

Power =

The two-stage compressor system requires 12% less power than the single-compressor
system.

Figure 12.22 Pressure-enthalpy diagram for single-compressor system for conditions in example 12.6

12.17 Two-stage compression with water intercooler and liquid subcooler

In refrigeration, liquid subcooler (see figure 12.23) is an application often used to decrease the
temperature of the liquid refrigerant to below its boiling temperature or condensing
temperature, hence it increases the performance of the evaporator. It is a device which gives
the same result as flash gas removal. It cools the liquid refrigerant by evaporating a small
fraction of the liquid.

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Figure 12.23 A liquid subcooler

Question 12.12
Explain the differences in the thermal performance of flash gas removal and a liquid subcooler.
Figure 12.24 shows the schematic arrangement of the different components of a two-
stage compression with water intercooler and liquid subcooler, along with a p-h diagram of the
processes involved.

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Figure 12.24 Two-stage compression with intercooler and liquid subcooler

12.18 Two-stage compression with water intercooler, liquid subcooler and

liquid flash chamber

Figure 12.25 shows the schematic arrangement of the different components of a two-stage
compression with water intercooler, liquid subcooler and liquid flash chamber, along with a p-
h diagram of the processes involved.

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Figure 12.25 Two-stage compression with intercooler, liquid subcooler and liquid flash chamber

12.19 Two-stage compression with water intercooler, liquid subcooler and

flash intercooler

Figure 12.26 shows the schematic arrangement of the different components of a two-stage
compression with water intercooler, liquid subcooler and flash intercooler, along with a p-h
diagram of the processes involved.

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Figure 12.26 Two-stage compression with water intercooler, liquid subcooler and flash intercooler

Activity 12.1

Thoroughly study pages 202, 204, 206 and 208, as well as examples 6.1 to 6.7, in the prescribed
book (Kumar 2017). These relate to figures 12.18, 12.24, 12.25 and 12.26 in this study unit.

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12.20 Two compressors and two evaporators with intercooling and flash gas
removal

Process and chemical industries often require different temperatures of refrigeration in various
sections of the plant. Evaporators at two different temperatures can be handled efficiently by a
two-stage system which employs intercooling and the removal of flash gas.

Example 12.7
In an ammonia system, one evaporator is to provide 180 kW of refrigeration at –30 °C and
another evaporator is to provide 200 kW at 5 °C. The system uses two-stage compression with
intercooling and is arranged as in figure 12.27(a). The condensing temperature is 40 °C.
Calculate the power required for the compressors.

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Figure 12.27
(a) Two compressors and two evaporators operating with intercooling and flash gas removal
(b) The pressure-enthalpy diagram corresponding to the system in (a)

Solution 12.7

Sketch the pressure-enthalpy diagram of the cycle in figure 12.27(b). The discharge pressure
of the low-stage compressor and the suction pressure of the high-stage compressor are the same
as the pressure in the 5 °C evaporator.
Next, determine the enthalpies at the state points.

h1 = hg at –30 °C = 1423 kJ/kg

h2 = h at 517 kPa after isentropic compression = 1630
h3 = hg at 5 °C = 1467
h4 = h at 1557 kPa after isentropic compression = 1625
h5 = hf at 40 °C = 390.6 h6 = h5 = 390.6
h7 = hf at 5 °C = 223 h8 = h7 = 223

Mass rates of flow:

The simplest way to calculate the mass rate of flow handled by the high-stage compressor is to
make a heat and mass balance about both the high-temperature evaporator and the intercooler,
as shown in figure 12.28.

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Figure 12.28 Heat and mass balance about high-temperature evaporator and intercooler in example 4

Heat balance:

Mass balance:

Therefore

Combining gives

Solving leads to

The power required by the compressors can now be calculated:

Low-stage power: 0.150(1630 – 1423) = 31.1 kW
High-stage power: 0.382(1625 – 1467) = 60.4 .
Total = 91.5 kW

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If one compressor served each evaporator in a single-stage compression, the power requirement
of the compressors would have been as follows:
Flow through low-temperature evaporator:

Flow through high-temperature evaporator:

Power for low-temperature system: 0.174(1815 – 1423) = 68.2 kW

Power for high-temperature system: 0.186(1625 – 1467) = 29.4 .
Total = 97.6 kW

The combined power for the compressors serving the evaporators individually is greater than
for the combined system shown in figure 12.27. All of the saving is attributable to the flash gas
removal and intercooling of refrigerant serving the low-temperature evaporator.

12.21 Compound compressors

In the systems where there are two stages of compression, the flow diagrams have shown two
separate compressors. However, there are single compressors available that accept both high
and low suction pressures; these can be used in place of the two compressors shown in figure
12.27.

12.22 Liquid-recirculation systems

A schematic diagram of a liquid-recirculation system is shown in figure 12.29. Liquid

recirculation systems usually achieve good feeding of the evaporators and provide high heat-
transfer coefficients on the refrigerant side. It is not a requirement that a liquid-recirculation
system be served by a multistage compression system.

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Figure 12.29 A liquid-recirculation system

12.23 Summary

• The removal of and recompression of flash gas before complete expansion decreases
the power requirement by the compressor in multipressure systems.
• Intercooling decreases the power requirement when ammonia is the refrigerant.
• Intercooling decreases the discharge temperature of the refrigerant from the high-stage
compressor.
• A decision to use multiple-stage systems should essentially be based on an economic
analysis.
• The savings in the use of energy must be compared with the cost of additional
equipment.
• Other factors, such as type of refrigerant, the type of compressor and the system’s size,
also have an influence.

12.24 Design project: identification of the refrigeration cycle

12.24.1 Temperature limitation

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The temperature limitation or the system operation temperatures (evaporating temperature

and condensing temperature) are identified based on the application requirement and local
weather conditions.

12.24.2 Selection of the cycle

For the selection of the cycle, the efficiency, economics, complexity and safety of the system
should be considered.

Project 1: Cold room Project 2: Freezer

Location Pretoria Pretoria
Product Fruit or vegetable Meat or fish: a particular kind
of meat or fish
Capacity 1000 kg full load 500 kg/day
Temperature 2–5 °C From 30 °C to –18 °C in 24
hours

PHASE 1: Identify the refrigeration cycle for the project (cycle and working conditions).

12.25 Problems

In the following problems, liquid leaves the condensers saturated, vapour leaves the
evaporators saturated and compressions are isentropic.

12.9 A liquid subcooler receives liquid ammonia at 30 °C and subcools 0.6 kg/s to 5 °C.
Saturated vapour leaves the subcooler for the high-stage compressor at –1 °C. Calculate
the flow rate of ammonia that evaporates to cool the liquid.
Answer: 0.0575 kg/s

12.10 In a refrigerant 22 refrigeration system, the capacity is 180 kW at a temperature of –

30 °C. The vapour from the evaporator is pumped by one compressor to the condensing
pressure of 1500 kPa. Later the system is revised to a two-stage compression operating on the
cycle shown in figure 12.30 with intercooling but no removal of flash gas at 600 kPa.
Calculate:
(a) the power required by the single compressor in the original system
(b) the power required by the two compressors in the revised system
Answer: 70.9 kW

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Figure 12.30 Intercooling system in problem 12.10

12.11 A refrigerant 22 system has a capacity of 180 kW at an evaporating temperature of –

30 °C when the condensing pressure is 1500 kPa.
Compute:
(a) the power requirement by the system with a single compressor
(b) the total power required by the two compressors in the system shown in figure 12.31, where
there is no intercooling, but there is flash gas removal at 600 kPa
Answer: 60.7 kW

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Figure 12.31 Flash gas removal system in problem 12.11

12.12 A two-stage ammonia system using flash gas removal and intercooling operates on the
cycle shown in figure 12.27(a). The condensing temperature is 35 °C. The saturation
temperature of the intermediate-temperature evaporator is 0 °C and its capacity is 150 kW. The
saturation temperature of the low-temperature evaporator is –40 °C and its capacity is 250 kW.
What is the rate of refrigerant compressed by the high-stage compressor?
Answer: 0.411 kg/s

12.14 A two-stage refrigerant 22 system that uses flash gas removal and intercooling serves a
single low-temperature evaporator as shown in figure 12.21(a). The evaporating temperature
is –40 °C and the condensing temperature is 30 °C. The pumping capacity of the high- and
low-stage compressors is shown in figure 12.32. What is
(a) the refrigerating capacity of the system?
(b) the intermediate pressure?
Answers: (a) 318 kW; (b) 390 kPa

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Figure 12.32 Pumping capacity of low- and high-stage compressors of the system in problem 12.14
(The suction pressure of the low-stage compressor is 105 kPa [–40 °C] and the discharge pressure of the high-
stage compressor is 1192 kPa [30 °C].)

12.15 The following data refer to a compound refrigeration system employing water and flash
intercoolers. The system has a load of 20 tons of refrigeration in the evaporator and uses
ammonia as refrigerant. The saturation temperatures in the evaporator and condenser are –
40 °C and 32 °C respectively, and the intercooler pressure is adjusted for minimum power
consumption. Assuming no superheating, no subcooling, isentropic compression and 75%
volumetric efficiency at each stage of compression.
Calculate:
(a) mass circulation of ammonia through the condenser
(b) piston displacements for each cylinder
(c) power required to drive the unit
(d) coefficient of performance of the system
Answers: 0.74 kg/s; 9.52 and 4.25 m3/min; 28.2 kW; 2.48

12.16 A vapour-compression system with ammonia as refrigerant works between pressure

limits of 3 bar (evaporator) and 12 bar (condenser). The system is fitted with water and flash
intercooling and subcooling. The flash intercooling pressure is 6 bar; saturated vapour enters
both compressors; and the limiting temperature for water intercooling and subcooling is 20 °C.
For a refrigerating load of 15 ton, determine:
(a) The power required to drive the two compressors.
(b) The coefficient of performance of the plant.
(c) The swept volume of each compressor if each has a volumetric efficiency of 80%. Draw
the schematic arrangement of the system and use a p-h chart to obtain your solution.
Answers: 8.631 kW, 6.15, 0.0224 m3/s; 0.01278 m3/s

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REFRIGERATION LOAD CALCULATION

12.26 Learning objectives

After students have studied this unit, they should be able to

• perform the refrigeration load calculation for a refrigeration system

• select an insulation body for a refrigeration system
• design a cold room
• design a freezer

12.27 Introduction

Refrigeration loads result from two actions: (1) to cool something down (i.e., to reduce its
enthalpy) and (2) to keep something cool (i.e., to remove incoming and internally generated heat).
Total refrigeration load includes transmission load, product load, internal load, infiltration air and
equipment-related load. The first four types of loads constitute the net refrigeration load for which
a refrigeration system is provided. The sum of the net heat and the equipment-related refrigeration
load is the total heat used when selecting a compressor. It is important that indoor and outdoor
weather conditions be taken into consideration or identified prior to the calculation of the
refrigeration load.

12.28 Outdoor conditions

Generally, the outdoor weather condition is taken as the worst local conditions based on the 2.5%
principle. Table 12.4 lists outdoor information for some of South African locations.

Table 12.4 Outdoor information for some of South African locations

Time Cooling Cooling Heating Wind Max Min DB

Location Latitude Longitude Zone Altitude DB WB DB Speed DB DB Range
Germiston –26.22 28.17 30 1665 31 20 1 9.6 31.6 –1.6 10.4
Johannesburg –26.13 28.23 30 1750 29 15.6 1 9.6 31.6 –1.6 10.4
Krugersdorp –26.08 27.77 30 1699 31 20 1 9.6 31.6 –1.6 10.4
Lyttelton –25.75 28.33 30 1402 32 12 2 9.6 32 –1.6 14
Pretoria –25.73 28.18 30 1322 31.9 17.6 3.9 6.4 34.7 1.6 9.8
Soweto –26.20 27.80 30 1660 30 20 0 9.5 35 –5 12
Vanderbijlpark –26.67 27.82 30 1417 33 21 1 9.6 33 –1.6 10.4
Vereeniging –26.65 27.92 30 1417 33 21 1 9.6 33 –1.6 10.4

Open Rubric
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12.29 Indoor conditions

The indoor temperature of the refrigerated space is identified based on the processing and storage
requirement of different food products. For example, for fresh fruits and vegetables the cold room
temperature can be between –2 °C and 5 °C, and for meat about –18 °C.

12.30 Types of loads

The total refrigeration load includes the following:

• transmission load:
heat transferred into the refrigerated chamber through the surface of the chamber
• product load:
heat produced by the products stored in the refrigerated chamber
• internal load:
heat produced by internal sources such as lights, electric motors, and people working
in the space
• infiltration load:
heat gain associated with the entering of air in the refrigerated chamber
• equipment-related refrigeration load

12.30.1 Transmission load

Sensible heat gain through the walls, floor and ceiling can be calculated as

where
is the heat gain, in W,
is the overall heat transfer coefficient in W/m2.K,
is the outside area of section, m2, and
is the difference between outside air temperature and air temperature of the refrigerated
chamber.

The overall coefficient of heat transfer of the walls, floor or ceiling can be calculated from

, (12-13)

where

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is the wall thickness in m,

is the thermal conductivity of the wall material in W/m.K,
is the inside surface conductance in W/m2.K,
is the outside surface conductance in W/m2.K.

Usually, a value of 1.6 for and is used for still air. If the outer surface is exposed to
7 m/s wind speed, is increased to 6 W/m2.K.
Because walls are usually made of more than one material, the value of represents the composite
resistance of the materials.
The thermal conductivity values of cold storage insulation materials are given in table 12.5.

Table 12.5 Thermal conductivity of cold storage insulation

Insulation Thermal conductivity k,

W/m.K
Polyurethane board (R-11 expanded) 0.023 to 0.026
Polyisocyanurate, cellular (R-141b expanded) 0.027
Polystyrene, extruded (R-142b) 0.035
Polystyrene, expanded (R-142b) 0.037
Foam glass 0.044

The thickness of the insulated panels can be between 50 mm and 150 mm. Table 12.6
provides a list of minimum insulation material thicknesses based on expanded polyurethane as
suggested by the US refrigeration industry.

Table 12.6 Minimum insulation thickness

Storage Expanded polyisocyanurate thickness

temperature, °C Northern US, mm Southern US, mm
10 to 16 50 50
4 to 10 50 50
–4 to 10 50 75
–9 to –4 75 75
–18 to –9 75 100
–26 to –18 100 100
–40 to –26 125 125

The temperature difference ΔT is calculated based on the indoor and outdoor temperatures.

12.30.2 Product load

• Product load, which is the removal of sensible or latent heat from a product, may also be
considered as the total amount of sensible and latent heat to be removed in cooling a
product. In this case

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, (12-14)

where
is the specific heat capacity above freezing in kJ/(kg.K),
is the specific heat capacity below freezing in kJ/(kg.K),
is the initial temperature decrease above freezing in °C,
is the initial temperature decrease below freezing in °C, and
is the latent heat of freezing in kJ/kg.

Some of the components will be zero if cooling does not take place through the range of
temperatures above and below the freezing point.

• Heat removed to cool from initial temperature to freezing point of product

, (12-15)

where
is the heat removed in kJ,
is the mass of product in kg,
is the specific heat of product above freezing in kJ/(kg.K),
is the initial temperature of product above freezing in °C, and
is the freezing temperature of product in °C.

• Heat removed to freeze product

, (12-16)

where
is the latent heat of fusion of product in kJ/kg.

• Heat removed to cool from freezing point to final temperature below freezing point

(12-17)

where
is the specific heat of product below freezing in kJ/(kg.K) and
is the final temperature of product below freezing in °C.

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• The refrigeration capacity required is calculated from

, (12-18)

where
is the average cooling load in kW, and
is the allotted time in h.

The specific heat values above or below freezing for a variety of products are provided in
table 12.7. A product’s latent heat of fusion may be estimated by multiplying the water content of
the product by the latent heat of fusion of water, which is 334 kJ/kg.

Since most food products freeze at temperatures –3 and –0.5 °C, it is reasonable to estimate –2 °C
when the actual freezing temperature is unknown.

Table 12.7 Unfrozen composition data, initial freezing point and specific heats of foods

Moisture Ash Initial Specific Specific Latent

content Protein Fat Carbohydrate freezing heat heat heat of
Total Fibre point above below fusion
% % % % % % freezing freezing
Food item °C kJ/(kg.K) kJ/(kg.K) kJ/kg
Vegetables
Artichokes, 84.94 3.27 0.1 10.51 5.40 1.1 –1.2 3.60 2.02 284
globe 5 3
Jerusalem 78.01 2.00 0.0 17.44 1.60 2.5 –2.5 3.63 2.25 261
1 4
Asparagus 92.40 2.28 0.2 4054 2.10 0.5 –0.6 4.03 1.79 309
0 7
Beans, snap 90.27 1.82 0.1 7014 3.40 0.6 –0.7 3.99 1.85 302
2 6
lima 70.24 6.84 0.8 2.16 4.90 1.8 –0.6 3.52 2.07 235
6 9
Beets 87.58 1.61 0.1 9056 2.80 1.0 –1.1 3.91 1.94 293
7 8
Broccoli 90.69 2.98 0.3 5024 3.00 0.9 –0.6 4.01 1.82 303
5 2
Brussels sprouts 86.00 3.38 0.3 8096 3.80 1.3 –0.8 3.9 1.91 287
0 7
Cabbage 92.15 1.44 0.2 5.43 2.30 0.7 –0.9 4.02 1.85 308
7 1
Carrots 87.79 1.03 0.1 10.14 3.00 0.8 –1.4 3.92 2.00 293
9 7
Cauliflower 91.91 1.98 0.2 5.20 2.50 0.7 –0.8 4.02 1.84 307
1 1

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Celeriac 88.00 1.50 0.3 9.20 1.80 1.0 –0.9 3.9 1.89 294
0 0
Celery 94.64 0.75 0.1 3.65 1.70 0.8 -0.5 4.07 1.74 316
4 2
Collards 90.55 1.57 0.2 7.11 3.60 0.5 -0.8 4.01 1.86 302
2 5
Corn, sweet, 75.96 3.22 1.1 19.02 2.70 0.6 -0.6 3.62 1.98 254
yellow 8 2
Cucumbers 96.01 0.69 0.1 2076 0.80 0.4 -0.5 4.09 1.71 321
3 1
Eggplant 92.03 1.02 0.1 6.07 2.50 0.7 -0.8 4.02 1.83 307
8 1
Endive 93.79 1.25 0.2 3.10 3.10 1.4 -0.1 4.04 1.69 313
0 1
Garlic 58.58 6.36 0.5 2.10 2.10 1.5 -0.8 3.17 2.19 196
0 0

• Enthalpy method

The product’s refrigeration load can also be identified by its change in enthalpy

(12-19)

where

represent initial and final enthalpy respectively.

The enthalpy values for some frozen foods are given in table 12.8.

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Table 12.8 Enthalpy of frozen foods

Water Temperature, °C
content,
% by –
Food mass –40 –30 –20 –18 16 –14 –12 –10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0
Fruits and
Vegetables
Applesauce 82.8 Enthalpy, kJ/kg 0 23 51 58 65 73 84 95 102 110 120 132 152 175 210 286 339 343
% water unfrozen – 6 9 10 12 14 17 19 21 23 27 30 37 44 57 82 100 –
Asparagus, peeled 92.6 Enthalpy, kJ/kg 0 19 40 45 50 55 61 69 73 77 83 90 99 108 123 155 243 381
% water unfrozen – – – – – 55 61 69 73 77 83 90 99 108 123 155 243 381
Bilberries 85.1 Enthalpy, kJ/kg 0 21 45 50 57 64 73 82 87 94 101 110 125 140 167 218 348 352
% water unfrozen – – – 7 8 9 11 14 15 17 18 21 25 30 38 57 100 –
Carrots 87.5 Enthalpy, kJ/kg 0 21 46 51 57 64 72 81 87 94 102 111 124 139 166 218 357 361
% water unfrozen – – – 7 8 9 11 14 15 17 18 20 24 29 37 53 100 –
Cucumbers 95.4 Enthalpy, kJ/kg 0 18 39 43 47 51 57 64 67 70 74 79 85 93 104 125 184 390
% water unfrozen – – – – – – – – 5 – – – – 11 14 20 37 100
Onion 85.5 Enthalpy, kJ/kg 0 23 50 55 62 71 81 91 97 105 115 125 141 163 196 263 349 353
% water unfrozen – 5 8 10 12 14 16 18 19 20 23 26 31 38 49 71 100 –
Peaches, 85.1 Enthalpy, kJ/kg 0 23 50 57 64 72 82 93 100 108 118 129 146 170 202 274 348 352
without stones % water unfrozen – 5 8 9 11 13 16 18 20 22 25 28 33 40 51 75 100 –
Pears, Bartlett 83.8 Enthalpy, kJ/kg 0 23 51 57 64 73 83 95 101 109 120 132 150 173 207 282 343 347
% water unfrozen – 6 9 10 12 14 17 19 21 23 26 29 35 43 54 80 100 –
Plums, 80.3 Enthalpy, kJ/kg 0 25 57 65 74 84 97 111 119 129 142 159 182 214 262 326 329 333
without stones % water unfrozen – 8 14 16 18 20 23 27 29 33 37 42 50 61 78 100 – –
Raspberries 82.7 Enthalpy, kJ/kg 0 20 47 53 59 65 75 85 90 97 105 115 129 148 174 231 340 344
% water unfrozen – – 7 8 9 10 13 16 17 18 20 23 27 33 42 61 100 –
Spinach 90.2 Enthalpy, kJ/kg 0 19 40 44 49 54 60 66 70 74 79 86 94 103 117 145 224 371
% water unfrozen – – – – – – 6 7 – – 9 11 13 16 19 28 53 100

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Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer THT3701

• Heat of respiration

As they respire during storage, fresh fruits and vegetables release heat:

where

RH is the respiration heat in mW/kg

Table 12.9 provides heat of respiration values for a variety of products.

Table 12.9 Heat of respiration for fresh fruits and vegetables at various temperatures (ASHRAE 2010)

Heat of Respiration (mW/kg)

Commodity 0 °C 5 °C 10 °C 15 °C 20 °C 25 °C
Parsley1 98.0–136.5 195.9–252.3 388.8–486.7 427.4–661.9 581.7–756.8 914.1–1012.0
Parsnips
United 34.4–46.1 26.2–51.9 60.6–78.1 95.5–127.7 – –
Kingdom
Canada, Hollow 10.7–24.2 18.4–45.6 – 64.0–137.2 – –
Crowng
Peaches
Elberta 11.2 19.4 46.6 101.8 181.9 266.7
At 27 °C
Several 12.1–18.9 18.9–27.2 – 98.4–125.6 175.6–303.6 241.5–361.3
cultivars
Peanuts
Curedh 0.05 at 1.7 °C 0.5 at 30 °C
Not cured, 42.0 at 30 °C
Virginia
Bunchi
Dixie Spanish 24.5 at 30 °C
Pears
Bartlett 9.2–20.4 15.0–29.6 – 44.6–178.0 89.2–207.6 –
Late ripening 7.8–10.7 17.5–41.2 23.3–55.8 82.4–126.1 97.0–218.2 –
Early ripening 7.8–14.5 21.8–46.1 21.9–63.0 101.8–160.0 116.4–266.7 –
Peas
Green-in-pod 90.2–138.7 163.4–226.5 – 530.1–600.4 728.4–1072.2 1018.4–1118.3

shelled 140.2–224.1 234.7–288.7 – – 1035–1630 –

Peppers, sweet *b *b 42.7 67.9 130.0 86.3–118.8
Persimmons 17.5 34.9–41.7 59.2–71.3
bThe symbol * denotes a chilling temperature. The symbol † denotes the temperature is borderline,

not damaging to some cultivars if exposure is short.

gRates are for 30 to 60 days and 120 to 180 days; rates increased with time at all temperatures.
hShelled peanuts with about 7% moisture. Respiration after 60 hours curing

was almost negligible, even at 30°C.

iRespiration for freshly dug peanuts, not cured, with about 35-40% moisture.

During curing, peanuts in the shell were dried to about 5-6% moisture, and in
roasting are dried further to about 2% moisture.
lRates are for 1 day after harvest.

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Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer THT3701

Example 12.8

100 kg of lean beef is to be cooled from 18 °C, then frozen and cooled to –18 °C in 24 hrs. The
moisture content is 69,5%. Estimate the refrigeration load.

Solution 12.8

The latent heat is estimated as 334 kJ/kg x 0.695 = 232 kJ/kg.

Specific heat of beef before freezing is listed in the appendix as 3.52 kJ/(kg.K); after freezing
it is 2.12 kJ/ (kg.K).
To cool from 18 °C to freezing point in freezer:
100 x 3.52 x (18–(–2)) = 7040 kJ
To freeze: 100 x 232 = 23200 kJ
To cool from freezing to storage temperature:
100 x 2.12 [(–2) – (–18)] = 3392 kJ
Total: 4928 + 2112 + 23 300 + 3392 = 33732 kJ

The cooling load is

12.30.3 Internal load

The primary sources of internal heat gain are occupants and electrical equipment operating in
the space. Electrical equipment includes lights, motors, heaters, forklifts and processing
equipment (grinding, mixing or cooking).

Heat equivalent values of electric motors are provided in table 12.10.

Table 12.10 Heat gain from typical electric motors (Huan 2017)

Location of Motor and

Driven Equipment with Respect
to Conditioned
Space or airstream
A B C
Full Motor Motor
load in, Motor out, in,
motor driven driven driven
equipment
Motor efficiency in equipment in equipment out
rated Motor Nominal
kW type rpm % W W W
0.04 Shaded pole 1500 35 105 35 70
0.06 35 170 59 110
0.09 35 264 94 173
0.12 35 340 117 223
0.19 Split phase 1750 54 346 188 158
0.25 56 439 246 194
0.37 60 621 372 249
0.56 3-Phase 1750 72 776 557 217
0.75 75 993 747 249

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Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer THT3701

1.1 77 1453 1119 334

1.5 79 1887 1491 396
2.2 81 2763 2238 525
3.7 82 4541 3721 817
5.6 84 6651 5596 1066
7.5 85 8760 7178 1315
11.2 86 13 009 11 192 1820
14.9 87 17 140 14 913 2230
18.6 88 21 184 18 635 2545
22.4 89 25 110 22 370 2765
30 89 33 401 29 885 3690
37 89 41 900 37 210 4600
45 89 50 395 44 829 5538
56 90 62 115 55 962 6210
75 90 82 918 74 719 8290
93 90 103 430 93 172 10 342
110 91 123 060 111 925 11 075
150 91 163 785 149 135 14 735
190 91 204 805 186 346 18 430

• People

The amounts of refrigeration load that can be added by people depend on factors such
as room temperature, type of work being done, type of clothing worn and the number
of people. A person’s refrigeration load may be estimated using

, (12-20)

Where is the temperature of the refrigerated space in °C.

Average load values of persons in a refrigerated space are provided in table 12.11.

Table 12.11 Heat equivalent of occupancy

Refrigerated space Heat equivalent/person,

temperature, °C W
10 210
5 240
0 270
–5 300
–10 330
–15 360
–20 390

• Lights

Q = power x hrs/24 (12-21)

• People

Q = n x personal load x hrs/24 (12-22)

• Equipment

Q = power x hrs/24 (12-23)

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Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer THT3701

12.30.4 Infiltration
Infiltration is airflow at an open door caused by higher density cold air. It commonly occurs
due to difference in air density between rooms. Heat gain through doorways from air exchange
is as follows:

(12-24)

where

is the average heat gain for the 24 h or another period in kW,

is the sensible and latent refrigeration load for fully established flow in kW,

is the doorway open-time factor,

is the doorway flow factor, and

is the effectiveness of doorway protective device.

Gosney and Olama (1975) have developed the following air exchange equation for fully
established flow:

, (12-25)

where

is the sensible and latent refrigeration load in kW,

is the doorway area in m2,

is the enthalpy of infiltration air in kJ/kg,

is the enthalpy of refrigerated air kJ/kg,

is the density of infiltration air in kg/m3,

is the density of refrigerated air in kg/m3,

is the gravitational constant,

is the doorway height in m, and

is the density factor.

(12-26)

• Safety factor: 10% of the load is usually recommended.

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Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer THT3701

Example 12.9
A catch of 1000 kg of bluefin tuna must be cooled from 10 °C and then frozen. After being
frozen, the catch must be cooled to –18 °C in 10 hours. Estimate the refrigeration load. Refer
to table 12.7 for the properties of foods. For latent heat, use the latent heat of fusion.

Solution 12.9
From table 5.4, the specific heat of Bluefin tuna before freezing is c1 = 3.43 kJ/kgK and Bluefin
tuna freezes at –2.2 °C. Therefore, the sensible heat that must be removed to freezing point is

The latent heat of fusion, which considers only the moisture content of the fish, is 227 kJ/kg.
The latent heat removed to freeze the fish is

From table 12.7, the specific heat of Bluefin tuna after freezing is c2 = 2.19 kJ/kgK. Therefore,
the sensible heat that must be removed to –18 °C is

Therefore, the total heat to be removed is

The cooling load is

12.31 Summary

Based on the second law of thermodynamics, heat flows from a body at a high temperature to
a body at a low temperature. If the temperature of a certain space is lower than that of its
surroundings, heat will flow into that space. The amount of heat gained by that space is the
amount which must be removed. When this amount of heat is expressed per unit time, it is the
rate at which heat must be removed, expressed in kW (kilowatts or kilojoules per second) and
is called the refrigeration load. This load can enter the space from different sources, such as the
heat transmitted by conduction through walls, ceiling and floor, and heat gain owing to the
release of energy in a space (lights, equipment, people, etc.)
Because of usually higher variations in the temperature of the incoming product, doors
left open, lights left on, storage procedure and so on, the actual refrigeration requirements may
vary from the calculated load. Hence the safety factor may be used to account for the above

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variations. General practice is to add a 10% safety factor to the calculated load. However, the
designer should carefully consider the safety factor to ensure that the most efficient and
economical system is provided.

12.32 Problems

Problem 12.17
Calculate the total refrigeration load for a freezer storage with design criteria as follows:
Design criteria:
• summer: 33 °C dry bulb (db), 27 °C wet bulb (wb)
• comments: 0.4% summer and winter conditions
• room dimensions: 40.5 x 68 x 9 m
• floor area: 2743 m2
• pallet positions: 4800
• turns per yr: 20
• use factor: 90%
• design room temperature: –23 °C

Ambient design conditions:

Sun effect, K Surface temperature, °C

Roof 5.5 39
Floor 0 16
Wall East 0 33
North 0 33
Westa 0 –2
Southb 0 7
a
Adjacent to refrigerated meat room held at –2 °C
b
Adjacent to refrigerated truck dock held at 7 °C

Insulation thickness:
m k, W/(m.k) U, W/(m.k) R, (m2.k)/W
Roof 0.152 2.048 3.414 7.441
Floor 0.152 2.711 4.518 5.620
Wall, East 0.102 1.745 4.363 5.822
North 0.102 1.745 4.363 5.822
Westa 0.102 1.745 4.363 5.822
Southb 0.102 1.745 4.363 5.822
k = thermal conductivity U = k/(m) thickness R = thermal resistance

12.33 Design project: refrigeration load calculation

Project 1: Cold room Project 2: Freezer
Location Pretoria Pretoria
Product Fruit or vegetable Meat or fish: a particular kind
of meat or fish
Capacity 1000 kg full load 500 kg/day

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Applied Thermodynamics and Heat Transfer THT3701

Temperature 2–5 °C From 30 °C to –18 °C in 24

hours

PHASE 3: Refrigeration load calculation

The project involves the following:
(i) cycle identification
(ii) refrigerant selection
(iii) refrigeration load calculation
(iv) insulation body design

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