MODULE # 2

Subject CHM012 Chemistry for Engineers

Chapter/Unit 1
Lesson Title MEASUREMENT
Timeframe Week 2
Lesson Objectives 1. Report the results of calculations in terms of scientific notation and proper
number of significant figures
2. Memorize the systems of measure (English, metric and SI) and conversion
factors from one system to another.
3. Enumerate and define the base units in the SI and other units derived from these
base units
4. Convert units of measure from one system to another (Dimensional analysis)
Overview/Introduction Many properties of matter are quantitative, that is, associated with numbers. When a
number represents a measured quantity, the units of that quantity must be specified.
To say that the length of a pencil is 17.5 is meaningless. Expressing the number with
its units, 17.5 centimeters (cm), properly specifies the length. The units used for
scientific measurements are those of the metric system.
Activity Exercises
Assessment Problem Set
References Brown, T.L., LeMay Jr., H.E., Bursten, B.E., Murphy, C.J., Woodward, P.M., “Chemistry –
The Central Science”, (14th edition), Prentice-Hall International, Inc. (Chapter 1)

UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
A measured quantity must have BOTH a number and a unit. The units most often used for scientific
measurement are those of the metric system.

Scientific Notation
Some numbers are very large or very small ⇒ difficult to express.

For example,

Avogadro’s number = 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000

an electron’s mass = 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 91 kg

Also, it's not clear how many significant figures there are in some measurements.

To handle such numbers, we use a system called scientific notation.

In scientific notation, all numbers can be expressed in the form: N × 10n

here N =digit term= a number between 1 and 10, so there can only be one number to the left
of the decimal point: #.####

n = an exponent = a positive or a negative integer (whole #).

 To express a number in scientific notation:

o Count the number of places you must move the decimal point to get N between 1 and 10.
o Moving decimal point to the right (if # < 1)→ negative exponent.
o Moving decimal point to the left (if # > 1) → positive exponent.
Exercise 1

Express the following numbers in scientific notation (each with 3 sig figs):

1. 555,000 5.5 x 105 .

2. 0.000888 ______________________

3. 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 ______________________

SI Units
In 1960: an international agreement was reached specifying a particular choice of metric units for use in
scientific measurements.All scientific units use Système International d’Unités (SI Units).
 There are seven base units.
 Smaller and larger units are obtained by decimal fractions or multiples of the base units.

SI Base Units

The commonly used prefixes that you must know are the following:

Length and Mass

Mass is a measure of the amount of material in an object.

 SI base unit of length = meter (1 m = 1.0936 yards).

 SI base unit of mass (not weight) = kilogram (1 kg = 2.2 pounds).
Temperature
Temperature is the measure of the hotness or coldness of an object. It is a physical property that determines the
direction of heat flow. Heat always flows spontaneously from a substance at higher temperature to one at lower
temperature

 Scientific studies use Celsius and Kelvin scales.

o Celsius scale: Based on the assignment of water; Water freezes at 0 oC and boils at 100 oC (sea
level).
o Kelvin scale: SI Unit
 Water freezes at 273.15 K and boils at 373.15 K (sea level).
 Zero is lowest possible temperature on the Kelvin scale (absolute zero); 0 K = –273.15oC.
o Fahrenheit (not used in science): Water freezes at 32 oF and boils at 212 oF (sea level).

 Conversions:
9
F  C  32
5
5
C  (F  32)
9
C  K  273.15

K  C  273.15

Derived SI Units
A derived unit is obtained by multiplication or division of one or more of the base units. These are formed from
the 7 base units. (Example: Velocity is distance traveled per unit time, so units of velocity are units of distance
(m) divided by units of time (s): m/s.)
 Volume
o Units of volume = (units of length)3 = m3.
o This unit is unrealistically large, so smaller units are frequently used:
 cm3 (also known as mL (milliliter) or cc (cubic centimeters))
 dm3 (also known as liters, L). Important: The liter is not an SI unit.
 Density
Density is defined as mass divided by volume.

o Units: g/cm3 or g/mL (for solids and liquids); g/L (often used for gases).
o The density of water is 1.00 g/mL; the gram was originally defined as the mass of 1 mL of water at
a specific temperature.
o The terms density and weight are sometimes confused. A person who says that iron weighs more
than air generally means that iron has a higher density than air—1 kg of air has the same mass as 1
kg of iron, but the iron occupies a smaller volume, thereby giving it a higher density.

Units of Energy

 The SI unit for energy is the joule, J (1 J=1 kg*m2/s2); kilojoules (kJ) is often used in reactions
 It is still quite common in chemistry, biology, and biochemistry to find energy changes associated with
chemical reactions expressed in the non-SI unit of calories or cal (1 cal = 4.184 J)
Exercise 2

1. Complete the following unit equations:

a. 1 kg = 1000 g c. 1 cm = __________ m

b. 1 s = 1 x 109 ns d. 1 L = __________ mL

2. A weather forecaster predicts the temperature will reach 31 °C. What is this temperature (a) in K, (b) in °F?

3. Density Problems
(a) Calculate the density of mercury if 1.00 x 102 g occupies a volume of 7.36 cm3. Answer: 13.6 g/cm3
(b) Calculate the volume of 65.0 g of liquid methanol (wood alcohol) if its density is 0.791 g/mL.
(c) What is the mass in grams of a cube of gold (density = 19.32 g/cm3) if the length of the cube is 2.00 cm?

4. Energy Problems
A standard propane (C3H8) tank used in an outdoor grill holds approximately 9.0 kg of propane. When the grill
is operating, propane reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. For every gram of propane that
reacts with oxygen in this way, 46 kJ of energy is released as heat. (a) How much energy is released if the entire
contents of the propane tank react with oxygen? (b) As the propane reacts, does the potential energy stored in
chemical bonds increase or decrease? (c) If you were to store an equivalent amount of potential energy by
pumping water to an elevation of 75 m above the ground, what mass of water would be needed? (Note: The
force, F, due to gravity acting on the water, which is the water’s weight, is F = m x g, where m is the mass of the
object and g is the gravitational constant, g = 9.8 m/s2.) [Hint: w = F x d where w=work, F=force, d=distance)

Solution:

UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENTS
Two kinds of numbers are encountered in scientific work:

 Exact numbers (known as counting or defined; values are known exactly).

 Inexact numbers (derived from measurement; values have some uncertainty).

Remember: All measurements have some degree of uncertainty or error associated with them.
Precision and Accuracy
The terms precision and accuracy are often used in discussing the uncertainties of measured values.
 Precision: how well measured quantities agree with each other.
 Accuracy: how well measured quantities agree with the “true value”.

Significant Figures
In a measurement it is useful to indicate the exactness of the measurement. This exactness is reflected in the
number of significant figures.

Guidelines for determining the number of significant figures in a measured quantity:

 The number of significant figures is the number of digits known with certainty plus one uncertain digit.
(Example: 2.2405 g means we are sure the mass is 2.240 g but we are uncertain about the nearest 0.0001 g.)
 The greater the number of significant figures, the greater the precision implied for the measurement
 Final calculations are only as significant as the least significant measurement.

Rules in determining the number of significant figures:

1. Nonzero numbers and zeros between nonzero numbers are always significant.
Example: 1005 kg (four significant figures); 7.03 cm (three significant figures)
2. Zeros at the beginning of a number are never significant; they merely indicate the position of the decimal
point
Example: 0.02 g (one significant figure); 0.0026 cm (two significant figures).
3. Zeros at the end of a number are significant if the number contains a decimal point
Example: 0.0200 g (three significant figures); 3.0 cm (two significant figures).

A problem arises when a number ends with zeros but contains no decimal point. Zeros at the end of a number
before a decimal point are ambiguous (e.g., 10,300 g). Exponential notation eliminates this ambiguity.
Exponential notation can be used to indicate whether end zeros are significant

Method:

1. Write the number in scientific notation.

2. The number of digits remaining is the number of significant figures.
Example: (For 10,300 g)

1.03 x 104 g has 3 significant figures.

1.030 x 104 g has 4 significant figures.

1.0300 x 104 g has 5 significant figures.

Rounding off Nonsignificant Digits:

How do we eliminate nonsignificant digits?

 If first nonsignificant digit < 5, just drop ALL nonsignificant digits

 If first nonsignificant digit ≥ 5, raise the last sig digit by 1 then drop ALL nonsignificant
digits

For example, express 72.58643 with 3 sig figs:

last significant digit

72.58643
g
first nonsignificant digit

72.58643 to 3 significant figures: 72.6

Exercise 3

1. Express each of the following with the number of significant figures indicated:

a. 376.276 to 3 sig figs 3.76 x 102

b. 500.072 to 4 sig figs 5.001 x 102

c. 0.00654321 to 3 sig figs _______________________

d. 1,234,567 to 5 sig figs _______________________

e. 2975 to 2 sig figs _______________________

Note: Express measurements in scientific notation when necessary to make it clear how many significant figures
there are in the measurement.

2. How many significant figures are in each of the following numbers (assume that each number is a measured
quantity)?

(a) 4.003 (b) 6.023 x 1023 (c) 5000

Significant Figures in Calculations

Apply the following rule when carrying measured quantities through calculations:

The least certain measurement limits the certainty of the calculated quantity and thereby determines the number
of significant figures in the final answer.

 Addition and Subtraction

o Report to the least number of decimal places
o Example: 20.42 + 1.322 + 83.1 = 104.8 (since 83.1 has only one decimal place)
 Multiplication and Division
o Report to the least number of significant figures
o Example: Area: 6.221 cm x 5.2 cm = 32 cm2 (since 5.2 has two significant figures)

In multiple step calculations always retain an extra significant figure until the end to prevent rounding errors.

Exercise 4

1. The width, length, and height of a small box are 15.5, 27.3, and 5.4 cm, respectively. Calculate the volume
of the box, using the correct number of significant figures in your answer.
2. A vessel containing a gas at 25 °C is weighed, emptied, and then reweighed as depicted below. From the
data provided, calculate the density of the gas at 25 °C.

Solution
1. 2285.01 cm3 2.3 x 103 cm3

Multiplying/Dividing with Exponential Numbers

When multiplying or dividing measurements with exponents, use the digit term (N in “N × 10n”) to determine
number of sig figs.

Example 1: (6.02 × 1023)(4.155 × 109) = 2.50131× 1033

How do you calculate this using your scientific calculator?

Step 1. Enter “6.02 × 1023” by pressing:

6.02 then EE or EXP (which corresponds to “× 10”) or x10x then 23

Step 2. Multiply by pressing: ×

Step 3. Enter “4.155 × 109” by pressing:

4.155 then EE or EXP (which corresponds to “× 10”) then 9

Step 4. Get the answer by pressing: =

Your calculator should now read: 2.50131 33 or 2.50131 E 33

or something similar indicating 2.50131×10 33

Thus, the answer with the correct sig figs = 2.50 x 1033
Be sure you can do exponential calculations with your calculator. Many of the calculations we do in chemistry
involve very large and very small numbers with exponential terms.

Exercise 5

1: (3.75 × 1015)(8.6 × 104)

with the correct sig figs: ___________________

2: (3.75 × 1015) ÷ (8.605 × 104)

with the correct sig figs: ___________________

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

Problem Solving: Dimensional Analysis/Factor Label Method

Because measured quantities have units associated with them, it is important to keep track of units as well as
numerical values when using the quantities in calculations.
 Dimensional analysis is a method of calculation utilizing a knowledge of units.
 Given units can be multiplied and divided to give the desired units.
 Conversion factor is a fraction whose numerator and denominator are the same quantity expressed in
different units. They are used to manipulate units.

Example: 2.54 cm and 1 in. are the same length: 2.54 cm = 1 in. This relationship allows us to write two
conversion factors:

Conversion factor = (desired unit) / (given unit)

 The conversion factors are simple ratios. For example, the first factor above is use to convert inches to
centimers.
Desired unit = given unit x (conversion factor).

Example: The length in centimeters of an object is 8.50 in. long is:

 In general, when we multiply quantity by a conversion factor, the units multiply and divide as follows:
Unit Equations and Unit Factors

 Unit equation: Simple statement of two equivalent values

 Unit conversion factor = unit factor = equivalents: Ratio of two equivalent quantities

Example:

Unit equation Unit factor

1dollar 10 dim es
1 dollar = 10 dimes or
10 dim es 1dollar

Equivalents are exact if we can count the number of units equal to another or the units are in the same system
(metric or English). For example, the following unit factors and unit equations are exact:

365days 7days 12inches 1yard

or
1year 1week 1 foot 3 feet

Exact equivalents have an infinite number of sig figs → never limit number of sig figs!

Note: When the relationship between two units or items is exact, the “ ≡ ” (meaning “equals exactly”) is used
instead of the basic “=” sign.

Other equivalents are inexact or approximate because they are measurements or approximate relationships,
such as

1.61km 3.00 x108 m

speedoflight 
1mile s

Approximate equivalents do limit the sig figs for the final answer.

Using Two or More Conversion Factors

We often need to use more than one conversion factor in order to complete a problem.

 When identical units are found in the numerator and denominator of a conversion, they will cancel. The
final answer MUST have the correct units.
o For example: Let’s convert the length of an 8.00-m rod to inches

1 meter = 100 centimeters and 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters

 The calculation would involve both conversion factors; the units of the final answer will be inches:
(# meters) (100 centimeters / 1 meter) (1 inch / 2.54 centimeters) = # inches

UNIT (DIMENSIONAL) ANALYSIS PROBLEM SOLVING

1. Write the units for the answer.

2. Determine what information to start with.
3. Arrange all other unit factors—showing them as fractions—with correct units in the numerator and
denominator, so all units cancel except for the units needed for the final answer.
4. Check for correct units and number of sig figs in the final answer.
Sample Calculation

1. If a marathon is 26.2 miles, how many inches are in the marathon?

(1 mile ≡ 5280 feet)

2: The speed of light is about 3.00 x 108 meters per second. Express this speed in miles per hour. (1.609 km = 1
mile, 1000 m ≡ 1km)

Conversions Involving Volume

 We often will encounter conversions from one measure to a different measure.
o For example: Suppose that we wish to know the mass in grams of 2.00 cubic inches (2.00 in3) of
gold given that the density of the gold is 19.3 g/cm3. We could do this conversion with the
following conversion factors: 2.54 cm = 1 inch and 1 cm3 = 19.3 g gold (from the density of gold)
o The calculation would involve both of these factors:
(2.00 in3) (2.54 cm / in.)3 (19.3 g gold / 1 cm3) = 633 g gold

Note that the calculation will NOT be correct unless the centimeter to inch conversion factor is cubed!! Both
the units AND the number must be cubed.

Summary of Dimensional Analysis:

 In dimensional analysis always ask three questions:

1. What data are we given?

2. What quantity do we need?

3. What conversion factors are available to take us from what we are given to what we need?

Rules in Rounding Off

If the leftmost digit to be removed is less than 5, the preceeding number is left unchanged. If it is 5 or greater,
the preceding number is inceased by 1.

Exercise 6

1. If a woman has a mass of 115 lb, what is her mass in grams? (1 lb = 453.6 g)
2. The average speed of a nitrogen molecule in air at 25 °C is 515 m/s. Convert this speed to miles per hour.
3. Earth’s oceans contain approximately 1.36 x 109 km3 of water. Calculate the volume in liters.
4. What is the mass in grams of 1.00 gal of water? The density of water is 1.00 g/mL.
 ASSIGNMENT

Exercise 1: (2, 3)
Exercise 2: (1c, 1d, 2, 3)
Exercise 3: (1c, 1d, 1e, 2)
Exercise 4: (2)
Exercise 5: (1, 2)
Exercise 6: (1, 2, 3, 4)

Deadline: Oct 2, 2020