Comprehensive List of

Mathematical
Symbols
MATH VAULT

Comprehensive List of
Mathematical Symbols
— Complete Edition

JUNE 2020

MATH VAULT
MATHVAULT.CA
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c 2020 Math Vault
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 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

Preface

As you might know, mathematics is an incredibly deep subject which ex-

plores a realm of knowledge beyond what one can usually see and hear.
The core of mathematics creates a sense of fascination — one which
drives us and propels us to communicate it with the rest of the world.
However, the depth of math is also such that much of this beauty is hid-
den behind a giant wall of cryptic symbols. This would lead to the idea
of creating a compendium of mathematical symbols — a comprehen-
sive collection of the most notable symbols in mathematics presented in
a concise, meaningful form.
Originally, the plan was to only carry out the project on the Web by
releasing, bit by bit, a series of 9 lists of symbols under the various topics
and categories. However, the usability and typesetting limitations of this
approach soon became apparent — especially as the number of symbols
exceeds 200.
To mitigate those bottlenecks (and to further improve upon our work), we
then decided to combine the entire 1000+ symbols in the compendium
into a single full-length eBook — one which includes explanatory exam-
ples for each symbol along its LaTeX code.
And with that, the full Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols —
the one you’re reading right now — is born. The purpose of this resource
is thus fourfold:

• To provide a concise, overarching overview of mathematics through

its symbols — without deliberately dumbing things down or oth-
erwise making things unusually difficult or verbose
• To provide the meaning of each symbol — along with relevant
additional resources whenever applicable
• To provide explanatory/defining examples on how each symbol is
used in its respective field

Preface 4
Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

• To serve as a reference guide for those who are typesetting the

symbols in LaTeX (assuming the loading of the mathtools pack-
age)

In other words, think of it more as a natural sequel to both the Defini-

tive Guide to Learning Higher Mathematics, and the Ultimate LaTeX
Reference Guide, in that not only does it delve more into the content
of mathematics, but it also reintroduces the commands of LaTeX from a
topical standpoint as well.
Throughout the book, we’ve strived to convey the idea that mathematics
is inherently fascinating — even in the absence of oversimplification, ro-
manticization and real-life applications. Our hope is that this resource
can act as both a smooth introduction to higher mathematics, and as a
handy reviewing tool for those who prefer it over lengthier math books.
So if that sounds even remotely interesting, then we’d encourage you to
dive right in! Here are a few additional things you can try with the book
as well:

• Perform searches on the terms you’re interested in

• Use the linkable table of contents
• Follow the links behind the green keywords
• Print out a portion of the book

But whatever you do, as long as you’re making good use of this resource,
and that you’re finding some excitement out of those squiggly-looking
symbols, all is good!
On behalf of Math Vault, we’d like to wish you the very best in this
endeavor. Yes, mathematical symbols might look a bit cryptic at first, but
what’s also true is that beneath those cryptic signs often lie an immense
amount of treasures as well!

Yours truly,

The Math Vault Team

June 2020, Montreal

Preface 5
 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

Table of Contents

1 Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.1 Key Mathematical Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Key Mathematical Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3 Key Mathematical Infinities . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Other Key Mathematical Objects . . . . . . . . 11
2 Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.1 Variables for Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2 Variables in Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Variables in Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Variables in Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5 Variables in Linear/Abstract Algebra . . . . . . 17
2.6 Variables in Probability and Statistics . . . . . . 17
2.7 Variables in Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3 Delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.1 Common Delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2 Other Delimiters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4 Alphabet Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.1 Greek Letters Used in Mathematics . . . . . . . 22
4.2 Other Greek Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5 Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.1 Common Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.2 Number-related Operators . . . . . . . . . . . 27
5.2.1 Common Number-based Operators . 27
5.2.2 Complex-number-based Operators . 28
5.3 Function-related Operators . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3.1 Common Function-based Operators 29
5.3.2 Elementary Functions . . . . . . . . 30

6 Table of Contents
Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

5.3.3 Key Calculus-related Functions and Trans-

forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.3.4 Other Key Functions . . . . . . . . . 33
5.4 Operators in Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.5 Operators in Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.5.1 Logical Connectives . . . . . . . . . 35
5.5.2 Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.5.3 Substitution/Valuation-based Operators 37
5.6 Set-related Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.7 Operators in Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.7.1 Vector-related Operators . . . . . . . 40
5.7.2 Matrix-related Operators . . . . . . . 41
5.7.3 Vector-space-related Operators . . . 43
5.7.4 Abstract-algebra-related Operators . 44
5.8 Operators in Probability and Statistics . . . . . 46
5.8.1 Combinatorial Operators . . . . . . 46
5.8.2 Probability-related Operators . . . . 47
5.8.3 Probability-related Functions . . . . 48
5.8.4 Discrete Probability Distributions . . 50
5.8.5 Continuous Probability Distributions
and Associated Functions . . . . . . 50
5.8.6 Statistical Operators . . . . . . . . . 52
5.9 Operators in Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.9.1 Operators Related to Sequence, Series
and Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
5.9.2 Derivative-based Operators . . . . . 56
5.9.3 Integral-based Operators . . . . . . . 57
6 Relational Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6.1 Equality-based Relational Symbols . . . . . . . 59
6.2 Comparison-based Relational Symbols . . . . . 59
6.3 Number-related Relational Symbols . . . . . . 60
6.4 Relational Symbols in Geometry . . . . . . . . 61
6.5 Relational Symbols in Logic . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6.6 Set-related Relational Symbols . . . . . . . . . 63
6.7 Relational Symbols in Abstract Algebra . . . . . 64
6.8 Relational Symbols in Probability and Statistics 65
6.9 Relational Symbols in Calculus . . . . . . . . . 65
7 Notational Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.1 Common Notational Symbols . . . . . . . . . . 66
7.2 Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Table of Contents 7
 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

7.3 Notational Symbols in Geometry and Trigonom-

etry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7.4 Notational Symbols in Probability and Statistics 68
7.5 Notational Symbols in Calculus . . . . . . . . . 70

1 Constants
1.1 Key Mathematical Numbers
Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

0 $0$ 3+0=0+3=3
(Zero, additive
identity)
1 $1$ 5 × 1 = 5, whereas
(One, multiplicative 5 + 1 6= 5.
identity)
√ √ √
2 $\sqrt{2}$ ( 2 + 1)2 = 3 + 2 2
(Square root of 2)
Å ã
1 n
e $e$ e = n→∞
lim 1 + ≈
(Euler’s number) n
2.71828

π2 1 1 1
π $\pi$ = 2 + 2 + 2 +· · ·
(Archimedes’ 6 1 2 3
constant pi)
C
τ $\tau$ τ= = 2π ≈ 6.28
(Tau constant) r
√
1+ 5
φ $\varphi$ φ= ≈ 1.618
(Golden ratio phi) 2
Ç å
X
n 1
γ $\gamma$ − ln n → γ
(Euler–Mascheroni k=1 k
constant) ≈ 0.577

8 1.1 Key Mathematical Numbers

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

Ω $\Omega$ ΩeΩ = 1 and Ω ≈

(Omega constant) 0.567.
i $i$ Since i2 = −1, i3 = −i
(Imaginary unit) and i4 = 1.

1.2 Key Mathematical Sets

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

∅, {} $\varnothing$, Since |∅| = 0, A ∪ ∅ =

(Empty set) $\{ \}$ A for all sets A.
U, U $\mathbb{U}$, $U$ If U = Q, then
(Universal set) N = Q \ N, but if U =
R, then N = R \ N.
P $\mathbb{P}$ 127 ∈ P, but 129 ∈ / P
(Set of prime numbers) (since 129 = 3 · 43).
N $\mathbb{N}$ ∀x, y ∈ N, x + y ∈ N
(Set of natural and xy ∈ N.
numbers)
N0 $\mathbb{N}_0$ 0 ∈ N0 and 0 ≤ n for
(Set of natural all n ∈ N0 .
numbers starting from
0)
N1 $\mathbb{N}_1$ 0 ∈/ N1 , hence N1 ⊂
(Set of natural N0 .
numbers starting from
1)
Z $\mathbb{Z}$ For all n ∈ N, n ∈ Z
(Set of integers) and −n ∈ Z.
Z+ $\mathbb{Z}_+$ In general, n ∈ Z+ if
(Set of positive and only if n ∈ N1 .
integers)
Q $\mathbb{Q}$ 12/57
√ ∈ Q, though
(Set of rational 2∈/ Q.
numbers)

1.2 Key Mathematical Sets 9

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

Qp $\mathbb{Q}_p$ In Q10 , −1 = . . . 999

(Set of p-adic (since . . . 999 + 1 = 0).
numbers)
√
A $\mathbb{A}$ 5 + 3 ∈ A, since it’s a
(Set of algebraic root of the polynomial
numbers) x2 − 6x + 4.
R $\mathbb{R}$ If x ∈ R and −5 ≤ x ≤
(Set of real numbers) 5, then 0 ≤ x2 ≤ 25.
R+ $\mathbb{R}_+$ (1, 1000) ⊆ R+ , while
(Set of positive real (−10, 10) 6⊆ R+ .
numbers)
R− $\mathbb{R}_-$ If x ∈ R+ , then −x ∈
(Set of negative real R− and vice versa.
numbers)
√ √
R\Q $\mathbb{R} √ log 2 ∈ R \ Q,
2, 3 5,
(Set of irrational \setminus while 4 ∈ / R \ Q.
numbers) \mathbb{Q}$
I $\mathbb{I}$ 5i ∈ I, since <(5i) =
(Set of imaginary 0. However, 2 + 3i ∈/ I,
numbers) since <(2 + 3i) 6= 0.
C $\mathbb{C}$ The equation x2 + 1 =
(Set of complex 0 has no solution in R
numbers) but two solutions in C.
H $\mathbb{H}$ While 5 + 6i ∈ C,
(Set of quaternions) 5 + 6i − 2j + 3k ∈ H.
O $\mathbb{O}$ For all x0 , . . . , x7 ∈ R,
(Set of octonions) x0 e0 + · · · + x7 e7 ∈ O.
B $\mathbb{B}$ In Boolean logic,
(Boolean domain) B = {0, 1}.
Zn $\mathbb{Z}_n$ In the world of Z2 ,
(Set of integers 1 + 1 = 0.
modulo n)
Sn $S_n$ Since S3 consists of all
(Symmetric group bijective functions on
over n elements) {1, 2, 3}, |S3 | = 3!.

10 1.2 Key Mathematical Sets

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

Rn $\mathbb{R}^n$ The vectors (5, 1) and

(n-dimensional (5, 1, 3) belong to R2
Euclidean space) and R3 , respectively.

1.3 Key Mathematical Infinities

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

ℵ0 , ℵ1 , . . . $\aleph_0$, Under continuum hy-

(Aleph numbers) $\aleph_1$ pothesis, ℵ1 = 2ℵ0 =
|P(N)|.
ℶ0 , ℶ1 , . . . $\beth_0$, ℶ0 = |N|,
(Beth numbers) $\beth_1$ ℶ1 = |P(N)|,
ℶ2 = |P(P(N))|.
c $\mathfrak{c}$ c = |R| = |(0, 1)| >
(Cardinality of real |N| = ℵ0
numbers)
ω0 , ω1 , . . . $\omega_0$, ω = {1, 2, . . .},
(Omega ordinals) $\omega_1$ ω + 1 = ω ∪ {ω}
Ω $\Omega$ Ω is also equal to ω1 —
(First uncountable the set of all countable
ordinal) ordinals.
·
··
ωω
ε0 , ε1 , . . . $\varepsilon_0$, ε0 = ω =ω
(Epsilon ordinals) $\varepsilon_1$ sup{ω, ω , ω ω , . . .}
ω

1.4 Other Key Mathematical Objects

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

0, ⃗0 $\mathbf{0}$, ∀v ∈ V, v + 0 = v and
(Zero vector) $\vec{0}$ 0v = 0.

1.4 Other Key Mathematical Objects 11

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

e $e$ Since e ◦ g = g ◦ e = g
(Identity element of a for all g ∈ G, e ◦ e = e.
group)
Ñ é
0 0 0
O $O$ O2×3 =
(Zero matrix) 0 0 0
Ñ é
1 0
I $I$ I2 =
(Identity matrix) 0 1
Z
C $C$ 1 dx = x + C, since
(Constant of (x + C)0 = 1 for all con-
integration) stants C.
> $\top$ For each proposition P ,
(Tautology, P ∧ > ≡ > ∧ P ≡ P.
truth value ‘true’)
⊥ $\bot$ For each proposition P ,
(Contradiction, P ∧ ¬P ≡ ⊥.
truth value ‘false’)
Z $Z$ Z is the normal dis-
(Standard normal tribution with mean 0
distribution) and variance 1.

2 Variables
2.1 Variables for Numbers
Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

m, n, p, q $m$, $n$, $p$, $q$ m + n − q = 1, while

(Integers and natural m + n + p = 5.
numbers)
a, b, c $a$, $b$, $c$ For all b, the line
(Coefficients for 5x + by = 0 passes
functions and through the origin.
equations)

12 2.1 Variables for Numbers

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

x, y, z $x$, $y$, $z$ If 2x + 5 = 3, then

(Unknowns in x = −1.
functions and
equations)
∆ $\Delta$ For polynomials of the
(Discriminant) form ax2 + bx + c,
∆ = b2 − 4ac.
X
10 X
5
2
i, j, k $i$, $j$, $k$ i = 55 = j
(Index variables) i=1 j=1

t $t$ At t = 5, the velocity

(Time variable) is v(5) = 32.
z $z$ For all z of the form
(Complex numbers) a + bi, z z̄ = a2 + b2
= |z|2 .

2.2 Variables in Geometry

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

A, B, C, D, $A$, $B$, $C$, $D$, P Q ⊥ QR, while

P , Q, R, S $P$, $Q$, $R$, $S$ |P S| = |RS|.
(Points)
ℓ $\ell$ If ℓ1 k ℓ2 , then ℓ1 does
(Lines) not intersect ℓ2 at any
point.
a, b, c, $a$, $b$, $c$, $\alpha$ α + β + θ = 180◦ ,
α, β, γ, θ, ϕ $\beta$, $\gamma$, while α + β < 90◦ .
(Angles) $\theta$, $\phi$
O $O$ If O1 and O2 share the
(Circle, same radius, then they
center of circle) are congruent.
P $\odot P$ If P 6= Q, then
(Circle centered P 6= Q.
around point P )

2.2 Variables in Geometry 13

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

r $r$ For all circles with

(Radius of radius
p r and area A,
circle/sphere) r = A/π.

d $d$ Since π = C/d and

(Diameter of d = 2r, 2π = C/r.
circle/sphere)
C $C$ For all circles with
(Circumference radius r and
of circle) circumference C,
C = 2πr.
b $b$ For obtuse triangles, b
(Base of trian- corresponds to the
gle/quadrilateral) extended base.
h $h$ Since h = 5, the area of
(Height of 2D/3D the triangle equals
figures) (3 · 5)/2.
l $l$ When l = 10, the area
(Length of rectan- of the rectangle equals
gle/rectangular 10 · 20.
solid)
w $w$ For a rectangular solid,
(Width of rectan- V = lwh.
gle/rectangular
solid)
P $P$ For a rectangle with
(Perimeter of length l and width w,
planar figure) P = 2l + 2w.
A $A$ For both circles and
(Area of 2D spheres, A ∝ r2 .
figure, surface
area of 3D figure)
Π $\Pi$ Either Π1 k Π2 , or they
(Planes) intersect at a line.
V $V$ For a sphere with
(Volume of 3D radius r, V = (4/3)πr3 .
figure)

14 2.2 Variables in Geometry

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

n $n$ For an n-gon, the sum

(Number of sides of interior angles
in polygon) equals (n − 2) · 180◦ .
V $V$ For a cube, V = 8,
(Number of while for a tetrahedron,
vertices in V = 4.
polyhedron)
E $E$ In general, E ≥ V for
(Number of edges convex polyhedra.
in polyhedron)
F $F$ For a tetrahedron,
(Number of faces F = 4, while for a
in polyhedron) cube, F = 6.
χ $\chi$ For convex polyhedra,
(Euler χ = V − E + F = 2.
characteristic)

2.3 Variables in Logic

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

a, b, c $a$, $b$, $c$ The expression

(Constants within ‘f (a, b) = c’ is a
logical system) sentence.
x, y, w, z $x$, $y$, $w$, $z$ For all x1 and y, there
(Quantification exists an x2 such that
variables) x1 + x2 = y.
x, y, w, z $\mathbf{x}$, For all variables x1 and
(Metavariables for $\mathbf{y}$, x2 , the expression
quantification $\mathbf{w}$, ‘x1 = x2 ’ is a formula.
variables) $\mathbf{z}$
f , g, h $f$, $g$, $h$ The expression
(Function symbols) ‘h (f1 (x), g(x, y))’ is a
term of degree 2.

2.3 Variables in Logic 15

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

s, t $\mathbf{s}$, For all terms t1 and t2 ,

(Metavariables for $\mathbf{t}$ ‘f (t1 , t2 )’ is a term.
terms)
P , Q, R $P$, $Q$, $R$ ‘P (x, a) ∧ Q1 (z)’ has
(Propositional/ two free variables: x
Predicate symbols) and z.
α, β, γ, ϕ, ψ $\alpha$, $\beta$, For all formulas α and
(Metavariables for $\gamma$, $\phi$, β, α ∧ β ≡ β ∧ α.
formulas) $\psi$
Σ, Φ, Ψ $\Sigma$, $\Phi$, If Σ is inconsistent,
(Metavariables for $\Psi$ then so is Σ ∪ Φ.
sets of sentences)
L $\mathcal{L}$ If L is a language with
(Metavariable for equality and constant
formal languages) a, then ‘¬(a = a)’ is a
formula in L.

2.4 Variables in Set Theory

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

A, B, C $A$, $B$, $C$ If A ⊆ B, then

(Sets) A ⊆ B ∪ C.
a, b, c $a$, $b$, $c$ For all a ∈ A and
(Elements) b ∈ B, a, b ∈ A ∪ B.
α, β, γ $\alpha$, $\beta$, Transfinite induction
(Ordinal numbers) $\gamma$ states that if for all α,
(∀β < α) P (β) →
P (α), then ∀α P (α).
λ $\lambda$ λ is a limit ordinal if it’s
(Limit ordinals) neither 0 nor a
successor ordinal.
κ $\kappa$ For each finite cardinal
(Cardinal numbers) κ, its successor is simply
κ + 1.

16 2.4 Variables in Set Theory

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

2.5 Variables in Linear/Abstract Algebra

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

u, v, w, ⃗u, ⃗v , w
⃗ $\mathbf{u}$, Since w = 3u + 4v, w
(Vectors) $\mathbf{v}$, is a linear combination
$\mathbf{w}$, of u and v.
$\vec{u}$, $\vec{v}$,
$\vec{w}$
U, V , W $U$, $V$, $W$ Since U is a subspace
(Vector spaces) of vector space V ,
0 ∈ U.
A, B, C $A$, $B$, $C$ If AX = B and A is
(Matrices) invertible, then
X = A−1 B.
λ $\lambda$ If Av = λv for some
(Eigenvalues) non-zero vector v, then
λ is an eigenvalue of A.
G, H $G$, $H$ By definition, e ◦ x =
(Groups) x ◦ e = x for all x ∈ G.
F, F $F, \mathbb{F}$ F[x] consists of all
(Fields) polynomials with
coefficients from F.
X, Y $X$, $Y$ Both 3X 2 Y and 5Y are
(Indeterminates) in the generator set
Z[X, Y ].

2.6 Variables in Probability and Statistics

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

X, Y , Z, T $X$, $Y$, $Z$, $T$ E(X + Y + 2Z) =

(Random variables) E(X) + E(Y ) + 2E(Z)

2.6 Variables in Probability and Statistics 17

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

x, y, z, t $x$, $y$, $z$, $t$ For all x ∈ N0 ,

(Values of random P (X = x) =
variable) (0.25)x (0.75).
n $n$ For n ≥ 30, use normal
(Sample sizes) distribution instead.
f $f$ Let fi be the frequency
(Data frequencies) of the ith category,
then f1 + · · · + fk = n.
µ $\mu$ In this one-sample test
(Population means) of means, H0 : µ = 5
and Ha : µ > 5.
σ $\sigma$ If σ1 = σ2 , then their
(Population standard variances σ12 and σ22 are
deviations) the same.
s $s$ The formula for s is
(Sample standard adjusted to prevent
deviations) underestimating σ.
π $\pi$ By default, we assume
(Population that π = 0.5 until
proportions) proven otherwise.
p̂ $\hat{p}$ While p̂1 = 35/50,
(Sample proportions) p̂2 = 38/80 < p̂1 .
p $p$ In a standard
(Probability of fair-die-tossing
success) experiment, p = 1/6.
q $q$ Let p be the probability
(Probability of of getting a head, then
failure) q = 1 − p = 1/2.
ρ $\rho$ For a negatively-biased
(Population correlation test,
correlations) Ha : ρ < 0.
r $r$ If r = 0.75, then
(Sample correlations) r2 = 0.5625 = 56.25%.

18 2.6 Variables in Probability and Statistics

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

z $z$ Since z = (x − µ)/σ

(Z-score) = 3, the data is 3 SDs
above the mean.
α $\alpha$ At α = 0.05, the null
(Significance level, hypothesis is rejected,
probability of type I but not at α = 0.01.
error)
β $\beta$ β quantifies the chance
(Probability of type that H0 is accepted —
II error) given that it’s false.
b $b$ For linear regression
(Sample regression with two variables,
coefficient) y = b0 + b1 x1 + b2 x2 .
β $\beta$ If β1 = 0.51 and
(Population β2 = 0.8, then x2 has
regression more ”influence” on y
coefficient, than x1 .
standardized beta
coefficient)
ν $\nu$ Gamma(ν/2, 1/2) =
(Degree of freedom χ2 (ν)
(df))
Ω $\Omega$ For a double-coin-toss
(Sample space) experiment, Ω =
{HH, HT, TH, TT}.
ω $\omega$ P (X ∈ A) =
(Outcomes of sample P ({ω ∈ Ω | X(ω) ∈ A})
space)
θ, β $\theta$, $\beta$ For normal distribu-
(Population tions, θ = (µ, σ).
parameters)

2.7 Variables in Calculus

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

2.7 Variables in Calculus 19

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

f (x), g(x, y), h(z) $f(x)$, $g(x,y)$, The function g(x) =

(Functions) $h(z)$ f (x + 2) shifts f 2 units
to the left.
y2 − y1
m $m$ m= =⇒
(Slopes) x2 − x1
y2 = m(x2 − x1 ) + y1
eh − e0
h, ∆x, δx $h$, $\Delta x$, Since lim = 1,
(Limiting variables in $\delta x$ h→0 h x
the derivative of e at 0
derivatives) equals 1.
L $L$ If f (x) → L, then
(Limits) f (x)2 → L2 .
δ, ε $\delta$, For all ε > 0, there is a
(Small quantities in $\varepsilon$ δ > 0 such that |x| < δ
proofs involving implies that |2x| < ε.
limits)
Z b
a, b $a$, $b$ 2x dx = b2 − a2
a
(Endpoints in
intervals and definite
integrals)
F (x), G(x) $F(x)$, $G(x)$ Since F 0 (x) = f (x),
(Antiderivatives) (5F (x))0 = 5f (x).

3 Delimiters
3.1 Common Delimiters
Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

. $.$ 25.971 =
(Decimal separator) 9 7 1
25 + + 2+ 3
10 10 10
: $:$ 4 : 9 = 12 : 27, since
(Ratio indicator) 4/12 = 9/27.

20 3.1 Common Delimiters

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

, $,$ {3, 5, 12} =

(Object separator) {12, 3, 5, 12, 3}
(), [], {} $( )$, $[ ]$, $\{ \}$ [(a + b) × c] − d =
(Order-of-operation [(a × c) + (b × c)] − d
indicators)
(), [] $( )$, $[ ]$ Although 3 ∈/ (3, 4],
(Interval indicators) 4 ∈ (3, 4].

3.2 Other Delimiters

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)
   
  a 1 4
(), [], x y ,   $( )$, $[ ]$,  =6 (3, 1, 6)
b $\begin{pmatrix} x 3 6
(Vector/Matrix & y \end{pmatrix}$,
indicators) $\begin{bmatrix} a
\\ b \end{bmatrix}$
{} $\{ \}$ {π, e, i} ⊆ R ∪ I
(Set indicators) ⊆C
|, : $\mid$, $:$ {x2 : x ∈ Z} =
(“Such that” markers {y ∈ Z | y = x2
in set notation) for some x ∈ Z}
√
||, kk $| |, \| \|$ k(3, 4)k = 32 + 42
(Norm-related = 5 = |5|
operators)
® ®
f (x) x ≥ a 1 x≥0
$\begin{cases} f(x) f (x) =
g(x) x < a & x \ge a \\ g(x) & 0 x<0
(Piecewise-function x < a \end{cases}$
marker)
hi $\langle \rangle$ For all a, b ∈ V ,
(Inner product hka, bi = kha, bi.
operator)
de $\lceil \rceil$ d2.476e = 3, and
(Ceiling operator) dee = 3 as well.

3.2 Other Delimiters 21

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

bc $\lfloor \rfloor$ bπc = 3, since 3 is

(Floor operator) the largest integer less
or equal to π.

4 Alphabet Letters
4.1 Greek Letters Used in Mathematics
Symbols & Used For Example
LaTeX Code

α Variable for angles, statis- At α = 0.01, the null

(Small alpha) tical significance level hypothesis is rejected.
$\alpha$
B Beta function B(x, y) =
(Capital beta) Z 1
$\mathrm{B}$ tx−1 (1 − t)y−1 dt
0

β Standardized regression β denotes the chance that

(Small beta) coefficient, probability of H0 is accepted — given
$\beta$ type II error that it’s false.
Γ (Capital Gamma function, For all n ∈ N+ ,
gamma) Gamma distribution Γ(n) = (n − 1)!.
$\Gamma$
γ Euler–Mascheroni con- γ = n→∞
lim
(Small gamma) stant Å ã
1 1
$\gamma$ + · · · + − ln n
1 n

∆ Discriminant, finite dif- ∆(k1 f + k2 g + k3 h) =

(Capital delta) ference operator, Laplace k1 ∆f + k2 ∆g + k3 ∆h
$\Delta$ operator
®
0 i 6= j
δ Kronecker delta function, δij =
(Small delta) Dirac delta function 1 i=j
$\delta$

22 4.1 Greek Letters Used in Mathematics

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

ϵ, ε Variable for arbitrarily Given any ε > 0, there is

(Small epsilon) small quantities in proofs an n ∈ N such that
$\epsilon$, involving limit 1/n < ε.
$\varepsilon$
0
𝟋 Digamma function 𝟋(x) = [ln(Γ(x))] =
(Digamma) Γ0 (x)/Γ(x)
$\digamma$
∞
X 1
ζ Riemann zeta function ζ(s) = s
(Small zeta) n=1 n
$\zeta$
1 1 1
η Dirichlet eta function η(s) = s
− s + s −···
(Small eta) 1 2 3
$\eta$
Θ Big-Theta notation f ∈ Θ(g) if f is
(Capital theta) eventually bounded
$\Theta$ between k1 g and k2 g.
θ, ϑ Variable for angles sin(2θ) = 2 sin θ cos θ,
(Small theta) cos(2θ) = cos2 θ − sin2 θ.
$\theta$,
$\vartheta$
ι Inclusion function If A ⊆ B, then ι : A → B
(Small iota) with ι(x) = x for all
$\iota$ x ∈ A.
κ Curvature Since κ = 1/R, κ is
(Small kappa) inversely proportional to
$\kappa$ R.
Λ (Capital Set of all logical validities For all variables x,
lambda) in first-order logic [∀x(x = x)] ∈ Λ.
$\Lambda$
λ (Small Parameter in Poisson and If Av = λv for some
lambda) exponential distribution, non-zero vector v, then λ
$\lambda$ variable for eigenvalues is an eigenvalue of A.
µ Population mean, Möbius H0 : µ1 = µ2 , while
(Small mu) function Ha : µ1 > µ2 .
$\mu$

4.1 Greek Letters Used in Mathematics 23

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

ν Variable for degree of free- χ2 (ν) =

(Small nu) dom Gamma(ν/2, 1/2)
$\nu$
Ξ Riemann’s original Xi Ξ(z) = ξ(1/2 + iz) with
(Capital xi) function Ξ(−z) = Ξ(z).
$\Xi$
ξ Riemann Xi function ξ(z) is a variant of ζ(z)
(Small xi) with ξ(2) = π/6.
$\xi$
Y
4
Π Pi product operator i = 1 · 2 · 3 · 4 = 4!
(Capital pi) i=1
$\Pi$
π Archimedes’ constant, A = πr2 , where
(Small pi) prime-counting function, π = C/d ≈ 3.1416.
$\pi$ population proportion
ρ Population correlation For a positively-biased
(Small rho) correlation test,
$\rho$ Ha : ρ > 0.
X
10
Σ Summation operator i = 1 + · · · + 10 =
(Capital sigma) i=1
$\Sigma$ (11 · 10)/2 = 55
σ Population standard devi- σ(1) = 2, σ(2) = 3 and
(Small sigma) ation, variable for permu- σ(3) = 1.
$\sigma$ tations
τ Tau constant, variable for Since π = C/2r,
(Small tau) permutation C/r = τ = 2π.
$\tau$
∞
X 1
Υ (Capital Upsilon function Υ(z) =
upsilon) n=1 n2 + z2
$\Upsilon$
υ General variable The function υ(t) satisfies
(Small upsilon) the differential equation
$\upsilon$ υ 0 (t) + 2υ(t) = 3.

24 4.1 Greek Letters Used in Mathematics

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

1
Φ Golden ratio conjugate, Φ= = φ − 1 ≈ 0.618
(Capital phi) cdf of standard normal dis- φ
$\Phi$ tribution
√
ϕ, φ Golden ratio, Euler’s φ = (1 + 5)/2, the
(Small phi) totient function, vari- positive root of the
$\phi$, able for angles, pdf of polynomial x2 − x − 1.
$\varphi$ Z-distribution
χ Chi-square distribution, χ = V − E + F , and is
(Small chi) Euler characteristic equal to 2 for all convex
$\chi$ polyhedra.
Ψ Variable for sets of sen- If Ψ proves sentence α,
(Capital psi) tences then Φ ∪ Ψ proves α as
$\Psi$ well.
1 1 1 1 1
ψ Reciprocal Fibonacci con- ψ= + + + + +
(Small psi) stant 1 1 2 3 5
1
$\psi$ + ···
8
Ω (Capital Big-Omega notation, Since ΩeΩ = 1,
omega) Omega constant Ω ≈ 0.567.
$\Omega$
.
ω Smallest infinite ordinal, Since n = {0, . . . , n − 1},
(Small omega) prime omega function n < ω for all n ∈ N.
$\omega$

4.2 Other Greek Letters

Symbol Explanation LaTeX Code
A Uppercase alpha $\mathrm{A}$
E Uppercase epsilon $\mathrm{E}$
Z Uppercase zeta $\mathrm{Z}$
H Uppercase eta $\mathrm{H}$
I Uppercase iota $\mathrm{I}$
K Uppercase kappa $\mathrm{K}$
M Uppercase mu $\mathrm{M}$

4.2 Other Greek Letters 25

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

N Uppercase nu $\mathrm{N}$
O Uppercase omicron $\mathrm{O}$
o Lowercase omicron $\mathrm{o}$
P Uppercase rho $\mathrm{P}$
T Uppercase tau $\mathrm{T}$
Y Uppercase upsilon $\mathrm{Y}$
X Uppercase chi $\mathrm{X}$

5 Operators
5.1 Common Operators
Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

x+y $x+y$ (2a + 3a) + 7a =

(Sum) 5a + 7a = 12a
x−y $x-y$ 11 − 5 = 6, but
(Difference) 5 − 11 = −6.
−x $-x$ −3 is defined to be the
(Additive inverse) number such that
−3 + 3 = 3 + (−3) = 0.
x × y, x · y, xy $x \times y$, If x, y ∈ R and xy = 0,
(Product) $x \cdot y$, $xy$ then either x = 0 or
y = 0.
x ÷ y, x/y $x \div y$, $x/y$ 152 ÷ 3 = 50.6, since
(Quotient) 50.6 × 3 = 152.
x 54 + 5 54 5 5
$\displaystyle = + =9
y \frac{x}{y}$ 6 6 6 6
(Fraction)
xy $x^y$ 34 − 23 = 3 · 3 · 3 · 3 −
(Power) 2 · 2 · 2 = 81 − 8 = 73

26 5.1 Common Operators

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

±x $\pm x$ For quadratic

(Plus and minus) polynomials,
√
−b ± ∆
x= .
2a
∓x $\mp x$ cos(x ± y) =
(Minus and plus) cos x cos y ∓ sin x sin y
√
x $\sqrt{x}$ Since 1.412 = 1.9881
2
(Principal square and
√ 1.42 = 2.0164,
root) 2 ≈ 1.415.
√ √
3
n
x $\sqrt[n]{x}$ Since
√ 125 = 5,
(Principal nth root) 3
−125 = −5.
|x| $|x|$ If |x − 3| < 5, then
(Absolute value) 3 − 5 < x < 3 + 5.
.
x% $x \%$ Since x% = x/100, 5%
(Percent) of 30 = (5/100) 30.

5.2 Number-related Operators

5.2.1 Common Number-based Operators

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

gcd(x, y) $\gcd (x,y)$ gcd(35, 14) = 7, since

(Greatest common 35/7 and 14/7 are
divisor) coprime.
lcm(x, y) $\mathrm{lcm}(x,y)$ lcm(12, 15) = 60 =
(Least common 12 · 15
multiple) gcd(12, 15)
bxc $\lfloor x \rfloor$ b3.6c = 3, while
(Floor operator) b3.62 c = 12.
dxe $\lceil x \rceil$ dπe = 4, since 4 ≥ π
(Ceiling operator) and is the smallest
integer to do so.

5.2 Number-related Operators 27

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

bxe, round(x) $\lfloor x \rceil$, round(3.5) = 4, though

(Nearest integer $\mathrm{round}(x)$ round(3.49) = 3.
operator)
min(A) $\min (A)$ If min(A) = 3, then
(Minimum of set) min(A + 5) = 8.
max(A) $\max (A)$ max(A ∪ B) =
(Maximum of set) max(max(A), max(B))
x mod y $x\bmod y$ 36 mod 5 = 1, since
(Modulo operator) 36 = 5 · 7 + 1.
X
n X
4
ai $\displaystyle 2
i = 1 2 + 22 + 32 + 42
i=m \sum_{i=m}^n a_i$ i=1
(Summation) = 30
Y
n Y
n
ai $\displaystyle i = 1 × · · · × n = n!
i=m \prod_{i=m}^n a_i$ i=1
(Pi Product)

5.2.2 Complex-number-based Operators

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

z $\overline{z}$ 5 − 8i + (5 − 8i) =
(Complex (5 + 8i) + (5 − 8i) = 10
conjugate)
<(z), Re(z) $\Re(z)$, While a + bi ∈ C,
(Real part of $\mathrm{Re}(z)$ <(a + bi) = a ∈ R.
complex number)
=(z), Im(z) $\Im(z)$, =(a + bi) = −b =
(Imaginary part of $\mathrm{Im}(z)$ −=(a + bi)
complex number)
|z| $|z|$ Since |z|2 = zz,
(Absolute value of z(z/|z|2 ) = 1 whenever
complex number) z 6= 0.
π
arg z $\arg z$ arg(1 + i) = + 2πn
(Arguments of 4
(where n ∈ Z)
complex number)

28 5.2 Number-related Operators

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

cis(θ) $\mathrm{cis} cis(π) = cos π + i sin(π)

(Cis notation: (\theta)$ = eπi = −1
shorthand for
cos θ + i sin θ)

5.3 Function-related Operators

5.3.1 Common Function-based Operators

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

dom f $\operatorname{dom}f$ If g(x) = ln x, then

(Domain of dom(g) = R+ .
function f )
ran f $\operatorname{ran}f$ If h(y) = sin y, then
(Range of ran(h) = [−1.1].
function f )
f (x) $f(x)$ g(5) = g(4) + 3 =
(Image of (g(3) + 3) + 3
element x
under f )
f (X) $f(X)$ Since
(Image of set X f (A) = {f (x) | x ∈ A},
under f ) f (A) ⊆ ran f .
f −1 (y) $f^{-1}(y)$ If f is an one-to-one
(Inverse function with f (3) = 5,
function, then f −1 (5) = 3.
pre-image of y
under f )
f −1 (Y ) $f^{-1}(Y)$ If g : R → R with
(Pre-image of g(x) = x2 , then
set Y under f ) g −1 ([0, 1]) = [−1, 1].
f ◦g $f \circ g$ If g(3) = 5 and
(Composite f (5) = 8, then
function) (f ◦ g)(3) = 8.

5.3 Function-related Operators 29

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

f |A $f|_A$ dom(f |A ) =
(Restriction of A ∩ dom(A)
function f on
set A)
R◦S $R \circ S$ If (1, 3) ∈ R and
(Composite (3, 6) ∈ S, then
relation) (1, 6) ∈ R ◦ S.
R−1 $R^{-1}$ (x, y) ∈ R−1 if and only
(Converse if (y, x) ∈ R.
relation of R)
R+ $R^+$ By definition, R+ is the
(Transitive smallest transitive rela-
closure of tion containing R.
relation R)

5.3.2 Elementary Functions

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

kn xn + · · · + k0 x0 $k_n x^n + \cdots The polynomial

(Polynomial) + k_0x^0$ x3 + 2x2 + 3 has a real
root in (−3, −2).
ex , exp x $e^x$, $\exp x$ ex+y = ex · ey , while
(Natural exponential (ex )y = exy = (ey )x .
function)
bx $b^x$ For all n ∈ N, 2x > xn
(Exponential for sufficiently large x.
function with base b)
ln x $\ln x$ ln(x2 ) = 2 ln x, since

2
(Natural logarithmic e2 ln x = eln x = x2
function)
log x $\log x$ log 10000 = 4, since
(Common logarithm) 104 = 10000.
logb x $\log_b x$ The binary logarithm
(Logarithmic log2 x is also equal to
function with base b) ln x/ ln 2.

30 5.3 Function-related Operators

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

sin x $\sin x$ While sin(π/2) = 1,

(Sine function) sin π = 0.
cos x $\cos x$ Since (cos x, sin x) lies
(Cosine function) on the unit circle,
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1.
tan x $\tan x$ Since tan θ =
(Tangent function) sin θ/ cos θ, tan 0 = 0
and tan(π/4) = 1.
sec x $\sec x$ Since sec x = 1/ cos x,
(Secant function) sec2 x = tan2 x + 1.
csc x $\csc x$ Since csc θ = 1/ sin θ,
(Cosecant function) csc(π/2) = 1 and csc 0
is undefined.
cot x $\cot x$ cot θ equals cos θ/ sin θ,
(Cotangent function) and is the reciprocal of
tan θ.
arcsin x, sin−1 x $\arcsin x$, arcsin(−1) = −π/2,
(Inverse sine $\sin^{-1} x$ since sin(−π/2) = −1.
function)
Ç√ å
2 π
arccos x, cos−1 x $\arccos x$, arccos =
(Inverse cosine $\cos^{-1} x$ 2 4
function)
arctan x, tan−1 x $\arctan x$, As the inverse of tan x,
(Inverse tangent $\tan^{-1} x$ arctan x maps R to the
function) interval (−π/2, π/2).
sinh x, cosh x, tanh x, $\sinh x$, $\cosh x$, sinh x = (ex − e−x )/2,
coth x, sech x, csch x $\tanh x$, $\coth x$, cosh x = (ex + e−x )/2.
(Hyperbolic $\mathrm{sech} \, x$,
functions) $\mathrm{csch} \, x$
arcsinh x, sinh−1 x, $\mathrm{arcsinh} arccosh 1 = 0, since
arccosh x, cosh−1 x, \, x$, $\sinh^{-1} x$, cosh 0 = (e0 + e−0 )/2 =
arctanh x, tanh−1 x $\mathrm{arccosh} 1.
(Inverse hyperbolic \, x$, $\cosh^{-1} x$,
functions) $\mathrm{arctanh}
\, x$, $\tanh^{-1} x$

5.3 Function-related Operators 31

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

5.3.3 Key Calculus-related Functions and Transforms

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

sgn(x) $\mathrm{sgn}(x)$ sgn(x) =


(Sign function) 
−1 x < 0
0 x=0

1 x>0

atan2(y, x) $\mathrm{atan2} Since vector (0, 1) is

(2-argument (y, x)$ perpendicular to the
arctangent x-axis, atan2(1, 0) =
function) π/2.
B(x, y) $\mathrm{B}(x, y)$ B(x, y) =
(Beta function) Z 1
tx−1 (1 − t)y−1 dt
0

Γ(x) $\Gamma(x)$ Γ(z) =

Z ∞
(Gamma function)
xz−1 e−x dx
0

sinc(x) $\mathrm{sinc}(x)$ Since sinc(x) = sin x/x,

(Sinc function) sinc(x) → 1 as x → 0.
Z x
sin t
Si(x) $\mathrm{Si}(x)$ Si(x) = dt
(Sine integral) 0 t

erf(x) $\mathrm{erf}(x)$ erf(x) =

(Error function) 2 Z x −t2
√ e dt
π 0

ζ(s) $\zeta (s)$ ζ(s) =

(Riemann zeta 1 1 1 1
function) s
+ s + s + s +···
1 2 3 4
f ∗g $f \ast g$ (f ∗ g)(x) =
Z ∞
(Convolution of
functions f and g) f (t)g(x − t) dt
−∞

32 5.3 Function-related Operators

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

δ(x) $\delta (x)$ Loosely speaking,

(Dirac delta δ(x) R= 0 for all x 6= 0
∞
function) and −∞ δ(x) dx = 1.
Z x
H(x) $H(x)$ H(x) = δ(s) ds
−∞
(Heaviside step
function)
L{f } $\mathcal{L}\{ f \}$ L{f }(s) =
(Laplace transform Z ∞
of f ) f (t)e−st dt
0

L−1 {F } $\mathcal{L}^{-1} If L{f } = F (s), then

(Inverse Laplace \{ F \}$ L−1 {F } = f (t).
transform of F )
F{f }, fˆ $\mathcal{F}\{ f \}$, F{f }(t) =
Z ∞
(Fourier transform $\hat{f}$
of f ) f (x)e−2πitx dx
−∞

5.3.4 Other Key Functions

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

π(x) $\pi(x)$ Since there are 5

(Prime-counting primes smaller or equal
function) to 11, π(11) = 5.
ϕ(x) $\phi(x)$ ϕ(10) = 4, since 10 has
(Euler’s totient 4 totatives (i.e., 1, 3, 7,
function) 9).
ω(x) $\omega(x)$ Since the number 60
(Prime omega has 3 prime factors,
function) ω(60) = 3.
crd θ $\mathrm{crd} \, By Pythagorean
(Chord function) \theta$ theorem, crd θ ≥ sin θ.
idA (x) $\mathrm{id}_A (x)$ For all sets A, the
(Identity function function idA is both
on set A) one-to-one and onto.

5.3 Function-related Operators 33

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols
®
1 x∈Q
1A (x), χA (x) $\mathbf{1}_A (x)$, 1Q (x) =
(Indicator function $\chi_A (x)$ 0 x∈
/Q
on set A)
®
0 i 6= j
δij $\delta_{ij}$ δij = .
(Kronecker delta 1 i=j
function)

5.4 Operators in Geometry

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

∠ABC $\angle ABC$ ∠ABC = ∠CBA =

(Angle) 30◦
∠P $\angle P$ If m∠P + m∠Q = 90◦ ,
(Interior angle at then ∠P and ∠Q are
point P ) complementary angles.
∡ABC, m∠ABC $\measuredangle ∡ABC = ∡A0 B 0 C 0 ,
(Measure of angle) ABC$, $m\angle ABC$ but ∡BCA 6= ∡B 0 C 0 A0 .
∢ABC $\sphericalangle ABC$ ∢P QR refers to the
(Spherical angle) angle between the
˜
great circles of P Q and
˜
QR.
←→
AB $\overleftrightarrow If C is a distinct point
(Infinite line) {AB}$ ←→
on the line AB, then
←→ ←→
AC = AB.
AB $\overline{AB}$ If B 6= B 0 , then
(Line segment AB 6= AB 0 .
between A and B)
−→ −→ −−→
AB $\overrightarrow If AB ∼
= CD, then
(Ray from A to B) {AB}$ −→ ∼ −−→
BA = DC.
|AB| $|AB|$ In general,
(Distance |AC| ≤ |AB| + |BC|.
between A and B)

34 5.4 Operators in Geometry

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

˜
AB $\wideparen{AB}$ If AB is a diameter,
(Arc segment (Requires the package ˜ would
then AB
between A and B) yhmath) correspond to a
half-circumference.
4ABC $\triangle ABC$ If 4ABC ∼ = 4A0 B 0 C 0 ,
(Triangle) then ∡A = ∡A0 .
□ABCD $\square ABCD$ □ABCD = □BCDA =
(Quadrilateral) □CDAB = □DABC

5.5 Operators in Logic

5.5.1 Logical Connectives

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

¬P , ∼ P , P $\lnot P$, $\sim \! P$, By convention, ‘1 6= 2’

(Negation: Not P ) $\overline{P}$ is a shorthand for
‘¬(1 = 2)’.
♢P $\Diamond P$ For all propositions P ,
(Possibly P ) ♢P implies ♢♢P .
□P $\Box P$ If □P , then ¬♢¬P and
(Necessarily P ) vice versa.
P ∧Q $P \land Q$ By symmetry,
(Conjunction: P ∧ Q ≡ Q ∧ P.
P and Q)
^
n ^
n
.
Pi $\displaystyle Pi = P1 ∧ · · · ∧ Pn
i=m \bigwedge_{i=m}^n i=1
(Generalized P_i$
conjunction)
P ∨Q $P \lor Q$ For all x ∈ R,
(Disjunction: x∈Q∨x∈ / Q.
P or Q)

5.5 Operators in Logic 35

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols
Ç å
_
n _
n ^
n
Pi $\displaystyle ¬ Pi = ¬Pi
i=m \bigvee_{i=m}^n i=1 i=1
(Generalized P_i$
disjunction)
P ⊻ Q, P ⊕ Q $P \veebar Q$, P ⊕Q≡
(Exclusive $P \oplus Q$ (P ∨ Q) ∧ ¬(P ∧ Q)
disjunction)
P ↑Q $P \uparrrow Q$ P ↑ Q ≡ ¬(P ∧ Q) ≡
(Negation of ¬P ∨ ¬Q
conjunction)
P ↓Q $P \downarrow Q$ P ↓ Q ≡ ¬(P ∨ Q) ≡
(Negation of ¬P ∧ ¬Q
disjunction)
P →Q $P \to Q$ ‘P → Q’ is vacuously
(Conditional: true if P is false.
If P then Q)
P 6→ Q $P \not\to Q$ P 6→ Q ≡ ¬(P → Q)
(Non-conditional) ≡ P ∧ ¬Q
P ←Q $P \leftarrow Q$ The statement ‘P ← Q’
(Converse also reads ‘P , if Q’.
conditional)
P 6← Q $P \not\leftarrow Q$ ‘(P 6← Q)’ is true
(Converse precisely when Q is
non-conditional) true but P is false.
P ↔Q $P \leftrightarrow Q$ P ↔ Q ≡ (P → Q) ∧
(Biconditional: (P ← Q)
P if and only if Q)
P 6↔ Q $P \not\leftrightarrow If P 6↔ Q, then either
(Non- Q$ P →6 Q or P 6← Q.
biconditional)

5.5.2 Quantifiers

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

36 5.5 Operators in Logic

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

∀x $\forall x$ ‘∀y ∈ Z, y ∈ R’ also

(Universal reads ‘every integer is a
quantification) real number’.
∃x $\exists x$ ‘∃z ∈ C (z 2 = −π)’
(Existential reads ‘some complex
quantification) number squares to −π.’
∃! x $\exists ! \, x$ ∃! q, r ∈ Z (n = dq +r ∧
(Uniqueness 0 ≤ |r| < d)
quantification)
Nx, ∄x $\mathrm{N} x$, Nx P (x) ≡ ¬∃x P (x) ≡
(Non-existence $\nexists x$ ∀x ¬P (x)
quantification)
∃n x $\exists_n x$ ∃3 x ∈ Z (5 < x < 9)
(Numerical (i.e., 6, 7, 8).
quantification:
Exactly n)
∃≥n x $\exists_{\ge n} x$ ∃≥2 x Q(x) ≡
(Numerical ∃x∃y (Q(x) ∧ Q(y) ∧
quantification: x 6= y)
At least n)
∃≤n x $\exists_{\le n} x$ ∃≤10 x (x2 ≤ 100) ≡

(Numerical ¬ ∃≥11 x (x2 ≤ 100)
quantification:
At most n)

5.5.3 Substitution/Valuation-based Operators

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

t[x/t0 ] $\mathbf{t} (x2 + y)[x/1][y/5] =

(Term t with x [\mathbf{x}/ 12 + 5
replaced by t0 ) \mathbf{t}_0]$
α[x/t] $\alpha[\mathbf{x}/ (∀x (x = y)) [x/a] =
(Formula α with free \mathbf{t}]$ ∀x (x = y), since x is a
x replaced by t) bound variable.

5.5 Operators in Logic 37

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

σ
tσ $\mathbf{t}^ (f (a, b)) =
(Referent of t under {\sigma}$ father(Al, Bob)
valuation σ)
ασ $\alpha^{\sigma}$ In general,
(Truth value of α [P (a, b)]σ 6= [P (b, a)]σ .
under valuation σ)
σ(x/u) $\sigma (\mathbf{x} (∀x α)σ = > if and only
(Variant of valuation /u)$ if for all u in the uni-
σ with x verse U , ασ(x/u) = >.
reinterpreted as u)

5.6 Set-related Operators

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

A, Ac , A0 $\overline{A}$, For all x, x ∈ Ac if and

(Set complement: $A^{c}$, $A'$ only if x ∈
/ A.
Not A)
A∩B $A \cap B$ {2, 5, 7} ∩ {1, 3, 5} =
(Set intersection: {5}
A and B)
\
n \ ∞
\
Ai , Ai $\displaystyle \bigcap (0, 1/i) = (0, 1/1) ∩
i=m i∈I _{i=m}^n A_i$, i=1
(Generalized $\displaystyle \bigcap (0, 1/2) ∩ · · · = ∅
intersection) _{i \in I} A_i$
A∪B $A \cup B$ A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A ∨
(Set union: x ∈ B}
A or B)
[
n [ [
Ai , Ai $\displaystyle \bigcup [−i, i] =
i=m i∈I _{i=m}^n A_i$, i={3,5,8}
(Generalized $\displaystyle \bigcup [−3, 3] ∪ [−5, 5] ∪ [−8, 8]
union) _{i \in I} A_i$
AtB $A \sqcup B$ If A = {2, 5} and
(Disjoint union) B = {1, 2}, then
A t B = {(2, a),
(5, a), (1, b), (2, b)}.

38 5.6 Set-related Operators

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

G
n G G
n
Ai , Ai $\displaystyle \bigsqcup Ai =
i=m i∈I _{i=m}^n A_i$, i=1
(Generalized [
n
$\displaystyle \bigsqcup {(ai , i) | ai ∈ Ai }
disjoint union) _{i \in I} A_i$ i=1

A \ B, A − B $A \setminus B$, $A-B$ In general,

(Set difference: A − B 6= B − A.
A minus B)
A 4 B, A B $A \, \triangle \, B$, A4B =
(Symmetric $A \ominus B$ (A \ B) ∪ (B \ A)
difference)
A×B $A \times B$ A × B = {(x, y) |
(Cartesian x ∈ A ∧ y ∈ B}
product)
An $A^n$ Since R3 = R × R × R,
(nth Cartesian (0, e, i) ∈
/ R3 .
power of A)
Y
n Y
n
Ai $\displaystyle \prod {i} = {1}×· · ·×{n}
i=m _{i=m}^n A_i$ i=1
(Generalized = {(1, . . . , n)}
Cartesian
product)
P(A) $\mathcal{P}(A)$ P({a, b}) =
(Power set of A) {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}}
2A $2^A$ There exists a natural
(Set of functions bijection from 2A to
from A to a P(A).
two-element set)
BA $B^A$ For all finite sets A and
(Set of functions B, |B A | = |B||A| .
from A to B)
|A| $|A|$ While |{1, . . . , n}| = n
(Cardinality of set for all n ∈ N, |N| = ℵ0 .
A)
S(α) $S(\alpha)$ Since S(α) = α ∪ {α}
(Successor of and 0 = ∅,
ordinal number α) S(0) = 1 = {∅}.

5.6 Set-related Operators 39

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

κ+ $\kappa^+$ Since ℵ+
α = ℵα+1 ,


+ +
(Successor of ℵ2 = ℵ1 = ℵ0 .
+
cardinal number
κ)
‫(ג‬κ) $\gimel$ For regular cardinals κ,
(Gimel function) ‫(ג‬κ) = 2κ > κ.

5.7 Operators in Algebra

5.7.1 Vector-related Operators

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

−v $-\mathbf{v}$ By definition, v + (−v)

(Additive inverse = (−v) + v = 0.
for vector)
kv $k\mathbf{v}$ (−1)v = −v, while
(Scalar 3(5v) = (3 · 5)v.
multiplication for
vector)
u+v $\mathbf{u}+ In general, (u + v) + w
(Vector sum) \mathbf{v}$ = u + (v + w).
u−v $\mathbf{u}- (5, 7, 1) − (3, 2, 5) =
(Vector difference) \mathbf{v}$ (2, 5, −4)
u·v $\mathbf{u} \cdot (u1 , u2 , u3 ) · (v1 , v2 , v3 )
(Dot product) \mathbf{v}$ = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3
u×v $\mathbf{u} \times If u ∦ v, then u × v ⊥ u
(Cross product) \mathbf{v}$ and u × v ⊥ v.
u∧v $\mathbf{u} \wedge |u ∧ v| equals the area
(Wedge product) \mathbf{v}$ of parallelogram
spanned by u and v.
hu, vi $\langle \mathbf{u}, In an Euclidean space,
(Inner product) \mathbf{v} \rangle$ hu, vi = u · v.

40 5.7 Operators in Algebra

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

u⊗v $\mathbf{u} \otimes Ñ 2) ⊗ (3, 4)é=

(1,
(Outer product) \mathbf{v}$
1·3 1·4
2·3 2·4
√
kvk $\| \mathbf{v} \|$ k(3,
√ 4)k = 32 + 42 =
(Vector norm) 25 = 5
kvkp $\| \mathbf{v} \|_p$ kvk3 =
p
(Vector p-norm) 3
|v1 |3 + · · · + |vn |3
v̂ $\hat{v}$ Since v̂ = v/kvk,
(Unit vector of v) kv̂k = 1 for all v ∈ V .
projv u $\mathrm{proj} proj(0,1) (5, 4) equals
(Projection vector _{\mathbf{v}} (0, 4), the projection of
of u onto v) \mathbf{u}$ (5, 4) onto the y-axis.
oprojv u $\mathrm{oproj} In general, oprojv u ⊥
(Orthogonal _{\mathbf{v}} projv u and projv u +
projection of u \mathbf{u}$ oprojv u = u.
onto v)

5.7.2 Matrix-related Operators

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

−A $-A$ B + (−B) =
(Additive inverse (−B) + B = O
for matrix)
kA $kA$ (−1)A = −A, and
(Scalar k(A + B) = kA + kB
multiplication for for all scalars k.
matrix)
Ñ é Ñ é Ñ é
1 3 4
A+B $A+B$ + =
(Matrix sum) 2 4 6
A−B $A-B$ In general,
(Matrix difference) A − B 6= B − A.

5.7 Operators in Algebra 41

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

AB $AB$ By definition, (AB)ij =

(Matrix product) (ith row ofA) ·
(jth column ofB).
A ◦ B, A B $A \circ B$, Since (A ◦ B)ij =
(Hadamard $A \odot B$ (Aij )(Bij ),
entrywise product) A ◦ B = B ◦ A.
Ñ é
1 2
A⊗B $A \otimes B$ ⊗B =
(Kronecker 3 4
Ñ é
product)
1B 2B
3B 4B
Ñ éT Ñ é
3 9 3 8
AT $A^{\mathrm{T}}$ =
(Matrix transpose) 8 1 9 1
AH , A∗ $A^{\mathrm{H}}$, For a complex-valued


(Conjugate $A^*$ matrix A, AH ij =
transpose) AT
ij = Aji .

A−1 $A^{-1}$ Given two invertible

(Multiplicative matrices A and B,
inverse of matrix A) (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 .
tr(A) $\operatorname{tr} For an n × n matrix A,
(Trace of matrix A) (A)$ tr(A) = A11 +· · ·+Ann .
x y 1 4
det(A), |A|, $\det(A)$, $|A|$, =1·2−4·3
w z $\begin{vmatrix} x & 3 2
(Determinant of y \\ w & z = 2 − 12 = −10
matrix) \end{vmatrix}$
kAk $\| A \|$ Similar to vector norm,
(Matrix norm) kA + Bk ≤ kAk + kBk.
»X
kAkp $\| A \|_p$ kAk2 = |Aij |2 ,
(Matrix p-norm) where i runs from 1 to
m and j from 1 to n.
adj(A) $\mathrm{adj}(A)$ adj(A) A = A adj(A) =
(Adjugate of matrix det(A) I
A)

42 5.7 Operators in Algebra

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

rank(A) $\mathrm{rank}(A)$ rank 53 01 corresponds
(Rank of matrix A) to the dimension of
span{(5, 0), (3, 1)}.
Ñ é
2 5 3 8
Rm×n $R^{m \times n}$ ∈ R2×4
(Ring of m × n 1 4 2 7
matrices with
entries from R)
Ä ä
10
GLn (R) $GL_n(R)$ 20
∈
/ GL2 (R), since
(General linear it’s not invertible.
group over ring R)

5.7.3 Vector-space-related Operators

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

ker(f ) $\ker (f)$ For all v ∈ dom(f ),

(Kernel of linear v ∈ ker(f ) if and only
map f ) if f (v) = 0.
span(S) $\mathrm{span} span({i, j}) =
(Span of set of (S)$ {xi + yj | x, y ∈ R} =
vectors S) R2
dim(V ) $\dim(V)$ dim(R3 ) = 3, with
(Dimension of {i, j, k} being its
vector space V ) standard basis.
W1 + W2 $W_1 + W_2$ W1 + W2 = {w1 + w2 |
(Sum of subspaces w1 ∈ W1 ∧ w2 ∈ W2 }
W1 and W2 )
W1 ⊕ W2 $W_1 \oplus W_2$ If W1 + W2 = V and
(Direct sum of W1 ∩ W2 = {0}, then
subspaces W1 and W1 ⊕ W2 = V .
W2 )
V1 × V2 $V_1 \times V_2$ If v1 ∈ V1 and v2 ∈ V2 ,
(Direct product of then (v1 , v2 ) ∈ V1 × V2 .
vector spaces V1 and
V2 )

5.7 Operators in Algebra 43

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

V1 ⊗ V2 $V_1 \otimes V_2$ Since V1 ⊗ V2 is based

(Tensor product of on outer product ⊗,
vector spaces V1 and dim(V1 ⊗V2 ) = dim(V1 )
V2 ) × dim(V2 ).
V /W $V \slash W$ V /W consists of the
(Quotient space of equivalent classes
.
V over subspace W ) [v] = {v+w | w ∈ W }.
W⊥ $W^{bot}$ v ∈ W ⊥ if and only if v
(Orthogonal is orthogonal to every
complement of vector in W .
subspace W )
V∗ $V^*$ Since V ∗ consists of all
(Dual space of the linear forms on V ,
vector space V ) dim(V ∗ ) = dim(V ).
Br (p) $B_r(p)$ If O = (0, 0, 0), then
(Open ball of radius (0.5, 0.8, 0.4) ∈
/ B1 (O).
r centered at p)
L(V1 , V2 ) $L(V_1, V_2)$ If f ∈ L(V1 , V2 ), then
(Set of linear maps f (k1 v1 + k2 v2 ) =
from V1 to V2 ) k1 f (v1 ) + k2 f (v2 ).

5.7.4 Abstract-algebra-related Operators

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

[a] $[a]$ If ≡ is the congruence

(Equivalence class of relation in mod 5, then
element a) [1] = {x ∈ Z | x ≡ 1}.
deg(p(x)) $\deg (p(x))$ deg(2x4 + 3x) = 4,
(Degree of which makes 2x4 + 3x
polynomial p(x)) a quartic polynomial.
hSi $\langle S \rangle$ If h{a, b}i = G, then
(Subgroup {a, b} is called a
generated by set S) generator of group G.

44 5.7 Operators in Algebra

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

H1 ⊕ H2 $H_1 \oplus H_2$ G = H1 ⊕ H2 if

(Direct sum of H1 ∩ H2 = {e} and
subgroups H1 and hH1 , H2 i = G.
H2 )
G1 × G2 $G_1 \times G_2$ G1 × G2 is a ‘Cartesian
(Direct product of product group’ which
groups G1 and G2 ) combines G1 and G2 .
ST $ST$ If S, T ⊆ G, then ST =
(Product of group {st | s ∈ S ∧ t ∈ T }.
subsets S and T )
N ⋊H $N \rtimes H$ G = N ⋊ H, if
(Semi-direct G = N H and
product of N ∩ H = {e}.
subgroups N and H)
G1 o G2 $G_1 \wr G_2$ The generalized
(Wreath product of symmetric group
groups G1 and G2 ) Zm o Sn is the wreath
product of Zm and Sn .
G/N $G \slash N$ The group G/N
(Quotient group of consists of all the
G over subgroup N ) cosets of the form gN .
R/I $R \slash I$ Z/2Z = {0 + 2Z,
(Quotient ring of 1 + 2Z} = {E, O}
ring R over ideal I)
ker(f ) $\ker (f)$ Since ker(f ) = f −1 {e},
(Kernel of x1 , x2 ∈ ker(f ) implies
homomorphism f ) that x1 ◦ x2 ∈ ker(f ).
R× $R^{\times}$ Z× = {−1, 1}, since no
(Group of units of other integer has
ring R) multiplicative inverse.
R[x] $R[x]$ −3x3 + x2 + 2x + 1 ∈
(Polynomial ring Z[x], while
with coefficients 0.3x5 −πx3 +5x ∈ R[x].
from ring R)
S $\overline{S}$ By definition, S
(Topological closure contains S along with
of set S) all its limit points.

5.7 Operators in Algebra 45

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

S ◦ , int(S) $S^{\circ}$, Under standard metric,

(Interior of set S) $\mathrm{int}(S)$ int([0, 1]) = (0, 1).
ext(S) $\mathrm{ext}(S)$ By definition,
(Exterior of set S) ext(S) = int(S c ).
∂S, bd(S) $\partial S$, ∂([−1, 1]) = ∂([−1, 1]c )
(Boundary of set S) $\mathrm{bd}(S)$ = {−1, 1}
F $\overline{F}$ By fundamental
(Algebraic closure theorem of algebra,
of field F ) R = C.

5.8 Operators in Probability and Statistics

5.8.1 Combinatorial Operators

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

n! $n!$ 0! = 1 and
(Factorial of n) n! = n×(n−1)×· · ·×1.
n!! $n!!$ 8!! = 8 · 6 · 4 · 2 and
(Double factorial of 7!! = 7 × 5 × 3 × 1.
n)
!n $!n$ Since {a, b, c} has 2
(Derangements of n permutations where all
objects) letter positions are
changed, !3 = 2.
nP r $nPr$ 9P 3 = 9 · 8 · 7 =
(Permutation: 9!/6! = 9!/(9 − 3)!
n permute r)
Ç å Ç å
n 8 8!
nCr, $nCr$, $\displaystyle = = 56
r \binom{n}{r}$ 3 3!(8 − 3)!
(Combination:
n choose r)

46 5.8 Operators in Probability and Statistics

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols
Ç å Ç å
n 8 8!
$\displaystyle \binom =
r1 , . . . , rk {n}{r_1, \ldots, r_k}$ 4, 3, 1 4! 3! 1!
(Multinomial = 280
coefficient)
ÇÇ åå
n
$\displaystyle \left(\! From


a 5-element set,
r \!\binom{n}{r}\!\! 5
3-element multi-
3
(Multiset \right)$ sets can be taken.
coefficient:
n multichoose r)

5.8.2 Probability-related Operators

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

P (A), Pr(A) $P(A)$, Let A be the event of

(Probability of $\mathrm{Pr}(A)$ tossing a six, then
event A) P (A) = 1/6.
P (A0 ), P (Ac ) $P(A')$, $P(A^c)$ For all events E,
(Complementary P (E) + P (E 0 ) = 1.
probability of A)
P (A ∪ B) $P(A \cup B)$ P (A ∪ B) = P (A or B)
(Disjunctive ≥ max (P (A), P (B))
probability: A or B)
P (A ∩ B) $P(A \cap B)$ Events A and B are
(Joint probability: mutually exclusive
A and B) when P (A ∩ B) = 0.
P (A ∩ B)
P (A | B) $P(A \, | \, B)$ P (A | B) =
(Conditional P (B)
probability:
A given B)
E[X] $E[X]$ If X is discrete,
X then
(Expected value of E[X] = xP (X = x).
random variable X)
E[X | Y ] $E[X \, | \, Y]$ E[X | Y = 1] denotes
(Conditional the expected value of
expected value) X, given that Y = 1.

5.8 Operators in Probability and Statistics 47

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

V (X), Var(X) $V(X)$, V (X) =

(Variance of $\mathrm{Var}(X)$ E[(X − E(X))2 ] =
random variable X) E[X 2 ] − E[X]2 .
V (X | Y ), $V(X \, | \, Y)$,  |Y ] =
V [X 
Var(X | Y ) $\mathrm{Var}(X \, E (X − E[X | Y ])2 | Y
(Conditional | \, Y)$
variance)
p
σ(X), Std(X) $\sigma(X)$, Since σ(X) = V (X),
(Standard deviation $\mathrm{Std}(X)$ σ(X + c) = σ(X).
of X)
Skew[X] $\mathrm{Skew}[X]$ Skew[X]
ñÅ = ô
ã
(Moment X −µ 3
coefficient of E
σ
skewness of X)
Kurt[X] $\mathrm{Kurt}[X]$ Kurt[X]
ñÅ =
ãô
(Kurtosis of random X −µ 4
variable X) E
σ
µn (X) $\mu_n (X)$ Since µn (X) =
(nth central E[(X − E[X])n ],
moment of X) µ2 (X) = V (X).
µ̃n (X) $\tilde{\mu}_n (X)$ µ̃nïÅ
(X) = ã ò
(nth standardized X −µ n
moment of X) E
σ

σ(X, Y ), Cov(X, Y ) $\sigma(X, Y)$, Cov(X, Y ) =

(Covariance of X $\mathrm{Cov} E[(X − E[X])
and Y ) (X, Y)$ (Y − E[Y ])]
Cov(X, Y )
ρ(X, Y ), $\rho (X, Y)$, ρ(X, Y ) =
Corr(X, Y ) $\mathrm{Corr} σ(X) σ(Y )
(Correlation of X (X, Y)$
and Y )

5.8.3 Probability-related Functions

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

48 5.8 Operators in Probability and Statistics

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

fX (x) $f_X (x)$ P

Z (Y ≥ 2) =
∞
(Probability fY (y) dy
mass/density 2
function of X)
RX $R_X$ RX = {x ∈ R |
(Support of random fX (x) > 0}
variable X)
FX (x) $F_X(x)$ Since FX (x) =
(Cumulative P (X ≤ x), P (a < X
distribution < b) = FX (b) − FX (a).
function (cdf) of X)
F (x), S(x) $\overline{F}(x)$, S(t) = P (T > t) =
(Survival function $S(x)$ 1 − F (t)
of X)
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) $f(x_1, \ldots, x_n)$ f (1, 2) =
(Joint probability P (X = 1, Y = 2)
function)
F (x1 , . . . , xn ) $F(x_1, \ldots, x_n)$ F (x, y) =
(Joint cumulative P (X ≤ x, Y ≤ y)
distribution
function)
MX (t) $M_X(t)$ MX (t) = E[etX ] =
Z ∞
(Moment-
etx fX (x) dx
generating function −∞
(mgf) of X)
φX (t) $\varphi_X(t)$ Similar to mgf,
(Characteristic φX (t) = E[eitX ].
function of X)


KX (t) $K_X(t)$ KX (t) = ln E[etX ] ,
(Cumulant- which means that
generating function KaX (t) = KX (at).
of X)
L(θ | x) $\mathcal{L}(\theta If X ∼ Geo(p), then
(Likelihood \mid x)$ L(θ | X = 3) =
function of θ under P (X = 3 | p = θ).
outcome x)

5.8 Operators in Probability and Statistics 49

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

5.8.4 Discrete Probability Distributions

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

U {a, b} $U\{a, b\}$ Let X be the number

(Discrete uniform on a die following its
distribution) toss, then X ∼ U {1, 6}.
Ber(p) $\mathrm{Ber}(p)$ If X ∼ Ber(0.4), then
(Bernoulli P (X = 1) = 0.4 and
distribution) P (X = 0) = 0.6.
Geo(p) $\mathrm{Geo}(p)$ If Y ∼ Geo(1/5), then
(Geometric fY (y) = (4/5)y−1 (1/5)
distribution) for all y ∈ N.
Bin(n, p) $\mathrm{Bin}(n, p)$ Let X be the number of
(Binomial heads in 10 coin tosses,
distribution) then X ∼ Bin(10, 0.5).
NB(r, p) $\mathrm{NB}(r, p)$ If Y is the number of
(Negative die rolls needed to get
binomial the third six, then
distribution) Y ∼ NB(3, 1/6).
Poisson(λ) $\mathrm{Poisson} If X ∼ Poisson(5), then
(Poisson (\lambda)$ e−5 5x
distribution) P (X = x) = .
x!
Hyper(N, K, n) $\mathrm{Hyper} If X ∼ Hyper(N, K, n),
(Hypergeometric (N, K, n)$ then
î
P (X
=ó k) =

distribution) K N −K N
k n−k n .

5.8.5 Continuous Probability Distributions and As-

sociated Functions
Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

50 5.8 Operators in Probability and Statistics

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

U (a, b) $U(a,b)$ If X ∼ U (3, 7), then

(Continuous f (x) = 1/4 for x ∈
uniform [3, 7] and 0 elsewhere.
distribution)
Exp(λ) $\mathrm{Exp} If Y ∼ Exp(5), then
(Exponential (\lambda)$ fY (y) = 5e−5y for all
distribution) y ≥ 0.

N (µ, σ 2 ) $N(\mu, \sigma^2)$ If X ∼ N (3, 52 ), then

(Normal X −3
distribution) ∼ Z.
5
Z $Z$ As normal distribution,
(Standard normal E(Z) = 0 and
distribution) V (Z) = 1.
φ(x) $\varphi(x)$ By definition,
(Pdf of 1 x2
φ(x) = √ e− 2 .
Z-distribution) 2π
Φ(x) $\Phi(x)$ Φ(z) = P (Z ≤ z) =
Z z
(Cdf of
Z-distribution) φ(x) dx
−∞

zα $z_{\alpha}$ z0.05 ≈ 1.645, since

(Positive z-score P (Z ≤ 1.645) = 0.95.
with significance
level α)
Lognormal(µ, σ 2 ) $\mathrm{Lognormal} If Y ∼ Lognormal
(Lognormal (\mu, \sigma^2)$ (µ, σ 2 ), then
distribution) ln Y ∼ N (µ, σ 2 ).

Cauchy(x0 , γ) $\mathrm{Cauchy} If X ∼ Cauchy(0, 1),

(Cauchy (x_0, \gamma)$ 1
then f (x) = .
distribution) π(x2 + 1)
Beta(α, β) $\mathrm{Beta} If X ∼ Beta(α, β), then
(Beta distribution) (\alpha, \beta)$ f (x) ∝ xα−1 (1 − x)β−1 .

B(x, y) $\mathrm{B}(x, y)$ B(x, y) =

Z 1
(Beta function)
tx−1 (1 − t)y−1 dt
0

5.8 Operators in Probability and Statistics 51

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

Gamma(α, β) $\mathrm{Gamma} As a special case,

(Gamma (\alpha, \beta)$ Gamma(1, λ) =
distribution) Exp(λ).
Γ(x) $\Gamma(x)$ Γ(x) =
Z ∞
(Gamma function)
tx−1 e−t dt
0

X −µ
T $T$ √ = T (with n − 1
(T-distribution) S/ n
degree of freedom)
tα,ν $t_{\alpha, \nu}$ While t0.05,30 ≈ 1.697,
(Positive t-score t0.05,1000 ≈ 1.645 ≈
with significance z0.05 .
level α and degree
of freedom ν)
χ2 (ν) $\chi^2 (\nu)$ If Zi ∼ Z and are
(Chi-square independent, then
distribution with Z12 + · · · + Zk2 = χ2 (k).
ν degree of
freedom)
χ2α,ν $\chi^2_{\alpha, χ20.05,10 ≈ 18.31, while
(Critical \nu}$ the actual test statistics
chi-square score) is 30.56.
F (ν1 , ν2 ) $F(\nu_1, \nu_2)$ If X ∼ T (ν), then
(F-distribution X 2 ∼ F (1, ν).
with ν1 and ν2
degrees of
freedom)
Fα,ν1 ,ν2 $F_{\alpha, \nu_1, While F0.05,20,20 ≈ 2.12,
(Critical F-score) \nu_2}$ F0.025,20,20 ≈ 2.46.

5.8.6 Statistical Operators

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

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Xi , xi $X_i$, $x_i$ Although x1 = 25,

(I-th value of data x3 = 0.6 and x5 = 0.
set)
X1 + · · · + Xn
X $\overline{X}$ X=
(Sample mean) n

X‹ $\widetilde{X}$ Since X‹ is the ”middle”

(Median) number, X ≤ X ‹ for
left-skewed data.
Qi $Q_i$ Q3 is also the 75th
(I-th quartile) (empirical) percentile.
Pi $P_i$ P95 is the number such
(I-th percentile) that P (X ≤ P95 ) =
0.95.
si $s_i$ Since s1 = 15 and s2 =
(Standard deviation 7, s1 /s2 = 15/7 > 2.
of ith sample)
σi $\sigma_i$ If σ1 = σ2 , then
(Standard deviation σ12 = σ22 and s21 /s22 ∼
of ith population) F (n1 − 1, n2 − 1).
P
2 2 (X − X)2
s $s^2$ s =
(Sample variance) n−1

df1 s21 + df2 s22

s2p $s^2_p$ s2p = ,
df1 + df2
(Sample pooled
variance) where df1 = n − 1 and
df2 = n − 2.
P
2 2 (X − µ)2
σ $\sigma^2$ σ =
(Population n
variance)
r 2 , R2 $r^2$, $R^2$ In regression,
(Coefficient of SSregression
determination) R2 = .
SStotal
SStreatment
η2 $\eta^2$ η2 =
(Eta-squared) SStotal

5.8 Operators in Probability and Statistics 53

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

ŷ $\hat{y}$ In simple linear

(Predicted average regression,
value in regression) ŷ0 = a + bx0 .
ε̂ $\hat{\varepsilon}$ By definition,
(Residual in ε̂i = yi − ŷi .
regression)
θ̂ $\hat{\theta}$ If E[θ̂] = θ, then θ̂ is an
(Estimator of unbiased estimator of
parameter θ) θ.
Bias(θ̂, θ) $\mathrm{Bias} Bias(θ̂, θ) = E[θ̂] − θ
(Bias of estimator θ̂) (\hat{\theta}, \theta)$
X(k) $X_{(k)}$ X(n) =
(K-th order max{X1 , . . . , Xn }
statistics)

5.9 Operators in Calculus

5.9.1 Operators Related to Sequence, Series and
Limit
Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

an , bn , cn $a_n$, $b_n$, a0 = 5, an = 4an−1 + 3

(Sequences) $c_n$ for all n ∈ N.
X
n X
k
ai $\displaystyle \sum bn = b1 + · · · + bk
i=m _{i=m}^n a_i$ n=1
(Series)

kx − yk $\| \mathbf{x}- If kx − x0 k < 1, then

(Euclidean \mathbf{y} \|$ |f (x) − f (x0 )| < 2.
distance)
d(x, y) $d(x, y)$ For discrete metric,
(Distance d(x, y) = 0 if x = y and
function) d(x, y) = 1 otherwise.

54 5.9 Operators in Calculus

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n+3 1
lim a
n→∞ n
$\displaystyle \lim_ lim
n→∞
= >0
{n \to \infty} a_n$ 2n 2
(Limit of
sequence)
X
n ∞
X ∞
X 1 1 1
lim ai , ai $\displaystyle \lim_ n
= + + ···
n→∞
i=m i=m {n \to \infty} \sum_ n=0 2 20 21
(Limit of series) {i=m}^n a_i$, $\sum_
{i=m}^{\infty} a_i$
π sin x π
lim f (x)
x→a
$\displaystyle \lim_ lim = lim sin x
{x \to a} f(x)$
x→3 2 2 x→3
(Limit of function
f at point a)
2
lim f (x), $\displaystyle \lim_ lim+ = +∞,
x↓a
{x \, \downarrow \, a} x→3 x − 3
lim f (x) 2
x→a+ f(x)$, $\displaystyle while lim = 2.
(Right-sided limit x→4 x − 3
\lim_{x \to a^+} f(x)$
of f at a)
√ √
lim f (x), $\displaystyle \lim_ lim− −x = lim+ x
x↑a x→0 x→0
{x \, \uparrow \, a}
lim− f (x) =0
x→a f(x)$, $\displaystyle
(Left-sided limit of \lim_{x \to a^-} f(x)$
f at a)
min(A) $\min(A)$ min(an ) + min(bn ) ≤
(Minimum of set min(an + bn )
A)
max(A) $\max(A)$ If f is continuous on
(Maximum of set [a, b], then max(f (x))
A) exists on that interval.
ß ™
1 1
inf(A) $\inf(A)$ If B = , ,... ,
(Infimum of set A) 1 2
then inf(B) = 0.
sup(A) $\sup(A)$ sup( [−3, 5) ) = 5, since
(Supremum of set 5 is the smallest of all
A) its upper bounds.
2
lim inf an
n→∞
$\displaystyle \liminf_ lim inf
n→∞ n + 1
= n→∞
lim 0
(Limit inferior of {n \to \infty} a_n$
sequence an )

5.9 Operators in Calculus 55

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

lim sup an $\displaystyle \limsup_ By definition, lim sup bn

n→∞
{n \to \infty} a_n$ Å ã
n→∞
(Limit superior of
sequence an ) lim sup bm .
= n→∞
m≥n

5.9.2 Derivative-based Operators

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

f 0 , f 00 , f 000 , f (n) $f'$, $f''$, $f'''$, (sin x)000 = (cos x)00 =

(Derivatives in $f^{(n)}$ (− sin x)0 = − cos x
Lagrange’s
notation)
d df d df dg
f, , $\displaystyle \frac{d} (f + g) = +
dx dx {dx} f$, $\displaystyle dx dx dx
(Derivative in \frac{df}{dx}$
Leibniz’s notation)
Å ã
dn dn f d2 f d df
f, , $\displaystyle \frac{d^n} 2
=
dx dx {dx} f$, $\displaystyle dx dx dx
(Nth derivative in \frac{d^n f}{dx}$
Leibniz’s notation)
n d2 y d dy
ẏ, ÿ, ẏ $\dot{y}$, $\ddot{y}$, ÿ = 2 =
(Derivatives in $\overset{n}{\dot{y}}$ dt dt dt
Newton’s
notation)
D(f ), D2 (f ), $D(f)$, $D^2(f)$, D2 (f ) = D(D(f ))
Dn (f ) $D^{n}(f)$
(Derivatives in
Euler’s notation)
fx $f_x$ If f (x, y) = x2 y 3 ,
(Partial derivative then fx (x, y) = 2xy 3
in Lagrange’s and fy (x, y) = 3x2 y 2 .
notation)

56 5.9 Operators in Calculus

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∂ ∂f
f, $\dfrac{\partial}{\partial If f has continuous
∂x ∂x x} f$, $\dfrac{\partial f} second partial
(Partial derivative {\partial x}$ derivatives, then
in Leibniz’s ∂ ∂f ∂ ∂f
notation) = .
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
∂n ∂ nf ∂ 2f ∂ ∂f
f, $\dfrac{\partial^n} = = fyy
∂xn ∂xn {\partial x^n} f$, $\dfrac ∂y 2 ∂y ∂y
(Nth partial {\partial^n f}
derivative in {\partial x^n}$
Leibniz’s notation)
∂ ∂f
∂x f $\partial_{x} f$ ∂xy f = = fxy
(Partial derivative ∂y ∂x
in Euler’s
notation)
∇v f $\nabla_{\mathbf{v}} f$ ∇v f (x) =
(Directional f (x + hv) − f (x)
derivative of f lim
along direction v)
h→0 h

∇f , grad f $\nabla f$, $\mathrm By definition, ∇f =

(Gradient of {grad}\,f$ Å ã
∂f ∂f
function f ) ,..., .
∂x1 ∂xn
X
n ∂ 2f
∆f $\Delta f$ ∆f = 2
(Laplacian of i=1 ∂xi
function f )
∇ · F, div F $\nabla \cdot \mathbf{F} ∇ · F =
(Divergence of $, $\mathrm{div}\, ∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz
vector field F) \mathbf{F}$ + +
∂x ∂y ∂z

∇ × F, curl F $\nabla \times ∇×F=

(Curl of vector \mathbf{F}$, Å ã
∂ ∂ ∂
field F) $\mathrm{curl} \, , , ×
∂x ∂y ∂z
\mathbf{F}$
(Fx , Fy , Fz )

5.9.3 Integral-based Operators

5.9 Operators in Calculus 57

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)
Z b Z 1
1 π
f (x) dx $\displaystyle \int_a^ dx =
a
b f(x) \, dx$ 0 1 + x2 4
(Definite integral
of f from a to b)
Z Z
f (x) dx $\displaystyle \int f(x) ln x dx = x ln x − x
(Indefinite \, dx$ +C
integral of f )
Z x
(Jf )(x) $(Jf)(x)$ (Jf )(x) = f (t) dt
0
(Integration
operator)
Z Z
f (r) ds $\displaystyle \int_C f (r) ds =
C C
(Line integral of f f(\mathbf{r}) \, ds$ Z b
along curve C) f (r(t)) |r0 (t)| dt
a
Z Z
f (z) dz, $\displaystyle \int_C f (z) dz =
IC f(z) \, dz$, $\displaystyle γ
Z b
f (z) dz \oint_C f(z) \, dz$ f (γ(t)) γ 0 (t) dt
C
a
(Contour integral
of f along C)
Z Z
F(r) · dr $\displaystyle \int_C F(r) · dr =
C C
(Line integral of \mathbf{F}(\mathbf{r}) Z b
vector field F \cdot d\mathbf{r}$ F(r(t)) · r0 (t) dt
a
along C)
ZZ ZZ
f dA $\displaystyle \iint_D f (x, y) dA
D [0,1]×[0,1]
(Area integral of f \, dA$ Z 1Z 1
f over domain D) = f (x, y) dx dy
0 0
ZZ ZZ
f (r) dS $\displaystyle \iint_D f (r) dS =
D D
(Surface integral f(\mathbf{r}) \, dS$ Z bZ d
∂r ∂r
of f over domain f (r(s, t)) ×
a c ∂s ∂t
D) ds dt

58 5.9 Operators in Calculus

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ZZZ ZZZ
f dV $\displaystyle \iiint_D 1 dV =
D k(x,y,z)k≤R
(Volume integral f \, dV$
4 3
of f over domain πR
3
D)

6 Relational Symbols
6.1 Equality-based Relational Symbols
Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

x=y $x = y$ (3x + 1)2 = 9x2 + 3x +

(x equals y) 3x + 1 = 9x2 + 6x + 1
x 6= y $x \ne y$ For all x, y ∈ R, x 6= y
(x is not equal to implies x3 6= y 3 .
y)
x≈y $x \approx y$ π ≈ 3.1416, though the
(x approximately cruder approximation
equals y) 22/7 can also be used.
x ∼ y, xRy $x \sim y$, $xRy$ Relation R is defined
(x is related to y) such that xRy if and
only if |x| = |y|.
. df .
x = y, x = y, $x \doteq y$, $x R+ = {x ∈ R | x > 0},
.
x := y \overset{df}{=} y$, R− = {x ∈ R | x < 0}.
(x is defined as y) $x := y$
x≡y $x \equiv y$ In mod 33, 215 ≡ 323 ≡
(x is equivalent to (−1)3 = −1.
y)
f (x) ∝ g(x) $f(x) \propto g(x)$ Since V = (4/3)πr3 ,
(f is directly V ∝ r3 .
proportional to g)

6.2 Comparison-based Relational Symbols

6.2 Comparison-based Relational Symbols 59

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

x<y $x < y$ If x 6= 2kπ, then

(x is less than y) cos x < 1.
x>y $x > y$ π > e√> π/2, while
(x is greater than φ > 2 > 1.4.
y)
x≤y $x \le y$ For x = 3 and onward,
(x is less than or x3 ≤ 3x .
equal to y)
x≥y $x \ge y$ For all x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0
(x is greater than (with x2 > 0 if x 6= 0).
or equal to y)
xy $x \ll y$ 12 + · · · + 52 = 1 + 4 +
(x is much less 9 + 16 + 25 = 55  100
than y)
4
xy $x \gg y$ 2(3 ) = 281 = 5129 
(x is much greater 1000000
than y)
x≺y $x \prec y$ Given a strict partial
(x precedes y) order ≺, if x ≺ y and
y ≺ z, then x ≺ z.
xy $x \preceq y$ (u1 , u2 )  (v1 , v2 ) if
(x precedes or and only if u1 ≤ v1 and
equals y) u2 ≤ v2 .
xy $x \succ y$ By definition, x  y if
(x succeeds y) and only if y ≺ x.
xy $x \succeq y$ f (x)  g(x) if and only
(x succeeds or if f (x) ≥ g(x) for all
equals y) x ∈ R.

6.3 Number-related Relational Symbols

60 6.3 Number-related Relational Symbols

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

Symbols LaTeX Code Example

(Explanation)

m|n $m \mid n$ 101 | 1111, since

(Integer m divides 1111 = 101 × 11.
integer n)
m∤n $m \nmid n$ 34 ∤ 90. In fact,
(m does not 90 = 34 × 2 + 22.
divide n)
m⊥n $m \perp n$ Since gcd(31, 97) = 1,
(m is coprime to 31 ⊥ 97.
n)

6.4 Relational Symbols in Geometry

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

ℓ1 k ℓ2 $\ell_1 \parallel P Q k RS, with |P Q|

(Parallel \ell_2$ = 5 and |RS| = 3.
lines/planes)
←→ ← →
ℓ1 ∦ ℓ2 $\ell_1 \nparallel If P Q ∦ RS, then they
(Non-parallel \ell_2$ must intersect at a
lines/planes) point A.
−→ −−→
ℓ1 ⊥ ℓ2 $\ell_1 \perp \ell_2$ If AB ⊥ BC, then
(Perpendicular 4ABC is a right
lines/planes) triangle.
ℓ1 6⊥ ℓ2 $\ell_1 \not\perp If AB 6⊥ CD, then
(Non- \ell_2$ □ABCD is not a
perpendicular rectangle.
lines/planes)
F ∼ F0 $F \sim F'$ Since 4ABC ∼
(Similar figures) 4DEF , ∡A = ∡D.
F ≁ F0 $F \nsim F'$ Since F is a regular
(Non-similar pentagon and F 0 is not,
figures) F ≁ F 0.

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 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

F ∼= F0 $F \cong F'$ If □ABCD ∼= □P QRS,

(Congruent then AB ∼
= P Q and
figures) ∡C = ∡R.
F ≇ F0 $F \ncong F'$ If □ABCD ≁
(Non-congruent □A0 B 0 C 0 D0 , then
figures) □ABCD ≇
□A0 B 0 C 0 D0 .

6.5 Relational Symbols in Logic

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

t1 = t2 $\mathbf{t}_1 = ‘¬(1 = s(1))’ is a

(Term t1 equals \mathbf{t}_2$ formula in the language
term t2 ) of first-order arithmetic.
P =⇒ Q $P \implies Q$ x + 1 is even =⇒
(Proposition P 2 divides x + 1
implies
proposition Q)
√
P ⇐= Q $P \impliedby Q$ x = ± 3 ⇐=
(P is implied by Q) 3x2 + 2 = 11
P ⇐⇒ Q, $P \iff Q$, For all x, y ∈ R,
P ⇔ Q, P ≡ Q $P \Leftrightarrow Q$, x 6= y ⇐⇒
(P is logically $P \equiv Q$ (x − y)2 > 0.
equivalent to Q)
σ |= α $\sigma \models If ‘∀x (x = b)’ is true
(Valuation σ \alpha$ under σ, then
satisfies formula α) σ |= ∀x (x = b).
Φ |= ϕ $\Phi \models \phi$ Φ |= ϕ precisely if all
(Set of sentences Φ valuations satisfying Φ
entails sentence ϕ) satisfy ϕ.
Φ 6|= ϕ $\Phi \not\models {P → Q, Q → R} 6|= R,
(Φ does not entail \phi$ since it’s possible for P ,
ϕ) Q, R to be jointly false.

62 6.5 Relational Symbols in Logic

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|= ϕ $\models \phi$ For all variables x,

(Sentence ϕ is a |= ∀x (x = x).
tautology)
Φ`ϕ $\Phi \vdash \phi$ {∀x P (x, a), a = b} `
(Set of sentences Φ ∃x P (x, b)
proves sentence ϕ)
Φ⊬ϕ $\Phi \nvdash \phi$ ∃x R(x) ⊬ R(a)
(Φ does not prove (in a multi-object
ϕ) universe of discourse)
`ϕ $\vdash \phi$ ` ∀x∀y (x = y →
(ϕ is a theorem) y = x)
P ∴Q $P \therefore Q$ i ∈ C and i2 = −1
(P , therefore Q) ∴ ∃z ∈ C (z 2 = −1)
P ∵Q $P \because Q$ x = π/2 + 2πk ∵
(P , because Q) sin x = 1 and cos x = 0

6.6 Set-related Relational Symbols

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

a∈A $a \in A$ 6 ∈ N, −11 ∈ Z,

(Element a is a 3/7 ∈ Q and π ∈ R.
member of set A)
a∈ /A $a \notin A$ While 11/45 + 5.3 ∈ Q,
(a is not a π∈
/ Q.
member of A)
A3a $A \ni a$ By definition,
(Set A includes A 3 a ⇐⇒ a ∈ A.
element a)
A 63 a $A \not\ni a$ Although {a} 3 a,
(A does not {a} 63 {a}.
include a)

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 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

A⊆B $A \subseteq B$ Since 32 , e + 1, π/2 ∈ R,

(Set A is a subset {32 , e + 1, π/2} ⊆ R.
of set B)
A=B $A = B$ If A = B, then A ⊆ B
(Set A is equal to and B ⊆ A.
set B)
A⊂B $A \subset B$ A ⊂ B ⇐⇒
(A is a proper A ⊆ B and A =
6 B
subset of B)
A 6⊆ B $A \not\subseteq B$ If A 6⊆ B, then there
(A is not a subset exists an element
of B) x ∈ A such that x ∈/ B.
A⊇B $A \supseteq B$ {3, 8, 1} ⊇ {1, 8}, since
(A is a superset of {1, 8} ⊆ {3, 8, 1}.
B)
A⊃B $A \supset B$ A ⊃ B ⇐⇒ A ⊇ B
(A is a proper and A 6= B
superset of B)
A 6⊇ B $A \not\supseteq B$ While C ⊇ R, Q 6⊇ R
(A is not a and N 6⊇ R.
superset of B)

6.7 Relational Symbols in Abstract Algebra

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

N ◁G $N \triangleleft G$ N ◁ G if and only if for

(N is a normal all g ∈ G, gN g −1 = N .
subgroup of G)
I ◁R $I \triangleleft R$ If 7Z = {7m | m ∈ Z},
(I is an ideal of then 7Z ◁ Z.
ring R)
A∼ =B $\mathcal{A} \cong Since R2×2 ∼ = R4 , these
(Structure A is \mathcal{B}$ two vector spaces are
isomorphic to structurally identical.
structure B)

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6.8 Relational Symbols in Probability and

Statistics
Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

A⊥B $A \perp B$ If A ⊥ B, then

(Event A is P (A ∩ B) =
independent to P (A) ∩ P (B).
event B)
(A ⊥ B) | C $(A \perp B) \mid C$ (A ⊥ B) | C ⇐⇒
(A is independent P (A ∩ B | C) =
to B given C) P (A | C) P (B | C)
A%B $A \nearrow B$ If E1 % E2 , then
(A increases the P (E2 | E1 ) ≥ P (E2 ).
likelihood of B)
A&B $A \searrow B$ Since A & B,
(A decreases the P (B | A) ≤ P (B).
likelihood of B)
X∼F $X \sim F$ Let Y be the number of
(X follows sixes in 30 die rolls,
distribution F ) then Y ∼ Bin(30, 1/6).
X≈F $X \approx F$ If Xi ∼ N (µ, σ 2 ), then
(X approximately X1 + · · · + Xn ≈
follows N (nµ, nσ 2 ).
distribution F )

6.9 Relational Symbols in Calculus

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

f ≡g $f \equiv g$ f ≡ g ⇐⇒
(Identically equal dom(f ) = dom(g)
functions) and f (x) = g(x)
(∀x ∈ dom(f ))

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 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

f ∼g $f \sim g$ f ∼ g ⇐⇒
(Asymptotically f (x)
equal functions) lim
x→∞ g(x)
=1

f  g, f ∈ O(g) $f \ll g$, $f \in O(g)$ f  g ⇐⇒ ∃k > 0

(Asymptotically |f (x)| ≤ k|g(x)|
bounded above (∀x ≥ x0 )
by / In the big-O
of)
f  g, f ∈ Ω(g) $f \gg g, f \in f  g ⇐⇒ ∃k > 0
(Asymptotically \Omega(g)$ |f (x)| ≥ k|g(x)|
bounded below (∀x ≥ x0 )
by / In the
big-Omega of)
f ∈ Θ(g) $f \in \Theta(g)$ f ∈ Θ(g) ⇐⇒
(Asymptotically f  g and f  g
bounded above
and below by / In
the big-Theta of)
f ∈ o(g) $f \in o(g)$ f ∈ o(g) if and only if
(Asymptotically for all k > 0,
dominated by / In |f (x)| < k |g(x)|
the small-O of) (∀x ≥ x0 ).
f ∈ ω(g) $f \in \omega(g)$ f ∈ ω(g) if and only if
(Asymptotically for all k > 0,
dominate / In the |f (x)| > k |g(x)|
small-Omega of) (∀x ≥ x0 ).

7 Notational Symbols
7.1 Common Notational Symbols
Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

. . ., · · · $\ldots$, $\cdots$ 12 + 22 + · · · + n2 =
(Horizontal n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
ellipsis) 6
66 7.1 Common Notational Symbols
Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols
á ë
a11 · · · a1n
.. . . .. . . .
., . $\vdots$, $\ddots$ . . ..
(Vertical ellipsis)
am1 · · · amn

f : A → B, $f : A \to B$, $A The function g : N → R

A→B
f \overset{f}{\to} B$ can be also thought of
(Function’s do- as a sequence.
main/codomain
specifier)
f : x 7→ y, $f : x \mapsto y$, The function x 7→ x2 is
f
x 7→ y $x \overset{f}{\mapsto} increasing in the
(Function’s y$ interval [0, ∞).
mapping rule)
Q.E.D., ■, □ $Q. E. D.$, Thus the result is true
(End-of-the-proof $\blacksquare$, for all n ≥ 1, as desired.
symbols) $\square$ ■
Q.E.A., ⊥ $Q. E. A.$, $\bot$ Multiplying both sides
(Contradiction of the equation yields
symbols) that 1 = 2. ⊥

7.2 Intervals
Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

[a, b] $[a, b]$ π ∈ [3, 5]. In fact,

(Closed interval π ∈ [3.14, 3.15].
from a to b)
(a, b) $(a, b)$ (1, 9) =
(Open interval {x ∈ R | 1 < x < 9}
from a to b)
[a, b) $[a, b)$ π∈ / [e, π), while
(Right-open [e, π) ⊆ [2, ∞).
interval from a to
b)

7.2 Intervals 67
 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

(a, b] $(a, b]$ 0∈/ (0, 100], and

(Left-open interval (0, 100] 6⊆ Q.
from a to b)

7.3 Notational Symbols in Geometry and

Trigonometry
Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)
◦ ◦
$^{\circ}$ While cos(90
√ ) = 0,
(Degree symbol) ◦
cos(45 ) = 2/2.
Å ã◦
0 0 35 ◦
$'$ 35 = = 0.583
(Arcminute 60
symbol)
Å ã0
00 20
$''$ 2000 = ≈ 0.3330
(Arcsecond 60
symbol)
rad $\mathrm{rad}$ π rad = 180◦ , hence
(Radian symbol) π/2 rad = 90◦ .
grad, g $\mathrm{grad}$, Since 100 grad = 90◦ ,
(Gradian symbols) $^{\mathrm{g}}$ 1 grad = 0.9◦ .

7.4 Notational Symbols in Probability and

Statistics
Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

IQR $IQR$ By definition,

(Interquartile IQR = Q3 − Q1 .
range)

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Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

SD $SD$ A score of 97
(Standard corresponds to 2 SDs
deviation) above the mean.
CV $CV$ CV = σ/µ, which
(Coefficient of measures SD as a
variation) percentage of mean.
SE $SE$ A statistic of 5.66
(Standard error) corresponds to 10 SE
away from the mean.
X
SS $SS$ SSy = (Y − Y )2 ,
X i
(Sum of squares) SSx = (Xi − X)2
M SE $MSE$ For simple regression,
P
(Mean square (Yi − Ŷi )2
error) M SE = .
n−2
OR $OR$ Let p1 and p2 be the
(Odds ratio) rates of accidents in
two regions, then
p1 /(1 − p1 )
OR = .
p2 /(1 − p2 )
H0 $H_0$ H0 : µ = 23, where µ
(Null hypothesis) stands for the mean
travel time in minutes.
Ha , H1 $H_a$, $H_1$ Since the test is
(Alternative two-sided,
hypothesis) Ha : σ12 6= σ22 .
CI $\mathrm{CI}$ 95% CI = (0.85, 0.97)
(Confidence = 0.91 ± 0.06
interval)
PI $\mathrm{PI}$ 90% PI is wider than
(Prediction 90% CI, as it predicts
interval) an instance of y rather
than its average.
r.v. r.v. A r.v. is continuous if
(Random variable) its support is a union of
disjoint intervals.

7.4 Notational Symbols in Probability and Statistics 69

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

i.i.d. i.i.d. Given n i.i.d. random

(Independent and variables X1 , . . . , Xn ,
identically V (X1 + · · · + Xn ) =
distributed) V (X1 ) + · · · + V (Xn ).
LLN LLN LLN shows that for all
(Law of large ε > 0, as n → ∞,

numbers) P |X n − µ| > ε → 0.
CLT CLT By CLT, as n → ∞,
(Central limit Xn − µ
theorem) √ → Z.
σ/ n

7.5 Notational Symbols in Calculus

Symbols LaTeX Code Example
(Explanation)

+∞ $+\infty$ As n → +∞,
(Positive infinity) n2 + 1
→ +∞.
n

−∞ $-\infty$ lim ex = 0
x→−∞
(Negative infinity)
∆y y2 − y 1
∆x $\Delta \mathbf{x}$ m= =
(Increment in ∆x x2 − x1
variable x)
x→a $\mathrm{x} \to a$ The sequence
(Variable x tends an = n/(4n − 3) tends
to a) to 1/4, as n → ∞.
f (x) → L $f(x) \to L$ Since g(x) is
(Function f (x) continuous at c,
tends to limit L) g(x) → g(c) as x → c.

dx $d\mathbf{x}$ If y = f (x), then

(Differential of dy = f 0 (x) dx.
variable x)

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Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

∂f
∂f $\partial f$ dx corresponds to
(Partial ∂x
differential of f ) the “x portion” of df .

df $df$ dg(x, y) =
(Total differential ∂g ∂g
of f ) dx + dy
∂x ∂y
f 0 (x) f 0 (g(t))
f (x)|x=a $\left. f(x) \right|_ =
{x=a}$ f (x) x=g(t) f (g(t))
(Shorthand for
‘f (x) with x
replaced by a’)
ï òπ
b x2 π2 1
[f (x)]a $\left[ f(x) \right]_ = −
{a}^{b}$ 2 1 2 2
(Shorthand for
‘f (b) − f (a)’)

7.5 Notational Symbols in Calculus 71

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

Last Few Words

Congratulation! You’ve now made through thousands of math symbols

and are now on your way to a more solid foundation in mathematics!
Before you go, here are a few key nuggets and takeaways which we’ve
found useful while creating this book:

• Most mathematical symbols can be put into one of the following

6 categories: constants, variables, delimiters, operators, relational
symbols and notational symbols.
• As the name implies, constants are reserved for unchanging enti-
ties (in the context where it’s given), with the most notable ones
being key numbers, key sets and key infinities.
• In some cases, a constant in a narrower context might be con-
sidered a variable as the context broadens. Much like constants,
variables are often denoted using Greek symbols and Latin-based
alphabets.
• As symbols complexify, it then becomes necessary to use delim-
iters to indicate the separation between different mathematical
entities. While some delimiters (such as . and ,) are standalone
symbols, others — such as (), [] and {} — come in pairs.
• Since Latin alphabets are limited in quantities, mathematics often
borrows corresponding letters from Greek to refer to similar-but-
different entities. In other occasions, one might also modify Latin
alphabets themselves to achieve a similar effect.
• Since operators allow us to turn finitely many symbols into in-
finitely many entities, they are of special importance in mathemat-
ics. And while some mathematical branches come with their own
signature operators, other operators — such as key trigonometric
functions — are more of a universal part of mathematics.
• To turn mathematical objects into syntactically-correct sentences
about them, relational symbols are then used. Apart from equal-

72 Last Few Words

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

ity and comparison-based relational symbols, many mathematical

branches (such as geometry and set theory) come with their own
signature relational symbols as well.
• On top of these symbols, mathematics also often adopts additional
notations and conventions to help simplify the writing. This is
where notational symbols — such as those for intervals and the
acronyms in statistics — can come in handy.

If this is your first read, you might have found some of the materials a
bit overwhelming. In which case, it’s always a good idea to go through
the book again — and follow the links in green. You might also want to
recycle the table of contents into a handy tool for reviewing the symbols.
As you might know, this book is an attempt to express — in a very concise
way — what mathematics has to offer as a whole. As a result, the symbols
featured in this book can be often found in the following topics as well:

• Common mathematics (arithmetic, basic algebra, interval, elemen-

tary functions)
• Geometry and trigonometry (plane geometry, 3D geometry, trigono-
metric functions, topology)
• Set theory and logic (key sets of numbers, set operations, logical
connectives, transfinite numbers)
• Calculus and analysis (sequence, derivative, integral, differential
equations)
• Modern algebra (number theory, complex numbers, linear alge-
bra, abstract algebra)
• Probability and statistics (combinatorics, probability distributions,
statistical metrics, statistical operators)

If you’re like most of us, you might have found some of the topics above
more appealing than others. If so, we’d encourage you to embrace your
interest by learning more about the topic:

• If the topic is of college-level or below, then you might want to

check out Khan Academy to see if there’s a corresponding course
there suiting your need.
• If the topic pertains to algebra, trigonometry, calculus or statistics,
then you might find some of the textbooks published by OpenStax
interesting.

Last Few Words 73

 Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

• For university-level math topics, you might find some of the courses
offered on Coursera useful.
• For other topics, our list of recommended math books might be
of help.

But whatever you do, just know that when you’re fascinated by a math
topic, nothing can stop you. So keep learning, keep thinking, keep solv-
ing problems, and we’ll see you on the other end of the tunnel!

74 Last Few Words

Comprehensive List of Mathematical Symbols

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