CE F244

Highway Engineering

Dr. Nishant Bhargava

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Module 3
Traffic Engineering
Contents
• Traffic Characteristics
• Traffic Measurement and Analysis
• Traffic Flow and Roadway Capacity
• Traffic Regulation and Control
• Road Intersections
• Parking Studies
• Accident Analysis
• Traffic Planning and Management

3
References

4
What is Traffic Engineering ??
Institute of Engineers, USA
Phase of engineering which deals with planning and geometric design of
streets, highways, abutting lands and with traffic operation there-on, as their
use is related to the safe, convenient and economic transportation of persons
and goods.

5
Traffic Characteristics
• Road User Characteristics • Vehicular Characteristics
 Physical  Static v/s dynamic characteristics
 Mental o Vehicle dimensions
 Psychological o Weight of loaded vehicles
 Environmental o Speed of vehicle
o Braking characteristics
o Off-tracking
o Power of vehicle

Refer Section 5.2 of the text book “Highway Engineering, Revised 10th Edition”
by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan
6
Axle Configurations

Single Axle with

Single Wheels

Tandem Axle
Tridem Axle

Single Axle with

Dual Wheels

7
Types of Vehicles
TYPE 2 – S2
Type – 2 Type – 3 Type 2 – S1
2 axle Tandem axle
truck-tractor Semi-trailer

Type 2 – S2 Type 3 – S1 Type 3 – S2

TYPE 2 – 3

Type 2 – 2 Type 3 – 2 Type 2 – 3 2 axle 3 axle

truck-tractor Semi-trailer

Type 3 – 3
8
Vehicular Dimensions
Max. Length
MoRTH notification vide G.S.R. 414(E) Single unit truck 12 m
dated 26th June, 2020 Single unit bus 15 m
Truck-trailer/semi-
18.75 m
trailer/ tractor-trailer

Max. Width
Motor vehicle 2.6 m
Construction equipment 3.0 m

Max. Height
Motor vehicle 4.0 m
Construction equipment 4.75 m
9
Weight of Loaded Vehicle

10
 Revised Safe Axle Load limits for Transport Vehicles

Ministry of Road
Transport & Highways
(Transport Division)

No. RT110281 11/2017 -MVL

11
 Revised Safe Axle Load limits for Transport Vehicles

Ministry of Road
Transport & Highways
(Transport Division)

No. RT110281 11/2017 -MVL

12
Minimum Turning Radii
Length of vehicle, m Turning radii, m
<8m 20 m
8 – 11 m 22 m
> 11 m 24 m

13
Power of Vehicle
• Resistance to motion of a vehicle

𝑷𝒇 = Rolling resistance
𝑷𝒂 = Air resistance
𝑷𝒊 = Grade resistance
𝑷𝒋 = Inertial resistance
𝒎. 𝒈
𝑷𝒑 = Tractive force
𝒊

14
Traffic Measurement and Analysis
• Traffic Volume Studies
• Traffic Speed Studies
 Spot Speed Studies
 Speed and Delay Studies
• Origin and Destination (O & D) Studies

15
Traffic Volume Studies
How to define traffic volume or traffic flow ???

Number of vehicles that pass across a given transverse line of the road during unit time

16
Traffic Volume Characteristics
Mixed traffic
• Determination – Classified traffic volume studies
• Equivalency factor – Passenger Car Unit (PCU)
• Transverse distribution of flow

Variations in traffic
• Daily, weekly and seasonal
• Lanes Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)
• Direction

17
Objectives of Traffic Volume Studies
• Priority for improvement and upgradation
• Geometric design
• Analysis of traffic parameters and future projections
• Roadway capacity
• Plan traffic operation
• Intersection design
• Pavement maintenance

18
Methods of Traffic Volume Studies
• Manual counts
• Automatic traffic counters

Refer the following for more details

• Section 5.3.2 of the text book “Highway Engineering, Revised 10th Edition” by
Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan
• IRC 9 (2022) – Traffic Census for Non-Urban Roads (Second Revision)

19
Presentation of Traffic Volume Data
Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT)
The total volume of traffic passing a point or segment of a roadway during one full year
divided by the number of days in the year

Average Daily Traffic (ADT)

The total volume of traffic passing a point or segment of a roadway during a given time
period (more than a day and less than a year) divided by the number of days in that time
period

Design hourly traffic volume

 30th highest hourly traffic volume
Hourly volume that will be exceeded only 29 times in a year
20
Traffic Speed
Some commonly used terms …
Spot speed Average speed
Instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a Average of spot speeds of all the vehicles
specified cross section or location passing a given point on highway

Running speed Travel or overall speed

Average speed maintained by a vehicle Effective speed of vehicle, including
over a particular stretch of road, while stopped delays
the vehicle is in motion

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Traffic Speed
Some commonly used terms …
Space Mean Speed Time Mean Speed
Mean speed of vehicles in a traffic Mean speed of vehicles observed at a
stream at any instant of time over a point on the road over a period of time
certain length (space) of road
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑣𝑖
𝑣𝑡 =
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑡𝑖 σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑑/𝑣𝑖 𝑛
𝑡𝑠 = =
𝑛 𝑛

𝑑 𝑑𝑛 𝑛
𝑣𝑠 = = 𝑛 = 𝑛
𝑡𝑠 σ𝑖=1 𝑑/𝑣𝑖 σ𝑖=1 1/𝑣𝑖
22
Numerical
5 vehicle speeds = 50, 40, 60, 54 and 45 km/h
Calculate time mean speed and space mean speed

Time mean speed Space mean speed

σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑛
𝑛
𝑣𝑡 = σ𝑖=1 1/𝑣𝑖
𝑛
50 + 40 + 60 + 54 + 45 5
𝑉𝑡 = = 49.8 km/h 𝑉𝑡 = = 48.8 km/h
5 1 1 1 1 1
+ + + +
50 40 60 54 45

23
Spot Speed Studies
First Method
Determine time, 𝑡 sec, taken by vehicle to travel distance, 𝑑 m
Space Mean Speed
Methods of
Spot Speed
Studies
Second Method
Measure instantaneous speed using pre-calibrated radar equipment
Time Mean Speed

24
Presentation of Spot Speed Data
Speed distribution table Speed range, Mean speed,
Frequency % frequency
km/h km/h
0 - 10 5 0 0.0
Time mean speed ?? 10 - 20 15 0 0.0
20 - 30 25 8 1.8
Space mean speed ?? 30 - 40 35 40 9.1
40 - 50 45 94 21.4
50 - 60 55 124 28.2
60 - 70 65 86 19.5
70 - 80 75 56 12.7
80 - 90 85 27 6.1
90 - 100 95 5 1.1

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Presentation of Spot Speed Data
Frequency distribution 30

Peak value – Modal speed 25

Frequency, %
20

15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Speed, km/h

26
Presentation of Spot Speed Data
Cumulative speed 100

distribution diagram

Cumulative frequency, %

98th Percentile Speed

80

85th Percentile Speed

60
__ Percentile Speed
40
Speed at or below ____ % of the
vehicles that are passing the point 20 15th Percentile Speed

on the highway.
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Speed, km/h

27
Presentation of Spot Speed Data
85th Percentile Speed ⇒ Safe speed limit at the zone

98th Percentile Speed ⇒ Design speed for geometric design

15th Percentile Speed ⇒ Lower speed limit

Speed dispersion
• 85th – 15th percentile
• Standard deviation
• Coefficient of variation

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Speed and Delay Studies
• Information extracted
• What are the causes of delays?
• Methods
 Floating car or riding check method
 License plate or vehicle number method
 Interview technique
 Elevated observations
 Photographic technique

Refer Section 5.3.5 of the text book “Highway Engineering, Revised 10th Edition”
by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan
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O & D Studies
Details
• Direction of travel
• Selection of routes
• Trip length
• Frequency of trips

Desire lines
Straight line joining the points of origin and
destination of each trip
• Width ∝ Number of trips in both direction

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Methods for O & D Studies
• Road-side interview method
• License plate method
• Return post card method
• Tag-on-car method
• Home interview method

Refer Section 5.3.6 of the text book “Highway Engineering, Revised 10th Edition”
by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan

31
Traffic Flow and Roadway Capacity
• Basic Traffic Maneuvers
• Traffic Stream Flow Characteristics
• Speed – Density – Flow Relations
• Passenger Car Unit
• Capacity and Level of Service
• Design Service Volumes

32
Traffic Flow and Roadway Capacity
Some commonly used terms …
Time headway
Time interval between passage of
successive vehicles moving in the same
lane as they cross a given point,
measured from head-to-head

Space headway
Distance between successive vehicles
Space headway
moving in the same lane, measured
from head-to-head
33
Traffic Flow and Roadway Capacity
Some commonly used terms …
Traffic Density Jam Density
Number of vehicles occupying a unit Maximum traffic density a road can
length of road at an instant of time have under jam conditions

1000
𝑘𝑗 =
𝑆

𝑆 = Space headway, m
𝑆 = 0.2 𝑉 + Length of vehicle

34
Basic Traffic Maneuvers
• Diverging
• Merging
• Crossing
• Weaving

Refer Section 5.4.2 of the text book “Highway Engineering, Revised 10th Edition”
by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan

35
Traffic Stream Flow Characteristics
• Longitudinal distribution of vehicles
 Time headway
 Space headway
• Transverse distribution of vehicles

Refer Section 5.4.2 of the text book “Highway Engineering, Revised 10th Edition”
by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan

36
Speed – Density – Flow Relations
Traffic Flow = Speed × Traffic Density

veh./hr km/hr veh./km

𝑞=𝑘𝑣
Refer Section 5.4.3 of the text book “Highway Engineering, Revised 10th Edition”
by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan

37
Traffic Stream Models
Macroscopic Models Microscopic Models
Represent how the behavior of one Analyze the flow of traffic by modeling
parameter of traffic flow changes with driver-driver and driver-road
respect to another interactions within a traffic stream
• Relation between speed and density • Car following theories
 Greenshield model  Pipe's model
 Greenberg’s logarithmic model  Forbes' model
 Underwood’s exponential model  General Motors' model
 Pipes’ generalized model  Optimal velocity model
 Multi-regime models
38
Greenshield Macroscopic Stream Model
Assumption
• Relation between speed and density = Linear

Speed, 𝑣
𝒗=𝒎𝒌+𝒄
𝒗𝒇 At 𝑘 = 0, 𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓
𝑣𝑓 = Free flow speed
𝑘𝑗 = Jam density 𝑐 = 𝑣𝑓 𝒗𝒇
𝒗 = 𝒗𝒇 − 𝒌
At 𝑘 = 𝑘𝑗 , 𝑣 = 0 𝒌𝒋
𝑣𝑓
𝑚=−
𝑘𝑗
0 Density, 𝑘
𝒌𝒋
39
Greenshield Macroscopic Stream Model
𝑣𝑓
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑘 𝑣𝑓 2 Flow, 𝑞
𝑘𝑗 𝑞 = 𝑣𝑓 𝑘 − 𝑘
𝑞=𝑘𝑣 𝑘𝑗
𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙

At peak point, slope = 0

d𝑞 𝑣𝑓
= 𝑣𝑓 − 2 × 𝑘 = 0
d𝑘 𝑘𝑗
𝑘𝑗
𝑘= 0 Density, 𝑘
2 𝒌𝒋

Density corresponding to max. flow, 𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙 is 𝒌𝒋 Τ𝟐

40
Greenshield Macroscopic Stream Model
𝑣𝑓
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑓 − 𝑘 Speed, 𝑣
𝑘𝑗 𝑘𝑗 2
𝑞 = 𝑘𝑗 𝑣 − 𝑣
𝑞=𝑘𝑣 𝑣𝑓
𝒗𝒇

At 𝑞 = 𝑞𝑚𝑎𝑥 , d𝑞 Τd𝑣 = 0
d𝑞 𝑘𝑗
= 𝑘𝑗 − 2 × 𝑣 = 0
d𝑣 𝑣𝑓
𝑣𝑓
𝑣= Flow, 𝑞
2 𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙

Speed corresponding to max. flow, 𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙 is 𝒗𝒇 Τ𝟐

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 Speed – Density – Flow Relations
Speed, 𝑣 Speed, 𝑣
𝒗𝒇

𝒗𝒇
𝟐

Density, 𝑘 𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙 Flow, 𝑞

Flow, 𝑞
𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙 Capacity flow, 𝑞 = 𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙
𝒗𝒇 𝒌𝒋
𝒗= ; 𝒌=
𝟐 𝟐
𝒗𝒇 𝒌𝒋
Density, 𝑘 𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝒌𝒋 Τ𝟐 𝒌𝒋 𝟒 42
Passenger Car Unit
Measure of relative space requirement of a vehicle class compared to that of a passenger
car under a specified set of roadway, traffic and other conditions

Recommended PCU Factors for Various Types of Vehicles on Rural Roads (IRC 64, 1990)
S. PCU S. PCU
Vehicle Type Vehicle Type
No. Factor No. Factor
Fast Vehicles Slow vehicles
1. Motor Cycle or Scooter 0.50 6. Cycle 0.50
2. Passenger Car, Pick-up Van or Auto-rickshaw 1.00 7. Cycle-rickshaw 2.00
3. Agricultural Tractor, LCV 1.50 8. Hand Cart 3.00
4. Truck or Bus 3.00 9. Horse-drawn vehicle 4.00
5. Truck-trailer, Agricultural Tractor-trailer 4.50 10. Bullock Cart* 8.00
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Capacity
Maximum hourly volume (veh./hr) at which vehicles can reasonably be expected to
traverse a point or uniform section of a lane or roadway during a given time period
under the prevailing roadway, traffic and control conditions

𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 . 𝑽
𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙 =
𝒕𝒉 𝑺

Time headway Space headway

𝑆 = 0.2 𝑉 + 𝐿
44
Level of Service
Qualitative measure describing operational
A
conditions within a traffic stream, and
B
their perception by drivers/passengers. C
D
• Based on operating condition

Speed
E

 6 levels – A to F
F
o Level of Service A – Best
Free flow
o Level of service F – Worst
Forced or break-down flow Volume Capacity Ratio 𝒒𝒎𝒂𝒙

45
Level of Service
Level of Service A Level of Service B Level of Service C
• Free flow condition • Zone of stable flow • Zone of stable flow
• Freedom to select desired speeds and to • Freedom to select desired speeds and to • Selection of speeds and to maneuver within
maneuver within the traffic stream = High. maneuver within the traffic stream = the traffic stream = Significantly affected by
• Level of comfort and convenience = Reasonable. others
Excellent • Level of comfort and convenience = Less • Level of comfort and convenience =
than LOS A Noticeable decline

Level of Service D Level of Service E Level of Service F

• Limit of stable flow (conditions • Traffic volumes = At or close to the • Zone of forced or breakdown flow
approaching close to unstable flow) capacity level. (amount of traffic approaching a point
• Selection of speeds and to maneuver within • Selection of speeds and to maneuver within exceeds the amount which can pass it)
the traffic stream = Severely restricted the traffic stream = Severely restricted • Queue formation
• Level of comfort and convenience = Poor • Level of comfort and convenience = • Operations = Stop-and-go waves =
• Small increases in traffic flow = Operational Extremely poor Extremely unstable
problems • Small increases in traffic flow = Breakdown • High volume = Breakdown

46
PCU, Capacity and Level of Service

Refer Section 5.4.4 and 5.4.5 of the text book

“Highway Engineering, Revised 10th Edition”
by Khanna, Justo and Veeraragavan

47
Design Service Volumes
Rural Highways
• LOS B (0.5 times of max. capacity)
• 8-10% of AADT

Single lane road Intermediate lane road Two lane road

• 3.75 m wide paved • 5.5 m wide paved • 7.0 m wide paved
carriageway carriageway carriageway
• No Black-topping = • Paved and surfaced
20-30% reduction shoulders, at least 1.5
m wide both side =
15% capacity increase
48
Design Service Volumes
Recommended Design Service Volumes (IRC 64, 1990)
Design Service Volume, PCU/day
Terrain Curvature (°/km) Single Lane Intermediate Two Lane
Roads Lane Roads Roads
Low (0-50) 2,000 6,000 15,000
Plain
High (Above 51) 1,900 5,800 12,500
Low (0-100) 1,800 5,700 11,000
Rolling
High (Above 101) 1,700 5,600 10,000
Low (0-200) 1,600 5,200 7,000
Hilly
High (Above 201) 1,400 4,500 5,000

49
Traffic Regulation & Control
• Traffic Regulations
• Traffic Control Devices
 Traffic Signs
 Traffic Signals
 Road Markings
 Traffic Islands

50
Conflicts at Uncontrolled Intersection
Number of conflict points at uncontrolled intersections at-grade

- Crossing = 3
- Crossing = 16 - Merging = 3
- Merging = 8 - Diverging = 3
- Diverging = 8

51
Traffic Regulations
Legal coverage for strict enforcement

 Driver controls  Traffic flow regulations

o Driving license o Direction of flow
o Alcohol influence o Restrictions on turning or overtaking
o Speed limit o Entry prohibition or parking
 Vehicle controls  General controls
o Vehicle registration o Reporting of accidents
o Dimensions and weight o Recording and disposing traffic
o Vehicle fitness violation cases

52
Imposing One-Way Regulations
One-Way for One Road One-Way for Both Roads

- Crossing = 7 - Crossing = 4
- Merging = 4 - Merging = 2
- Diverging = 4 - Diverging = 2

53
Traffic Control Devices
Various aids and devices used to control, regulate and guide traffic

• Requirements
 Fulfill a need
 Command attention
 Convey a clear and simple meaning
 Command respect from road users
 Give adequate time for response

54
Traffic Signs (IRC 67, 2022)

Mandatory/Regulatory signs

Traffic Signs Warning signs

Informatory signs

55
Size of Signs and Letters
• 600 mm size, 100 mm font
Small size
• Design speed < 60 km/h

Sizes of
• 900 mm size, 150 mm font
Regulatory & Normal size
• Design speed = 60 – 100 km/h
Warning Signs

• 1200 mm size, 225 mm font

Large size
• Design speed > 100 km/h

56
Size of Signs and Letters
Letter size (height of letters)
• Expressway = 400 mm
Non-urban roads • NH & SH = 150 mm
• Other roads = 100 mm
Informatory • Overhead signs ≥ 300 mm
Signs

Letter size
Urban roads
• All direction signs = 100 mm

57
Placement of Signs
Transverse location of signs
• Roads with kerb ≥ 0.6 m away from edge of kerb
• Roads without kerb = 2 – 3 m from edge of carriageway

Location of warning signs on non-urban roads

• Rural roads = 90 m in plain & rolling ; 45 m in hilly terrain
• MDR = 120 m in plain & rolling ; 60 m in hilly terrain
• NH & SH = 150 m in plain & rolling ; 75 m in hilly terrain
• Expressway = 200 m in plain & rolling ; 100 m in hilly terrain

58
Mandatory/Regulatory Signs
Inform road users of certain laws, regulations & prohibitions
• Violations = Legal offence, PUNISHABLE
• Circular in shape
o Exceptions
 Octagonal red STOP sign
 Triangular GIVEWAY or YIELD sign
• Red border (60 mm dia) & White interior
o Exceptions
 ‘No Parking’ and ‘No Stop’
 ‘No Entry’ and ‘Restriction Ends’
59
Mandatory/Regulatory Signs
Classification
• Stop and Give-Way signs
• Prohibitory signs
• No Parking and No Stopping signs
• Speed limit and Vehicle Control signs
• Restriction Ends sign
• Compulsory direction control and other signs

60
Cautionary/Warning Signs
Warn road users of hazardous conditions that exist on or adjacent to roadway
• Shape and color
 Equilateral triangle with apex pointing upwards
 White background and red border Cautionary /
 Black symbols Warning

61
Informatory/Guide Signs
Guide the road users along routes, inform about destination & distance
• Colors – Based on classification of roads

Type of Road Background Border, legends & word

NH & SH Green White
MDR, ODR & VR White Black

62
Informatory/Guide Signs
Sub-heads
• Direction and Place Identification signs
• Facility Information signs
• Other useful information signs
• Parking signs
• Flood Gauge

63
Reading Assignment

Read about the meanings of all the traffic signs provided in

IRC 67 (2022)

64
Traffic Signals (IRC 93, 1985)
Main requirements
• Draw attention of the road users
• Enable them to understand meaning of light signal
• Provide sufficient time to respond
• Ensure minimum waste of time

65
Traffic Signals (IRC 93, 1985)
Advantages Limitations
• Orderly traffic movement • Increase in rear-end collisions
• Reduction in accidents • Improper design/location –
• Higher traffic handling capacity Violations of control system
• Enable minor to major road traffic • Failure will cause confusion
• Pedestrian movement • Vehicle arrival variation – Increase in
• Co-ordinated signal – Reasonable wait time for fixed time signal
speed

66
Warrants for Installing Traffic Signal
Install traffic signals when one or more warrant are met

Minimum vehicular volume warrant

Average traffic volume for 8 hr of the day
No. of
Type of street Motor veh/hr
Lanes
1 650 Design speed > 60 km/h or built-up area
Major street
≥2 800 Reduce vehicular volume warrant by 70%
1 200
Minor street *
≥2 250
* Traffic in one direction only
67
Warrants for Installing Traffic Signal
Install traffic signals when one or more warrant are met

Interruption of continuous traffic flow on major road

Average traffic volume for 8 hours of the day
 Major street = 1000 – 1200 veh/hr
 Minor street = 100 – 150 veh/hr in one direction

Minimum pedestrian volume warrant

 Pedestrians crossing major streets ≥ 150 per hour
 Traffic on both approaches ≥ 600 veh/hr
Note: Design speed > 60 km/h = Reduce vehicular volume warrant by 70%
68
Warrants for Installing Traffic Signal
Install traffic signals when one or more warrant are met

Accident experience warrant

 5 or more accidents within 12 month period
Note: Traffic signal installation should not disrupt traffic flow

Combination of warrants when no single warrant is satisfied

 2 or more warrant (first 3) satisfied ≥ 80% of the stated volume

69