About this Resource

A rhetorical mode is simply a non-fiction writing genre. Some sources will

group all informational texts into just four categories, narration, description,
exposition, and persuasion. This grouping is misleading. Persuasion can be an
umbrella term since, ultimately, all writing should have a thesis and therefore
be persuasive. Narration and description can stand alone, but exposition can
be broken down into numerous “sub modes.” What is left entirely out of a
four-category grouping is argumentation. This mode must be taught to mastery
in any high school or college English class, so argumentation and persuasion
are taught discreetly in the unit Argumentation & Persuasion: A Complete Unit.
Excluded as well is literary analysis, which is also treated separately in Literary
Analysis for Every Student.
The following modes are addressed in this resource:
Narration Cause-Effect
Description Process Analysis
Extended Definition Comparison-Contrast
Classification and Division
Materials for each mode include the following:
• a student handout
• a graphic organizer
• a list of prompts
• a rubric with points assigned
• a rubric with no points assigned
• an annotated, diverse list of suggested models
• a tips sheet for analysis of pieces written in the specified mode
Suggestions for Use:
• Design an AP English Language & Composition class around these modes. At
the start of each unit, distribute the handout. Analyze examples of pieces in
each mode, write in each mode, and write about pieces in which these
modes are used within others as devices and strategies.
• In a creative writing class, have students construct pieces in each mode.
• In any high school English class, address Common Core State Standards™ by
studying one essay in each of these modes.

Have questions? Email the author at [email protected]

 Directions for Google Drive™

What you need to get started:

1. Download this link for the Google Slides.

https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1PgHavHib-
p3FzLUX72yTzmTawq4SUur2bu40c7GeufU/copy

2. Have access to the Internet and a Google Account. (FREE)

3. Open the file on your own Google Drive and engage while in the edit mode.

4. Have printer access to print out the finished product. (OPTIONAL)

If you haven’t created a free Google account, you will need to do that before
beginning the unit. Each student will need his or her own account in order to
work in Google Slides.
Before you add any text to the handouts, it is VERY important to save a copy
of the file on your own Google Drive and then edit the copy. You do not want
to edit the original file.

Want a free eight-page sampler of this resource? Shoot me your email

address, and you’ll get the entire set of materials for the descriptive mode.

©Angie Burgin Kratzer All rights reserved. http://www.angiekratzer.com/

 The Narrative Mode
Narration is simply storytelling. In a broad sense, a narrative can be an account
in and of itself like a novel, short story, news article, or police report. On
another level, a narrative can be used as a strategy within another rhetorical
mode.

Methods of Organization
Inverted Pyramid
Because newspaper editors historically have had to cut material to make articles
fit within a given number of column inches, journalists make sure the least
important facts of their straight news articles are last. The lead—the first
paragraph summarizing the story—is followed by more specific details.

Chronological Order
Events are told in the order in which they occurred.

Parallel Perspectives
One event is described from the perspectives of several witnesses or characters.
This strategy is seen more often in fiction than non-fiction.

Disordered Time
This use of time involves a base storyline interrupted by flashbacks. These steps
back in the timeline are used to explain something in the base timeline such as
character motivation or the catalyst for a particular event. This method of
organization requires careful use of multiple verb tenses.

Another use of disordered time is seen often in screenplays, in which the

narrative “begins near the end” in a scene that would be at the end if the
storytelling were chronological. The audience or reader is then taken back to
an earlier point in the chronology. For example, the account might begin in
a jail cell, and then events leading up to the imprisonment unfold.

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 The Narrative Mode
Strategies for Development
Descriptive detail, imagery, and figurative language are particularly helpful
rhetorical strategies within the frame of a personal narrative. All three help the
audience to be present with the author.

The pace of an account can be manipulated through syntax. Short sentences

with monosyllabic words speed up the reader and are useful for exciting,
suspenseful narrative elements. Long and involved sentences slow the reader
down and are used for description. Remember that telegraphic sentences put
on the brakes for important ideas.

Use dialogue deliberately as both a method of characterization and strategy for

breaking up a long description or series of events.

A Tricky Thesis
Within fiction, a writer would develop a theme, a universal statement about
life, relationships, or even man’s place in the world. In non-fiction narratives,
however, a writer can easily lose sight of his or her thesis and begin waxing
rhapsodic with no purpose in mind.

The writer of a narrative must keep the rhetorical triangle in mind and
constantly ask these questions:

What is the message I want to communicate

to this audience?

What details will aid the communication of

that message?

What details will cloud or detract from the

message?

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 Narrative Prompts
Recount an event from your childhood that shaped an element of your
character.

What is the origin of your greatest fear?

Tell the story of an incident that shaped your view of the opposite sex.

What is the nature of your relationship with your father? Tell about an event
that exemplifies that relationship.

If you could reach back and undo something you did or said, what would it
be? Imagine a two-fold narration that recounts what would be different if you
had not done this thing.

As an exercise in creative nonfiction, take a true event and embellish it with

details. For example, you may have a funny story about a blind date that went
horribly wrong. Add dialogue that sheds light on the events of the evening.

What is your earliest memory? Embellish the memory with constructed

details.

Recount the results of a decision to do something that was outside of your

comfort zone.

What family story is told at every holiday

gathering? Why does it have longevity?

Tell the story of a significant family event such

as an adoption, custody battle, remarriage,
divorce announcement, sibling betrayal,
competition, disastrous vacation, or
presentation of a long-desired gift.

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 Narration Organizer
Who is my audience?

Why do I want to tell this story? Why is it important that my audience

hears it? What impact do I hope it will have on my audience?

What is the central idea I hope to convey through this account?

List five to ten “sub events” within the main event in the order in
which they occurred.

Which method of organization will work best to convey this narration

to this audience for this purpose?
❑Inverted Pyramid
❑Chronological Order
❑Parallel Perspectives
❑Disordered Time

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 Narrative Essay Rubric

____ The thesis, either implied or stated explicitly, is debatable and clear.
10 points
____ The thesis is proved. 15 points
____ Details are chosen carefully in order to support the thesis. 15 points
____ The organizational structure is suited to the topic. 15 points
____ The order of events—whether given chronologically, through parallel
perspectives, or through the use of flashbacks—is clear. 10 points
____ The author uses the following rhetorical devices effectively:
15 points
___ diction ___ syntax ___ figurative language
___ imagery ___ irony ___ tone
___ other rhetorical modes such as description, extended definition,
or process analysis
____ The style of the essay overall demonstrates maturity of voice through
sentence formation and word choice. 5 points

____ The essay contains no errors in sentence formation. 5 points

____ The essay contains no errors in usage. 5 points
____ The essay contains no errors in mechanics. 5 points

____ Total Points

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 Narrative Essay Rubric

____ The thesis, either implied or stated explicitly, is debatable and clear.
____ points
____ The thesis is proved. ____ points
____ Details are chosen carefully in order to support the thesis. ____ points
____ The organizational structure is suited to the topic. ____ points
____ The order of events—whether given chronologically, through parallel
perspectives, or through the use of flashbacks—is clear. ____ points
____ The author uses the following rhetorical devices effectively:
____ points
___ diction ___ syntax ___ figurative language
___ imagery ___ irony ___ tone
___ other rhetorical modes such as description, extended definition,
or process analysis
____ The style of the essay overall demonstrates maturity of voice through
sentence formation and word choice. ____ points

____ The essay contains no errors in sentence formation. ____ points

____ The essay contains no errors in usage. ____ points
____ The essay contains no errors in mechanics. ____ points

____ Total Points

©Angie Burgin Kratzer All rights reserved http://www.angiekratzer.com/

 Recommended Texts: Narration
This list of pieces was gathered from several anthologies, including The
Language of Composition (2008 Edition), The Norton Reader (Tenth Edition),
The McGraw-Hill Reader (Eleventh Edition), and 50 Essays (Fifth Edition). Some
of these titles are in the public domain and can be found online. Most
anthologies include student questions at the end of each piece.
Keep in mind that authors do not generally set out to write an essay or speech
in a particular mode, so these choices are a bit subjective. What to one reader
might be a broadly descriptive text might to another be one of cause and
effect.

Julia Alvarez, excerpt from One Upon a Quinceanera

This excerpt uses flashbacks within a broader narration on the importance of
the Quinceanera to American Latinas.

James Baldwin, “A Talk to Teachers”

Baldwin uses brief elements of narration as a device to make a greater
argument about the identity and education of Negro children.

Rebecca Walker, “Putting Down the Gun”

This short essay uses one brief conversation with the author’s son to develop a
clear thesis on American masculinity.

George Orwell, “Shooting an Elephant”

Essayist and novelist George Orwell tells the story of his public shooting of an
elephant in colonial India.

Edward Rivera, “First Communion”

This linear narration recounts the story of Rivera’s mortifying attempt at taking
his first Catholic communion.

Tim O’Brien, “On the Rainy River” from The Things They Carried
This chapter of creative non-fiction chronicles the anguish of a young American
man who has been drafted to serve in Vietnam.

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 Rhetorical Analysis Tips: Narration
Of all the rhetorical modes, students often find narration to be the simplest
to write but the most difficult to analyze. Why? The author’s thesis is more
likely to be implied than stated explicitly. If a student is trained to figure out
SOAPStone (Subject, Occasion, Audience, Purpose, Speaker, tones), the A and
the P can be a bit tricky.
TIPS:
➢ Use the conclusion as a guide. A skilled author is unlikely to leave the
reader hanging. In order to put a lid on a narrative, a writer will often end
with introspection, analysis, or commentary on the event being described.
Therein may lie the author’s purpose.

Example: (from “Shooting an Elephant”)

[ . . . ] The older men said I was right, the younger men said it was a damn
shame to shoot an elephant for killing a coolie, because an elephant was
worth more than any damn Coringhee coolie. And afterwards I was very glad
that the coolie had been killed; it put me legally in the right and it gave me a
sufficient pretext for shooting the elephant. I often wondered whether any
of the others grasped that I had done it solely to avoid looking a fool.
Note the bold-faced text. The reader gets two hints (one subtle and one overt)
about the author’s purpose. It might be prudent (if the student has a hard
time seeing their connection) to address only the author’s more obvious
purpose.

➢ Pay attention to shifts in circumstance or tone. For example, transition

words like “but” or “however,” especially when contained within a
telegraphic sentence or fragment, signal a shift. A contrasting word like
that is a flag for the reader. Ask what caused the shift. Was there a change
in perspective? Did the author get caught doing something? Was there an
unintended consequence to an action or choice?
➢ Look for the use of modes as devices. For example, within a narrative, an
author might use description, comparison-contrast, extended definition, or
classification in order to communicate a central idea to the audience.
➢ Consider the use of narration itself as a primary strategy. Answer this
question: Why did the author choose this mode for this purpose?

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 description
Because we use description every day in our spoken language, writers can
underestimate its power. An elaborate description can kill a narrative, deepen it, or
make it come alive. Note the difference in these authors’ approaches:

“As I ate the oysters with their strong taste of the sea and their faint metallic taste that the
cold white wine washed away, leaving only the sea taste and the succulent texture, and as I
drank their cold liquid from each shell and washed it down with the crisp taste of the wine, I
lost the empty feeling and began to be happy and to make plans.”
Ernest Hemingway, A Moveable Feast

“It is among these hills that the Delaware takes its rise; and flowing from the limpid lakes and
thousand springs of this region the numerous sources of the Susquehanna meander through
the valleys until, uniting their streams, they form one of the proudest rivers of the United
States. The mountains are generally arable to the tops, although instances are not wanting
where the sides are jutted with rocks that aid greatly in giving to the country that romantic
and picturesque character which it so eminently possesses. The vales are narrow, rich, and
cultivated, with a stream uniformly winding through each. Beautiful and thriving villages are
found interspersed along the margins of the small lakes, or situated at those points of the
streams which are favorable for manufacturing; and neat and comfortable farms, with every
indication of wealth about them, are scattered profusely through the vales, and even to the
mountain tops.”
James Fenimore Cooper, The Pioneers

Novelists Ernest Hemingway and James Fenimore Cooper are known for their
description, Hemingway for the clean, direct nature of his and Cooper for the way in
which he hovers over an object or person. Both approaches have their place in non-
fiction texts as well. Here memoirist Gary Soto, within a longer narrative, describes
what it was like to steal a pie:

“In my front yard, I leaned against a car fender and panicked about stealing the apple pie. I
knew an apple got Eve in deep trouble with snakes because Sister Marie had shown us a film
about Adam and Eve being cast into the desert, and what scared me more than falling from
grace was being thirsty for the rest of my life. But even that didn’t stop me from clawing a
chunk from the pie tin and pushing it into the cavern of my mouth. The slop was sweet and
gold colored in the afternoon sun. I laid more pieces on my tongue, wet finger-dripping
pieces, until I was finished and felt like crying because it was about the best thing I had ever
tasted. I realized right there and then, in my sixth year, in my tiny body of two hundred bones
and three or four sins, that the best things in life came stolen. I wiped my sticky fingers on the
grass and rolled my tongue over the corners of my mouth. A burp perfumed the air.”
Gary Soto, A Summer Life

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 description
What can a writer describe?
The author of a non-fiction text needs to communicate with an audience, the
reader or listener. He or she needs to put the audience into a position of
understanding, and one of the best ways of doing that is to describe the person,
scene, event, or object in such a way that the senses are stimulated.

A Place
The description of a place can be organized in a variety of ways. The writer
might think in terms of physical space and paint a big picture the way James
Fenimore Cooper does or give details the way a video camera might capture
them if shooting from an airplane. A room can be described from to bottom,
around the walls, or from furniture to floor.

A Person
A person’s face, gait, character, clothing, and behavior can be described,
sometimes in the same passage. Writers often use an effective zoom-in strategy
and allow one feature to speak for the rest. For example, a young child’s
disheveled clothing could tell a story itself.

An Event
Interwoven with narration, an event or episode can be depicted in a variety of
ways. The image of a flame thrower scorching brush could open a description of
a memoir of trench warfare, and the smell of burning flesh can both repulse and
draw a reader in.

Thinking Through the Thesis

As is the case with narrative writing, the thesis in a descriptive essay might be a
bit harder both to plan and pin down. Begin with the general impression you
want to create and go from there. For example, you might want to create an
impression of nostalgia about a summer vacation home, or you might want to
take it a step further and sharpen the impression into a more defined thesis, like
the human need for fond childhood memories. The length of the description
will often determine the specificity of the thesis.

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 Description prompts
Describe your bedroom. Think beyond the physical and associate
your room with what it does for you (e.g., provide comfort and
safety) or to you (e.g., remind you of something painful).

Create a character sketch of a teacher, sibling, friend, neighbor, or

co-worker.

Go to a shopping center and people watch for 30 minutes. Find a

person who looks interesting and create a back story for him or her.
Use description to help paint the picture of the person’s home life
and relationships.

Close your eyes and picture a large meal with your family (such as a
milestone birthday or holiday dinner). What do you smell? What do
you hear? What do you see? Incorporate all the senses in your
description of a one-hour meal.

Imagine the place in which you feel most uncomfortable (e.g., math
class, church, the doctor’s office, the mall, a party) and describe the
emotions you feel. Analyze their origins in order to develop and
defend a thesis.

Narrate a very brief event (e.g., falling, being caught cheating, being
told bad news) and use description to do the telling rather than
linear storytelling.

Recall a bizarre dream. Rather than recounting the dream as a

narration, describe it in snapshots.

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 Description organizer

Overall Impression Taste

Sight or Thesis

Smell Sound

Touch

Begin with a focus on the senses. After deciding what overall impression you
want to create about this person, place, or object, or event, make quick notes
about the senses’ association with this topic. For example, a carnival might
elicit more ideas about sound and smell, but your grandmother’s kitchen
might be better served through smell and touch.

Brainstorm analogies with which you might compare your topic. Here’s the
trick: MAKE IT FRESH. If you’ve heard it before, it’s cliché.

Make a decision about the method of organization. Top to bottom? Left to

right? Head to toe? Before to after? Which method will best serve your overall
impression or thesis?

Consider other rhetorical choices you might make. Writers often use imagery,
figurative language, and other modes such as narration and comparison-
contrast in descriptive writing.

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 Recommended texts: description
This list of pieces was gathered from several anthologies, including
The Language of Composition (2008 Edition), The Norton Reader
(Tenth Edition), The McGraw-Hill Reader (Eleventh Edition), and 50
Essays (Fifth Edition). Some of these titles are in the public domain
and can be found online. Most anthologies include student questions
at the end of each piece.
Keep in mind that authors do not generally set out to write an essay
or speech in a particular mode, so these choices are a bit subjective.
What to one reader might be a broadly descriptive text might to
another be one of cause and effect.

Barbara Tuchman, “’This is the End of the World’: The Black Death”
Tuchman uses graphic, detailed description within a narrative of the plague.

Judith Ortiz Cofer, “The Myth of the Latin Woman: I Just Met a Girl Named
Maria”
This essay blends several descriptions (of dress, vignettes, societal rules) to
complete a picture of the origins and consequences of stereotypes.

Annie Dillard, “An American Childhood”

This excerpt is a character sketch made up of physical descriptions, dialogue,
vivid imagery, and brief narratives.

Natalie Angier, “Drugs, Sports, Body Image, and G.I. Joe”

This New York Times article begins with embedded descriptions that introduce
a broader argument.

Jamaica Kincaid, “The Ugly Tourist”

This short essay plays with point of view with the use of second person to
reveal the truth about tourists to tourists.

Joseph Mitchell, “The Rivermen”

This short excerpt of Up in the Old Hotel offers a straightforward physical
description.

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 Descriptive essay rubric

____ The piece has a clear overall impression or thesis. 15 points

____ The organizational strategy contributes to the overall impression or
thesis. 15 points
____ Chosen details contribute to the overall impression or thesis.
15 points
____ The author effectively employs the following devices or strategies in
the communication of the overall impression or thesis. 15 points
___ imagery ___ figurative language ___ diction
___ syntax ___ irony ___ point of view
____ The style of the essay overall demonstrates maturity of voice through
sentence formation and word choice. 10 points
____ The essay contains no errors in sentence formation. 10 points
____ The essay contains no errors in usage. 10 points
____ The essay contains no distracting errors in mechanics. 10 points

____ Total Points

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 Descriptive essay rubric

____ The piece has a clear overall impression or thesis. ___ points
____ The organizational strategy contributes to the overall impression or
thesis. ___ points
____ Chosen details contribute to the overall impression or thesis.
___ points
____ The author effectively employs the following devices or strategies in
the communication of the overall impression or thesis. ___ points
___ imagery ___ figurative language ___ diction
___ syntax ___ irony ___ point of view
____ The style of the essay overall demonstrates maturity of voice through
sentence formation and word choice. ____ points

____ The essay contains no errors in sentence formation. ____ points

____ The essay contains no errors in usage. ____ points
____ The essay contains no distracting errors in mechanics. ____ points

____ Total Points

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 analysis tips: Description
Like that of a narrative, the thesis of a descriptive piece can be
elusive. It’s important to step back and look at the big picture of the
essay when making decisions about rhetorical elements to discuss.

Big Picture Questions

What is the overall impression the author is creating?
What is the fundamental truth about this person, object, place, or
event?
What organizational strategy does the author employ?
Is description the frame or a device within another mode?

If the big picture is the forest, you have to account for the trees as
well! There are rhetorical devices that are particularly important in
description.

Detail questions
What sensory language (imagery) contributes to the overall
impression or thesis?
How does the author use figurative language to communicate the
overall impression or thesis?
How important is pace? Is the piece slowed down or sped up by
sentence length?
To what extent is analogy employed? Look for fresh comparisons that
help the audience make connections.

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 Extended Definition
An extended definition is a thorough treatment of one term. The idea is usually abstract,
intangible, and debatable; however, a writer may create an extended definition of a
concrete idea but treat it in a way that is unique.
A simple definition thesis—something a student is unlikely to encounter in essay
collections—has three parts, the last of which creates the argument required in any
thesis.
Part 1: Term
The term being defined must be open to a variety of interpretations.
Part 2: Classification
Into what category could the term belong? A thesis can be made more debatable if the
category has some depth. For example, love can be an emotion or a feeling, but it can
also be a choice. Brainstorm all classification categories before moving on to
distinguishing characteristics.
Part 3: Distinguishing characteristics
What sets this term apart from other terms that would fit into this class or category?
Think of the answer to this question as an argument. Convince the reader of your simple
definition. Within a definition essay, this section will control the ideas. If this section is
not interesting, debatable, or controversial, the writer will have no ammunition for
details or opinion. This thesis must be an idea the writer can argue.

Simple Examples
Term Classification Distinguishing Characteristics
A chair is a piece of furniture used for sitting.
Democracy is a form of government in which all citizens can
participate.
Authority is the power to command and require
obedience.

More Complex Examples

Mercy is the conscious decision to withhold punishment for
the sake of a relationship.
Art is an outlet for emotional pain.

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 Extended Definition
Options for Organization

Compare/Contrast
Present what the term is versus what it isn’t.
Classification
Devote each body paragraph to subdivisions of the term. For example, an essay on love
could be devoted to platonic, religious, romantic, and familial love as long as the ideas
support the thesis.
Narration
Allow the focal point of the essay to be a story in support of the thesis, but be sure to
include several other strategies.
Exemplification
Organize the extended definition by historical examples, current events, observations,
experiences, and media support (e.g., readings).

Other Rhetorical Strategies

Within the organizational structure that works best for your essay, use other strategies
to convince your audience of the truth of your debatable thesis.
Figurative Language
An insightful, fresh comparison can lend support to a debatable idea.
Imagery
Help the reader see, feel, taste, and smell within a description.
Irony
Both reversals of intention and verbal irony can be effective.
Syntactical Devices
A well-placed telegraphic sentence or rhetorical question can draw the reader’s
attention.
Modes
Use one-paragraph descriptions, extended definitions, cause-effect scenarios, detailed
examples, classification, brief narratives, and comparison/contrast.

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 extended definition prompts
Consider defining one of these debatable, abstract terms.
Love War Friendship Loyalty

Family Marriage Intellect Morality

Faith Disloyalty Sacrifice Generosity

Betrayal Stewardship Integrity Good Taste

Pleasure Deceit Patriotism Bravery

Courage Peace Trust Hatred

Honor Contentment Elegance Humility

Sophistication Insanity Goodness Tolerance

Beauty Contentment Elegance Despair

Grief Power Art Forgiveness

Justice Liberty Luck Redemption

Charity Comfort Chaos Pessimism

Determination Optimism Trust Openness

Curiosity Beauty Indifference Bitterness

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 extended definition Organizer
Term
In the shape below, write down one term you are interested in defining. Its definition must
be abstract and debatable

Classification
In the shape below, brainstorm all the different classes or categories into which your
debatable term might be placed. There are no wrong options.

Distinguishing Characteristics
Make an exhaustive list of all the characteristics of your term that make it
different from other words in the same category.

Choosing language from each box, write your thesis statement here:

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 Extended Definition RUBRIC

____ The term being defined is clear and debatable. ____ points
____ The thesis is clear and debatable and includes the term, its
classification, and its distinguishing characteristic(s). ____ points
____ The student proves the thesis throughout the essay.
____ points

____ The organization of the essay is logical and supports the defense of
the thesis. ____ points

____ The following rhetorical strategies and devices are used in support
of the thesis: ____ points
___ imagery ___ figurative language ___ diction ___ detail
___ syntax ___ irony ___ point of view
___ other modes (i.e., narration and description)
____ All supporting details serve to defend the thesis. ____ points

____ The style of the essay overall demonstrates maturity of voice

through sentence formation and word choice. ____ points

____ The essay contains no errors in sentence formation. ____ points

____ The essay contains no errors in usage. ____ points
____ The essay contains no distracting errors in mechanics. ____ points

____ TOTAL POINTS

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 Extended Definition RUBRIC

____ The term being defined is clear and debatable. 10 points

____ The thesis is clear and debatable and includes the term, its
classification, and its distinguishing characteristic(s). 10 points
____ The student proves the thesis throughout the essay.
15 points

____ The organization of the essay is logical and supports the defense of
the thesis. 15 points

____ The following rhetorical strategies and devices are used in support
of the thesis: 15 points
___ imagery ___ figurative language ___ diction ___ detail
___ syntax ___ irony ___ point of view
___ other modes (i.e., narration and description)
____ All supporting details serve to defend the thesis. 10 points

____ The style of the essay overall demonstrates maturity of voice

through sentence formation and word choice. 10 points

____ The essay contains no errors in sentence formation. 10 points

____ The essay contains no errors in usage. 10 points
____ The essay contains no distracting errors in mechanics. 5 points

____ TOTAL POINTS

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 Recommended Texts: extended definition

This list of pieces was gathered from several anthologies, including

The Language of Composition (2008 Edition), The Norton Reader
(Tenth Edition), The McGraw-Hill Reader (Eleventh Edition), and 50
Essays (Fifth Edition). Some of these titles are in the public domain
and can be found online. Most anthologies include student questions
at the end of each piece.
Keep in mind that authors do not generally set out to write an essay
or speech in a particular mode, so these choices are a bit subjective.
What to one reader might be a broadly descriptive text might to
another be one of cause and effect.

Nancy Mairs, “On Being a Cripple”

This raw essay criticizes the use of euphemisms for difficult or painful
conditions.

E.B. White, “Democracy”

This short, ironic piece defines democracy by stacking examples of it.

Gloria Naylor, “The Meanings of a Word”

This edgy essay looks at all the different ways the word is used.

Paul Theroux, “Being a Man”

This short essay looks at the nature of American masculinity.

Richard Rodriguez, “Family Values”

Rodriguez subtly defines the American, religious, immigrant, and sexual idea of
family values.

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 Analysis Tips: extended definition
The definition mode is an interesting one, both to write and to analyze. The
thesis may be more easily recognizable than it is in other modes, thus making
the task of determining the author’s purpose more manageable. As with any
mode, a student has to ask this question:

What does the author use to prove the thesis?

For the extended definition, it’s all about development of the distinguishing
characteristics. That’s where the debate lies. Pay close attention to the use of
these strategies:

▪ Organization
How is the essay structured? Would an analysis of the piece make sense if
organized by the way the author organizes the original work? In other words,
instead of analyzing by strategy or device, do so by the organization of the
piece.

▪ Tone Shifts
A quality piece of writing will incorporate or even rely on more than one tone.
That tone might be layered, but it’s more likely to shift. It’s a that shift where
the author’s purpose might be discovered.

▪ Narration and Contrast

Authors will often use brief narratives to define an abstract concept. In
addition, the use of contrast helps to differentiate the author’s unique
definition.
An extended definition has something different to say, so seek out the
examples, comparisons, and details that elicit the I never thought of it that
way response.

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 Comparison-Contrast
To compare two or more items, ideas, places, people, or passages is to discuss
how they are similar. To contrast them is to discuss how they are different.
Organizational Strategies
The structure of a comparison essay, a contrast essay, or a combination
compare-contrast essay is dependent both on the subjects being discussed and
the author’s purpose.
Option A
Discuss one distinguishing characteristic, issue, or point of
comparison at a time and deal with both subjects in the same section
of the essay. For example, when comparing two cars, the writer might
discuss gas mileage in one section, interior roominess in another, and
safety in another.
Option B
Discuss each subject separately but compare or contrast the second
subject to the first. If two boys—within minutes of each other—
invite the same girl to the prom, she has to make a decision. In a
letter to her best friend, she might discuss all the good qualities of
one boy (politeness, dancing ability, and sense of style) but then
contrast him with the other boy (rebelliousness, higher likelihood of
having fun, sense of humor).
Option C
Spend one section (either one full paragraph or several paragraphs)
comparing the subjects and another section contrasting them.
Signal Words
When ideas are shifting, offer the reader signals or cues. For example, when
moving from comparison to contrast, use words and phrases like although,
however, otherwise, unlike, whereas, yet, conversely, on the contrary, still, but,
nevertheless, regardless, despite, even though, at the same time, on the one
hand, and on the other hand.
When comparing, use words and phrases like like, both, similar to, also,
similarly, likewise, again, in the same way, in common with, compared to, and
as well as.

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 Comparison-Contrast
Audience Awareness
Keep the audience in mind. When a writer for the magazine Consumer Reports
compares and contrasts, the author is aware that the reader is in the market
for the product being reviewed. This car may be carrying someone’s newborn
child, so safety has to be addressed carefully. If a girl is writing to her best
friend, the tone may be more casual and references to the boys may be more
about impressions than facts.
The Thesis
The controlling idea in a compare/contrast essay is certainly an argument and
can come at the end in the form of a decision or recommendation. It can easily
be presented at the beginning as well in the form of a review or news feature.
Example: While New York and Los Angeles both offer great shopping and a
chance to meet celebrities, there is no contest when it comes to tourist night
life: New York wins.
Introduction
The introduction of any essay should provide context and set the audience up
for an argument. A compare-contrast introduction might also include the thesis
and a blueprint of the essay. It’s helpful to think of an introduction as an
inverted pyramid; a broad statement narrows down to the points of
comparison and/or contrast.
Example: There is no such thing as bad pizza. Fresh ingredients, mozzarella
cheese, and warmth—what’s there not to love? The service of the food and
ambiance, however, can kill even the most appetizing flavor. Mario’s and Luigi’s
both make a fantastic pie, but only one of them makes it palatable.
Conclusion
The conclusion of any essay should apply the thesis to the audience. It’s helpful
to think of the conclusion as an hourglass; offer a truth related to the thesis,
make the truth more specific to the audience, and end with broader words of
wisdom.
Example: Although classes may be large and dorm rooms cramped, college is
all about the individual. Choosing one, ultimately, has to be about the best fit
for that one student. Someone who is interested in Greek life and athletics
should head for NC State, but someone who is all about a pre-med track and
student government should consider UNC. One school is not better than the
other, but one of them is the better choice.

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 Compare/Contrast Organizer
Object 1: Object 2:
Point of comparison or contrast:

Point of comparison or contrast:

Point of comparison or contrast:

Point of comparison or contrast:

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 Comparison-Contrast RUBRIC

____ The thesis is clear and debatable. 10 points

____ The introduction provides a blueprint for the essay and demonstrates an
awareness of audience. 10 points

____ The essay is organized logically, and related ideas are together. 15 points
____ Topic sentences are clear and debatable and defend the thesis. 10 points
____ Concrete details support the topic sentences. 10 points
____ Each body paragraph contains analysis that ties the concrete details to the
topic sentences and thus to the thesis. 10 points

____ The conclusion applies the thesis to the audience. 10 points

____ The style of the essay overall demonstrates maturity of voice through
sentence formation and word choice. 10 points

____ The essay contains no errors in sentence formation. 5 points

____ The essay contains no errors in usage. 5 points
____ The essay contains no distracting errors in mechanics. 5 points

____ Total Points

©Angie Burgin Kratzer All rights reserved. http://www.angiekratzer.com/ Z

 Comparison-Contrast RUBRIC

____ The thesis is clear and debatable. ____ points

____ The introduction provides a blueprint for the essay and demonstrates an
awareness of audience. ____ points

____ The essay is organized logically, and related ideas are together. ____ points
____ Topic sentences are clear and debatable and defend the thesis. ____ points
____ Concrete details support the topic sentences. ____ points
____ Each body paragraph contains analysis that ties the concrete details to the
topic sentences and thus to the thesis. ____ points

____ The conclusion applies the thesis to the audience. ____ points

____ The style of the essay overall demonstrates maturity of voice through
sentence formation and word choice. ____ points

____ The essay contains no errors in sentence formation. ____ points

____ The essay contains no errors in usage. ____ points
____ The essay contains no distracting errors in mechanics. ____ points

____ Total Points

©Angie Burgin Kratzer All rights reserved. http://www.angiekratzer.com/ Z

 Comparison-Contrast prompts
. Compare and contrast your family with that of a close friend.

Contrast your approach to school and studying with a friend’s approach.

Compare and contrast the teaching styles of two of your teachers.

Humorously contrast the ways people make grilled cheese sandwiches, fold
laundry, or brush their teeth.

Compare and contrast real versus imaginary friends.

Contrast how men are treated versus how women are treated in various
settings or in one particular setting like school or the retail industry.

Compare and contrast the value of going to the movies versus watching movies
on Netflix®.

Compare and contrast how birthdays are handled within your family (e.g., you
versus your sister, how each parent approaches them).

Compare and contrast an outing with each of your parents.

Compare and contrast kissing styles.

Compare and contrast people from different regions (e.g., Southerners versus
Midwesterners).

©Angie Burgin Kratzer All rights reserved. http://www.angiekratzer.com/ Z

 Recommended texts: Comparison-Contrast

This list of pieces was gathered from several anthologies, including The Language
of Composition (2008 Edition), The Norton Reader (Tenth Edition), The McGraw-
Hill Reader (Eleventh Edition), and 50 Essays (Fifth Edition). Some of these titles
are in the public domain and can be found online. Most anthologies include
student questions at the end of each piece.

Keep in mind that authors do not generally set out to write an essay or speech in a
particular mode, so these choices are a bit subjective. What to one reader might
be a broadly descriptive text might to another be one of cause and effect. Feel free
to move these titles in and out of categories.

Fatema Mernissi, “Digital Scheherazades in the Arab World”

The author discusses the Arab response the Internet’s impact on women and
youth.

James Baldwin, “Stranger in the Village”

This descriptive essay is structured with an assumed contrast of an American view
of “Negros” with the view of those in a remote Swiss village.

Kyoko Mori, “School”

This essay contrasts American and Japanese systems of education.

Geoffrey Nunberg, “How Much Wallop Can a Simple Word Pack?”

Nunberg looks at the history and power of the words terrorism and terror.

Ellen Goodman, “In Praise of a Snail’s Pace”

This short essay compares and contrasts traditional mail and e-mail.

©Angie Burgin Kratzer All rights reserved. http://www.angiekratzer.com/ Z

 Analysis tips: Comparison-Contrast
.
It’s easy to get lost in the weeds with comparison and contrast. As writers, we
often get so caught up in the similarities and differences that we forget the
broader purpose: to defend a thesis. If you are given a comparison-contrast
passage to analyze on any standardized assessment, you can bet that the piece
was chosen for its quality, so the chances are pretty slim that the writer lost sight
of the thesis.

Don’t forget to focus on author’s purpose!

Ask why the author is comparing and/or contrasting these two people, events,
objects, places, or ideas. What’s the point? Why does there even need to be a
side-by-side look at these two things? Figure out the purpose of the evaluation,
and you’re on the right track.

Think strategies over devices.

Think broadly when analyzing comparison and contrast. Look at overarching
strategies like organization, point of view, and tone.

Discuss the details.

Within the all-important organizational structure, there are details supporting
the thesis. Look for them. If the thesis is the engine of the car, the details are the
wheels. They move the vehicle. These facts, which may come from the author’s
own experience, readings, and observations, should be analyzed for their
connection to the author’s purpose. Keep your eyes open for other more minute
devices like figurative language and imagery within those details.

©Angie Burgin Kratzer All rights reserved. http://www.angiekratzer.com/ Z

 Cause-Effect
The purpose of this mode is to examine the causes and/or effects of a
specific situation, scenario, or event. It involves more than just a sequence
of events; rather, it explains why something occurred or is occurring and
makes predictions about future related events. As with most other
rhetorical modes, cause-effect contains an element of argument in that the
thesis must be defended.
Although cause-effect writing may seem simple, it can be quite complex. For
example, a situation like failing a math test might have one main cause like
the fact that the student did not study, but it can also have contributory
causes like missing class the day before.
Sometimes we overlook a remote cause (since it happened in the past or far
away) and look only at the immediate cause because it is easy to recognize.

I was out sick for two months

when multiplication tables were
taught in the third grade.
(remote cause)

I failed a
I missed class the day this
particular skill set was taught.
math test.
(contributory cause)

I didn’t study at all.

(immediate and main cause)

Sometimes a causal chain influences events. One cause has an effect, and
then that effect becomes a cause, and so on.

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 Cause-Effect
My house has
My grandmother I have not had
been full of
passed away two access to my
family for two
nights ago. room.
days.

I didn’t study. I lost my notes. I’m disorganized.

Whatever the causes, be sure to make clear

I failed the the difference between a mere series of
math test. events and an explanation of causality
(how versus why).

The cause-effect thesis is not formulaic, but there are some elements it must
have.
1. It makes clear the causes or effects of the situation being discussed.
2. It tells the writer’s position on the relative importance of the causes or
effects.
3. It makes clear the order in which the causes or effects will be discussed.
Example: When deciding to cheat, most students do not seriously consider
effects like getting the wrong answers, losing a teacher’s trust, and
compromising academic honor.
Although the writer must discuss the causes or effects in the order they are
introduced, there are several options for the organization of a cause-effect
essay.
1. Put causes or effects in chronological order. Be careful to focus on the why,
not the how.
2. Place the least important cause or effect first and then build up to the main
cause or effect.
3. Begin by writing about events that were not causes and then explain what
the real causes were.
4. Begin with the most obvious causes or effects and move to more subtle
factors.

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 Cause-Effect Prompts
Discuss the long-term effects of a single event from your childhood.

Analyze the causes of a broken relationship.

Discuss the causes and effects of the physical condition of your school.

Choose a charged political issue (e.g., immigration) and discuss its causes or
effects.

Discuss the effects of online dating versus initially meeting in person.

Discuss the effects of teens and pre-teens using social media.

Analyze the causes of childhood obesity.

Analyze the effects of commercial television on children.

Propose the potential effects of doing away with homework.

Theorize on the reasons for the dropout rate at your school, in your school
district, or in your state.

Discuss the effects of teen stress.

Discuss the causes of a surprising election win.

Propose doing away with something traditional (e.g., the SAT, ACT, thirteen
years of school, AP classes, class ranking, or grades) and analyze the potential
effects.

With research, discuss the causes of generational poverty.

GG
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 Cause-Effect Planner
S Subject
What is my topic?

O Occasion
What event sparked the writing of this piece?
What is the context? What is happening around
the construction of this letter or speech?

A Audience
For what audience is this piece intended? Consider
gender, ethnicity, age, level of education, occupation,
and station in life.

P Purpose
What is my purpose? With what idea do I want the
audience to agree?

S Speaker
Based on the passage, what information can the audience
gather about me? What biases might I have? What must I do
to build trust with the audience?

Causes Event Effects

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 Cause-Effect Rubric
____ The introduction includes makes clear the causes or effects of the
situation being discussed. 10 points
____ The introduction tells the writer’s position on the relative importance of
the causes or effects. 5 points
____ The introduction makes clear the order in which the causes or effects will
be discussed. 5 points

____ The thesis is proved. 10 points

____ The organizational strategy is clear and suitable to the thesis. 10 points

____ Each body paragraph is controlled by a debatable topic sentence that

defends the thesis. 10 points
____ Each body paragraph includes supporting details that defend each topic
sentence. 10 points
____ Each body paragraph includes elaboration that makes a connection
between supporting details and the topic sentence. 5 points

____ The audience’s potential objections are addressed. 5 points

____ The conclusion offers a call to action. 5 points

____ The style of the essay overall demonstrates maturity of voice through
sentence formation and word choice. 10 points

____ There are no errors in sentence formation. 5 points

____ There are no errors in usage. 5 points
____ There are no distracting errors in mechanics. 5 points

____ TOTAL POINTS

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 Cause-Effect Rubric
____ The introduction includes makes clear the causes or effects of the
situation being discussed. ___ points
____ The introduction tells the writer’s position on the relative importance of
the causes or effects. ___ points
____ The introduction makes clear the order in which the causes or effects will
be discussed. ___ points

____ The thesis is proved. ___ points

____ The organizational strategy is clear and suitable to the thesis. ___ points

____ Each body paragraph is controlled by a debatable topic sentence.

___ points
____ Each body paragraph includes supporting details that defend each topic
sentence. ___ points
____ Each body paragraph includes elaboration that makes a connection
between supporting details and the topic sentence. ___ points

____ The audience’s potential objections are addressed. ___ points

____ The conclusion offers a call to action. ___ points

____ The style of the essay overall demonstrates maturity of voice through
sentence formation and word choice. ___ points

____ There are no errors in sentence formation.

____ There are no errors in usage.
____ There are no distracting errors in mechanics.

____ TOTAL POINTS

GG
©Angie Burgin Kratzer All rights reserved. http://www.angiekratzer.com/
 Recommended Texts: Cause-Effect
This list of pieces was gathered from several anthologies, including The
Language of Composition (2008 Edition), The Norton Reader (Tenth Edition),
The McGraw-Hill Reader (Eleventh Edition), and 50 Essays (Fifth Edition). Some
of these titles are in the public domain and can be found online. Most
anthologies include student questions at the end of each piece.
Keep in mind that authors do not generally set out to write an essay or speech
in a particular mode, so these choices are a bit subjective. What to one reader
might be a broadly descriptive text might to another be one of cause and
effect.

Rick Bass, “Why I Hunt”

A Montana resident analyzes the reasons he hunts game.

Gloria Steinem, “Wonder Woman”

This essay looks at comics and the reasons for and effects of having female
super heroes.

Leon Botstein, “Let Teenagers Try Adulthood”

This persuasive essay proposes a re-thinking of American secondary education
and the reasons for this need.

Wangari Muta Maathai, “2004 Nobel Peace Prize Speech”

Maathai’s speech explains the reasons for the Green Belt Movement and the
impact it has had.

Rachel Carson, from Silent Spring

This excerpt addresses the human causes of environmental destruction and
their disastrous effects.

Vine Deloria Jr., from We Talk, You Listen

This Sioux perspective of stereotyping looks at the impact of media portrayals
of minorities.

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 Analysis Tips: Cause-Effect
The center of any cause-effect essay is an event or issue. When analyzing such
an essay, therefore, it is vital to keep an eye on what the author has to say
about that central problem.

Expect the Unexpected.

On an assessment that has been field tested, test designers will certainly
include works with off-beat, unexpected, or controversial theses. It is possible
that an author will propose something surprising, like abolishing the penny or
dropping the voting age to 16. Be careful not to anticipate an author’s thesis;
read the entire passage and let the piece speak for itself.

Don’t Look for a Formula.

It’s not likely that the AP English Language test, SAT, ACT, or Regents Exam will
have a tidy essay organized as cause-cause-cause, effect-effect-effect. Rather,
an open-ended writing prompt or a passage associated with multiple choice
questions will be more likely to have a loose organization, a more organic
structure that is dependent on brief narratives. Don’t let the organization
throw you; rather, consider discussing the structure itself as a strategy.
Theorize about the reasons the author chose that particular method of
organization. If you can connect it to his or her purpose, use it in a rhetorical
analysis essay.

Don’t Be Thrown by Language.

A persuasive essay can masquerade as cause-effect. Since, essentially, all
writing is argumentative, an argument can take just about any form. What may
take the form of reasons may also be effects. If an author wants to persuade an
audience to stop using chlorofluorocarbons (what makes an aerosol can spray),
that person might discuss the causes of glacier melt or the effects of global
warming.

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 Process Analysis
For advanced writers, the process analysis mode is deceptively
simple. What looks like it would be a straightforward list is actually a
bit more complex.

There are two types of process analysis: informative and directive.

An informative essay, usually written in third person, explains in
detail how something works. A directive analysis, written in second
or third person, explains how to do something. Here are some
examples:

Informative: how a bill becomes a law, how a caterpillar becomes a

butterfly, how a baby develops in the womb, how the ACT is scored

Directive: how to study for a test, how to serve a volleyball, how to

get grease out of a silk blouse, how to grill a steak

To analyze something is to break it down

into its component parts, so process
analysis is the breaking down of a
process. However, in order for the
writing to have depth, there must be a
point to the process.

For example, a process analysis essay explaining how to break up

with someone might be controlled by the idea that teenagers
should not get into serious relationships. An essay breaking down
the steps to cheating on a test might ultimately teach that
dishonestly does not pay in the long run.

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 Process Analysis
The Process for the Process

1. Begin by constructing a narrative explaining how something is done.

Note the gaps in the explanation, the holes that would need to be filled
for someone new to the process. For example, when instructing
someone in the steps for creating a triple crochet stitch, the teacher has
to show the student how to hold the crochet hook correctly. Skip a vital
step, and the whole process breaks down.
2. Tease out the steps from the narrative and list them in chronological
order. Here’s where the gaps show up even more clearly.
3. Take each of the steps and flesh it out, expand on it, and give examples
and illustrations where needed. For example, a manual on juggling—
ultimately an extended process analysis—would certainly need to
include possible pitfalls and ways to get around them. Instructions for
installing software would certainly include troubleshooting tips. It’s in
this step that dry writing can come to life with humor, syntactical
devices like repetition and sentence length, and figurative language. A
process can be both clear and a pleasure to read.
4. Ease the reader in with a brief introduction explaining what the process
is and why it’s important.
5. Solidify the process with a brief conclusion that overtly addresses that
central idea. This idea should tie in with the importance of the process
as explained in the introduction. For example, instructions on loading a
shotgun would need both to introduce and reinforce safety.

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 Process Analysis Prompts
Informative:

Explain how a mechanical process works (e.g., a car engine or a toilet).

Explain how a medieval weapon worked (e.g., a trebuchet).

Explain a blacksmithing process (e.g., the forging of a sword).

Explain another culture’s marriage engagement process.

Explain another religion’s conversion process.

Explain how honey is made.

Explain how an airplane stays in the air.

Directive:
Explain how to ask a girl out on a date.

Explain how to break up with someone.

Explain how to do one grooming task (e.g., brush teeth or shave).

Explain to someone from another culture how to make friends in your

culture.

Explain how to fish in fresh water or salt water.

Explain how to jump a hurdle, do a backflip, dive, or do some other athletic

activity.

Explain how to dress a deer.

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 Process Analysis Graphic Organizer
Process to be Explained:
Begin by constructing a short narrative explaining how something is done.

Tease out the steps from the narrative and list them in chronological order.
Beside each step, make notes about ways to flesh out the step. Give example
and illustrations where needed. Warn the audience about pitfalls and how to
avoid them.

Steps Elaboration

Ease the reader in with a brief introduction explaining what the process is
and why it’s important.

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 Process Analysis Rubric
____ The introduction explains what the process is and why it is
important. 10 points

____ The organizational strategy is clear and suitable to the process.

10 points
____ The steps of the process are clear. 15 points
____ Each step of the process is fleshed out with details,
explanations, and other elaboration as needed. 20 points
____ There are no gaps in the process. 10 points

____ The conclusion makes a connection between the steps and their
importance. 10 points

____ Rhetorical elements (diction, syntax, figurative language, etc.)

are suited to the audience and task. 10 points

____ There are no errors in sentence formation. 5 points

____ There are no errors in usage. 5 points
____ There are no distracting errors in mechanics. 5 points

____ TOTAL POINTS

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 Process Analysis Rubric
____ The introduction explains what the process is and why it is
important. ___ points

____ The organizational strategy is clear and suitable to the process.

___ points
____ The steps of the process are clear. ___ points
____ Each step of the process is fleshed out with details,
explanations, and other elaboration as needed. ___ points
____ There are no gaps in the process. ___ points

____ The conclusion makes a connection between the steps and their
importance. ___ points

____ Rhetorical elements (diction, syntax, figurative language, etc.)

are suited to the audience and task. ___ points

____ There are no errors in sentence formation. ___ points

____ There are no errors in usage. ___ points
____ There are no distracting errors in mechanics. ___ points

____ TOTAL POINTS

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 Recommended Texts: Process Analysis
This list of pieces was gathered from several anthologies, including The
Language of Composition (2008 Edition), The Norton Reader (Tenth Edition),
The McGraw-Hill Reader (Eleventh Edition), and 50 Essays (Fifth Edition). Some
of these titles are in the public domain and can be found online. Most
anthologies include student questions at the end of each piece.
Keep in mind that authors do not generally set out to write an essay or speech
in a particular mode, so these choices are a bit subjective. What to one reader
might be a broadly descriptive text might to another be one of cause and
effect.

Peter Elbow, “Freewriting”

This essay begins with the complete process and then defends it with
elaboration and explanation.

Jessica Mitford, “Behind the Formaldehyde Curtain”

This informative essay explains the process of preparing a body for a funeral
and burial.

Frederick Douglass, “Learning to Read”

Douglass weaves the process of learning to read and write into a narrative
about his life as a slave.

Jonathan Swift, “A Modest Proposal”

This satirical essay details the process for solving the Irish famine.

David Ewing Duncan, “DNA as Destiny”

This essay weaves narration and an explanation of the process of genetic
testing.

Garrison Keillor, “How to Write a Letter”

Keillor’s directive essay explains the practicalities of putting pen to paper.

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 Analysis Tips: Process Analysis

A Process is More Than a Process.

If a writer is bothering to explain a process, the audience can bet that there are
ulterior motives. Frederick Douglass did not write about his life as a slave just
because he needed to process his thoughts. He was on a contemporary mission
to abolish slavery. The designer of the Space Shuttle pre-flight checklist did not
write out a process in order to keep it straight in her own head; she wanted to
avoid another Challenger disaster. Write about the why.

Organization is Key.
It’s unlikely that you’re going to get a tidy step-by-step bulleted process essay
on a standardized assessment. What you will get is a process that looks like
another mode. For example, a passage might tell a story that includes an
analysis of steps taken to accomplish a task. Pay attention to the how.

Watch Your Tone.

A writer likely has not set out to just publish a list, remember? Often, an
audience gets to enjoy a bit of irony and humor along the way. Imagine
shocking women into being more careful by writing a speech telling them how
to be attacked. Imagine making students laugh by telling them exactly how to
write an essay on a book they’ve never read (hypothetically, of course). Look
for layered tones.

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 Classification and Division
Writing in the classification and division mode can be a bit tricky but a lot of fun.
It’s tricky because there is a difference between classifying objects, ideas, or
people and dividing them. In terms of analyzing or even writing, the difference
is arguably unimportant, but it is there nonetheless.

Division is separating the items before they are grouped. Classification is grouping
by like characteristics. It would make more sense to call the mode Division and
Classification.

Here’s how it works:

The writer considers a group of objects, ideas, or people. For our overly simple
example (one without the depth required for an academic essay), we’ll use a
furniture store. From there, the writer would divide the items in the store into
broad categories. Let’s use Intended for People and Intended for Objects as our
two broad groupings. The requirements for being in those two groups are pretty
straightforward. From there, we classify the objects.

Seating
Intended for
People
Bedding
Furniture
Store
Tables
Intended for
Objects
Storage

Imagine, though, that you’re writing about something much more substantive,
like families, conflicts, boyfriends, courses, colleges, or even abstract ideas like
love, faith, trust, or anger. Consider all the different ways you could divide and
write about those concepts.

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 Classification and Division
Organization

Devote the introduction to explaining how you broke up the original group and
classified the components. Include a DEBATABLE idea that you will use your
classifications to defend.

Devote the body to those classifications. The simplest way to accomplish a

clear organization that defends the thesis is to devote one body paragraph to
each category. Each paragraph should include a DEBATABLE topic sentence that
defends the thesis; supporting details that defend the objects’, ideas’, or
people’s inclusion within each category; and elaboration making connections
between the details and the topic sentences. There is no hard-and-fast rule for
the number of paragraphs needed.

Use the conclusion to put a lid on the thesis and relate it to the reader.

Pitfalls

1. If you’re writing about ethnicities, genders, parents, teachers, or any other

people groups, avoid the mistake of promoting stereotypes.
2. Be very clear about the requirements for belonging in each category.
3. It’s easy to get caught up in the explanations of your classification choices
and forget that all writing, ultimately, is an argument. There must be a
thesis, a central idea controlling the piece.

Classification and Division as a Rhetorical Strategy or Device

On the macro level, C & D is a mode, a type of writing. It can also be used as a
strategy, an organizational choice that serves to communicate better than any
other mode. On a micro level, it can also be a device within an essay. For
example, in a narrative essay about a first date, a writer might briefly classify
and divide types of first dates, separating them into categories of blind dates,
accidental dates, and planned dates.

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 Graphic Organizer: Classification and Division
Classifications

Divisions

Group

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 Classification and Division Prompts
Separate teachers into different categories and discuss their attributes
and effectiveness.

Divide members of the opposite sex and classify those divisions.

Analyze high school cliques by classifying the groups.

Divide and classify the major political parties in your country.

Classify the types of jobs a teenager might have in order to make a

point about hiring practices or some other teen employment issues.

Make an argument about nutrition by dividing and classifying food.

Make an argument about exercise by dividing and classifying athletic

activities.

Divide and classify different types of romantic dates.

Divide and classify leisure activities in which teenagers might

participate.

Argue against homework through a classification of the different

types of homework assignments.

Discuss the value of vacations by classifying the different types of

vacations.

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 Classification and Division Rubric
____ The introduction explains the process of moving from the broad
group to the classifications. 5 points
____ There is a debatable idea to be defended by the classifications.
10 points

____ The organizational strategy is clear and suitable to the process.

15 points
____ Each topic sentence is a debatable idea that defends the thesis.
10 points
____ Each classification is fleshed out with details, explanations, and
other elaboration as needed. The requirements for each
classification are clear. 15 points

____ The thesis is proved. 10 points

____ The conclusion puts a lid on the thesis and makes a connection
to the reader. 10 points

____ Rhetorical elements (diction, syntax, figurative language, etc.)

are suited to the audience and task. 10 points

____ There are no errors in sentence formation. 5 points

____ There are no errors in usage. 5 points
____ There are no distracting errors in mechanics. 5 points

____ TOTAL POINTS

©Angie Burgin Kratzer All rights reserved. http://www.angiekratzer.com/

 Classification and Division Rubric
____ The introduction explains the process of moving from the broad
group to the classifications. ___ points
____ There is a debatable idea to be defended by the classifications.
___ points

____ The organizational strategy is clear and suitable to the process.

___ points
____ Each topic sentence is a debatable idea that defends the thesis.
___ points
____ Each classification is fleshed out with details, explanations, and
other elaboration as needed. The requirements for each
classification are clear. ___ points

____ The thesis is proved. ___ points

____ The conclusion puts a lid on the thesis and makes a connection
to the reader. ___ points

____ Rhetorical elements (diction, syntax, figurative language, etc.)

are suited to the audience and task. ___ points

____ There are no errors in sentence formation. ___ points

____ There are no errors in usage. ___ points
____ There are no distracting errors in mechanics. ___ points

____ TOTAL POINTS

©Angie Burgin Kratzer All rights reserved. http://www.angiekratzer.com/

 Recommended Texts:
Classification and Division
This list of pieces was gathered from several anthologies, including The
Language of Composition (2008 Edition), The Norton Reader (Tenth
Edition), The McGraw-Hill Reader (Eleventh Edition), and 50 Essays
(Fifth Edition). Some of these titles are in the public domain and can be
found online. Most anthologies include student questions at the end of
each piece.

Keep in mind that authors do not generally set out to write an essay or
speech in a particular mode, so these choices are a bit subjective. What
to one reader might be a broadly descriptive text might to another be
one of cause and effect. Feel free to move these titles in and out of
categories.

Gloria Anzaldua, “How to Tame a Wild Tongue”

This essay classifies dialects of Spanish and explains their validity.

Aaron Copeland, “How We Listen”

Copeland divides the “music listening process” into three planes, the
sensuous, the expressive, and the sheerly musical.

Amy Tan, “Mother Tongue”

Tan categorizes the different types of English she and her family speak
and the effects they have on others.

C.S. Lewis, “The Rival Conceptions of God” from Mere Christianity

Lewis breaks down arguments about and against God by separating
them into categories.

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 Analysis Tips:
Classification and Division
Like process analysis, comparison-contrast, and description—all the
modes, actually—it’s easy to focus on the wrong thing when analyzing.
Remember that the separation or grouping is just a vehicle for the
presentation of an idea. The author decided that this mode was best for
this thesis.

The Vehicle is the Strategy.

Why this mode? Why this choice? Address the use of
classification/division as the frame for the communication of this idea.

Chrome Wheels are a Distraction.

As with any rhetorical analysis, guard against being distracted by shiny
objects. If you “catch” the use of a rhetorical device but can’t connect it
to a thesis, just move on.

Tone is the Engine.

Like process analysis, classification and division can be a fun mode in
which to write. Passages might be humorous, tongue-in-cheek
categorizing of ideas that have no business being categorized. Be on the
lookout for irony, sarcasm, humor, and the like. Tone is meaning, so if a
student misses the tone, chances are that he or she will miss the thesis.
How is tone communicated? In this mode, look at the labels for the
classifications, the use of highly connotative diction, and the types of
details being chosen as examples of each category.

©Angie Burgin Kratzer All rights reserved. http://www.angiekratzer.com/

 Angie Burgin Kratzer is a high school English teacher in central North
Carolina, and she holds Secondary ELA and K-12 Academically Gifted
certificates. In 2001 and 2011, she earned her Adolescent/Young Adult
Literacy certificate from the National Board for Professional Teaching
Standards. Her experience includes 18 years in the classroom teaching
English 9, English 10, English 11, English 12, AP English Language &
Composition, Creative Writing, and Newspaper Journalism; and three
years as a curriculum specialist for 6th through 12th grade English
Language Arts. She also serves school districts as a consultant and
trainer in writing instruction. If you have questions about any of her
products, contact her at [email protected].

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