The Conservation and Restoration of Ceramics

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The Conservation and Restoration
of Ceramics

Susan Buys, former Head of Ceramics and Glass Conservation, Victoria and
Albert Museum, London

and

Victoria Oakley, Head of Ceramics and Glass Conservation, Victoria and

Albert Museum, London
First published by Butterworth -Hei n em ann
This edition published 2011 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon 0X 14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA
Routledge is an imprint o f the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
First published 1993
Paperback edition 1996

Copyright © 1993, Susan Buys and Victoria Oakley.

All rights reserved

The right of Susan Buys and Victoria Oakley to be identified as the authors of this work
has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system

or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher

Notice
No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons
or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use
or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material
herein. Because of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent
verification of diagnoses and drug dosages should be made

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

Buys, Susan
Conservation and Restoration of
Ceramics. - (Butterworth-Heinemann
Series in Conservation and Museology)
I. Title II. Oakley, Victoria III. Series
738.1 "

Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data

Buys, Susan
The conservation and restoration of ceramics/Susan Buys,
Victoria Oakley.
p. cm. - (Butterworth-Heinemann series in conservation and
museology)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0 7506 3219 4
1. Pottery - Repairing. 2. Porcelain - Repairing. 1. Oakley,
Victoria. II. Title III. Series
NK4233.B89 1993
738. l_8-dc20 93-23174
CIP
ISBN-13: 978-0-7506-3219-5
ISBN-10: 0-7506-3219-4

Transferred to digital print 2008

Contents

Series editors' p reface vi

P reface viii

Part One
1 The technology of ceramics 3
2 The deterioration of ceramics 18
3 Preventive care of ceramics 29
4 Examination and recording 40

Part Two
5 The development of ceramics conservation 63
6 Removal of previous restoration materials 74
7 Cleaning 84
8 Reinforcement and consolidation 99
9 Bonding 106
10 Replacement of lost material 119
11 Retouching: the theory 139
12 Retouching: the practice 149

Part Three
13 Planning and equipping the studio 163
14 Materials for ceramics conservation 178

Part Four
15 Displaying and mounting ceramics 207
16 Emergency procedures 217

A ppendices
I Conservation associations and other bodies 225
II Manufacturers 226

R eferences 228

In dex 237

V
Series editors’ preface

The conservation of artefacts and buildings has a long From the early 1960s onwards, international
history, but the positive emergence of conservation as congresses (and the literature emerging from them)
a profession can be said to date from the foundation held by IIC, ICOM, ICOMOS and ICCROM not only
of the International Institute for the Conservation of advanced the subject in its various technical specia­
Museum Objects (IIC) in 1950 (the last two words of lizations but also emphasized the cohesion of
the title being later changed to Historic and Artistic conservators and their subject as an interdisciplinary
Works) and the appearance soon after in 1952 of its profession.
journal Studies in Conservation. The role of the The use of the term C onservation in the title of this
conservator as distinct from those of the restorer and series refers to the whole subject of the care and
the scientist had been emerging during the 1 9 3 0 s with treatment of valuable artefacts both movable and
a focal point in the Fogg Art Museum, Harvard immovable, but within the discipline conservation has
University, which published the precursor to Studies a meaning which is distinct from that of restoration.
in Conservation, T echn ical Studies in the F ield o f the C onservation used in this specialized sense has two
F in e Arts (1932-42). aspects: first, the control of the environment to
UNESCO, through its Cultural Heritage Division minimize the decay of artefacts and materials; and,
and its publications, had always taken a positive role second, their treatment to arrest decay and to stabilize
in conservation and the foundation, under its them where possible against further deterioration.
auspices, of the International Centre for the Study Restoration is the continuation of the latter process,
of the Preservation and the Resoration of Cultural when conservation treatment is thought to be
Property (ICCROM), in Rome, was a further advance. insufficient, to the extent of reinstating an object,
The Centre was established in 1959 with the aims of without falsification, to a condition in which it can be
advising internationally on conservation problems, exhibited.
co-ordinating conservation activators and establish­ In the field of conservation conflicts of values on
ing standards of training courses. aesthetic, historical, or technical grounds are often
A significant confirmation of professional progress inevitable. Rival attitudes and methods inevitably arise
was the transformation at New York in 1966 of the in a subject which is still developing and at the core of
two committees of the International Council of these differences there is often a deficiency of
Museums (ICOM), one curatorial on the Care of technical knowledge. That is one of the principal
Paintings (founded in 1949) and the other mainly raisons d ’etre of this series. In most of these matters
scientific (founded in the mid 1950s) into the ICOM ethical principles are the subject of much discussion,
Committee for Conservation. and generalizations cannot easily cover (say) build­
Following the Second International Congress of ings, furniture, easel paintings and waterlogged
Architects in Venice in 1964 when the Venice wooden objects.
Charter was promulgated, the International Council A rigid, universally agreed principle is that all
of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) was set up in treatment should be adequately documented. There
1 9 6 5 to deal with archaeological, architectural and is also general agreement that structural and decora­
town planning questions, to schedule monuments tive falsification should be avoided. In addition there
and sites and to monitor relevant legislation. are three other principles which, unless there are

vi
 Series editors’ p r e fa c e vii

overriding objections, it is generally agreed should be cases where the respective branches of the subject
followed. have common ground, for example in the treatment
The first is the principle of the reversibility of of stone and glass and in the control of the museum
processes, which states that a treatment should environment. Since the publication of the first volume
normally be such that the artefact can, if desired, be it has been decided to include within the series
returned to its pre-treatment condition even after a related monographs and technical studies. To reflect
long lapse of time. This principle is impossible to this enlargement of its scope the series has been
apply in some cases, for example where the survival renamed the Butterworth-Heinemann Series in Con­
of an artefact may depend upon an irreversible servation and Museology.
process. The second, intrinsic to the whole subject, Though necessarily different in details of organiza­
is that as far as possible decayed parts of an artefact tion and treatment (to fit the particular requirements
should be conserved and not replaced. The third is of the subject) each volume has the same general
that the consequences of the ageing of the original standard which is that of such training courses as
materials (for example ‘patina’) should not normally those of the University of London Institute of
be disguised or removed. This includes a secondary Archaeology, The Victoria and Albert Museum, the
proviso that later accretions should not be retained Conservation Center, New York University, the
under the guise of natural patina. Institute of Advanced Architectural Studies, York,
The authors of the volumes in this series give their and ICCROM.
views on these matters, where relevant, with The authors have been chosen from among the
reference to the types of material within their scope. acknowledged experts in each field, but as a result
They take into account the differences in approach to of the wide areas of knowledge and technique
artefacts of essentially artistic significance and to those covered even by the specialized volumes in this
in which the interest is primarily historical, archae­ series, in many instances multi-authorship has been
ological or scientific. necessary.
The volumes are unified by a systematic and With the existence of IIC, ICOM, ICOMOS and
balanced presentation of theoretical and practical ICCROM, the principles and practice of conservation
material with, where necessary, an objective compar­ have become as internationalized as the problems.
ison of different methods and approaches. A balance The collaboration of Consultant Editors will help to
has also been maintained between the fine (and ensure that the practices discussed in this series will
decorative) arts, archaeology and architecture in those be applicable throughout the world.
Preface

Ceramics conservators are required to possess an sideration before contemplating active treatment.
increasingly wide range of specialist knowledge: not Treatment should always be assessed in the light
only on everyday treatment of damaged objects, but of the characteristics of the object in question, and
also on subjects such as packing and handling of for this reason, chapters have been included on the
objects, on display techniques, and on procedures to technology and deterioration of ceramics. Following
limit damage in emergency situations. The aim of this on from this, the implications of these characteristics
book is to bring together this information. It is not for preventive conservation are discussed, and
intended to be a manual of techniques, nor can it finally methods of examination and recording are
pretend to be an exhaustive survey of the materials surveyed.
and methods used by past and present ceramics Part Two covers active conservation methods, and
conservators. What it does aim to do is to present an begins with a review of past materials and techniques.
approach to ceramics conservation that is based on an Then, chapter by chapter, the different stages in the
understanding and appreciation of the ceramic treatment sequence are considered. An attempt has
medium, of the materials used in its treatment, and been made to draw attention to the questions of why
of the ways in which the two interact. In doing so, an treatment should be carried out at all, what it is that
attempt has been made to draw together a very wide treatment is intended to achieve, and the criteria on
range of information, and where the amount of detail which the choice of treatment should be based. Many
given has for reasons of practicality been small, of the details of technique are modified and devel­
references to further reading have been selected. oped by individual conservators to suit the way in
The audience for this book is intended primarily which they work and the particular job in hand, but a
to be working conservators and students of con­ basic outline of techniques in general use has been
servation. The behaviour and treatment of ceramics given.
of all types are based on the same fundamental It is important that the practical chapters should be
principles, and it is therefore intended that the read in conjunction with Part 3, which covers some of
contents should be of interest to those working in all the more technical details of the materials involved in
sectors of the field of ceramics conservation. There treatment, and the equipment, including health and
has in the past been some divergence of opinion safety equipment, required for their use. Some
between conservators working in commercial prac­ understanding of the nature of treatment materials
tice and those working in museums and similar and their interaction with ceramic objects is important
institutions. However, these differences are becom­ in order to allow proper assessment of the suitability
ing less apparent owing to the possibilities presented of materials for particular purposes. For this reason
by modem materials for more satisfactory repair and care has been taken to explain some of the basic
restoration, coupled with a more widespread respect principles involved in the behaviour of these materials
for the integrity of the object. Information exchange, in terms which, it is hoped, those conservators
sadly lacking in the field in the past, is growing, and without a scientific training will find easy to assimilate.
a list of bodies concerned with conservation has At the same time, it is intended that the information
been given in Appendix I. will act as a useful aid to those conservators with
The book is divided into four parts. Part One more experience in this area. Doubtless, there are
covers material which should be given due con­ materials and techniques in use that we have failed to

viii
 P reface ix

mention, or materials or reports of research that have offers of information and comments on the manu­
become available since the time of writing. However, script, in particular Dr Jonathan Ashley-Smith, Glenn
it is hoped that this book will give some guidance as Benson, Sandra Davison, Ian Freestone, Fi Jordan,
to the questions that must be asked before adopting Judith Lamey, Graham Martin, Boris Pretzel, Dr
such materials and techniques for use. Manufacturers Phil Rogers, Wendy Walker and John Watt. They
of materials and equipment are given in Appendix II. would also like to thank Charles Oakley and Paul
The final two chapters of the book, in Part Four, are Robins for their invaluable assistance with the
of particular relevance to conservators with respon­ illustrations.
sibility for large collections. They give information on Sources of illustrations (other than those by the
display treatments and on emergency procedures. authors) are stated in the captions. The authors are
The authors would particularly like to acknowledge grateful for the kind permission granted to reproduce
the contribution of Professor Henry Hodges to these illustrations, and would like particularly to
Chapters 1 and 2. acknowledge the Trustees and the Conservation
The authors would like to thank a number of Department of the Victoria and Albert Museum,
colleagues for their support and encouragement, London.
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Part One
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1

The technology of ceramics

It is widely quoted that pottery was one of the first architectural, structural, electronic, domestic, cult, and
synthetic materials made by man as a result of decorative applications. However, in the context of
subjecting clay to fire in order to produce an artificial this book the boundaries are set to include those
stone. The discovery that clay could be used for ceramic artifacts of an aesthetic, historical, ethno­
making objects can be traced back to before the graphic and archaeological nature, not including glass
Neolithic age. The earliest ceramic artifacts that have or enamelled metals.
endured the test of time for thousands of years Although an appreciation of ceramic objects is
reflect the story of civilization and the societies that enhanced by, but not necessarily dependent on, an
made them. In many parts of the world the awareness of the technology behind them (Charles­
techniques for making utilitarian pottery have ton, 1981), to the ceramics conservator an under­
changed little from the first primitive wares, while standing of the technology is vitally important. Just as
elsewhere they have developed into a highly the enormous range of aesthetic and physical
sophisticated industry. qualities displayed by ceramics is directly linked to
An introduction to the complex subject of ceramics the way in which they were made, so too is their
technology would seem incomplete without some susceptibility to different types of damage and
reference to earth, water, air and fire: the basic deterioration. The conservator should be able to
essentials from which ceramics are derived (Rado, understand and anticipate why certain types of
1969; Fraser, 1979; Casson, 1977). The earth is mixed damage affect some ceramics. Similarly, he/she
with water to make it workable. The resulting form is should be able to base the selection of a treatment
then dried in air. Finally, in subjecting it to fire, the process on a sound knowledge of how the treatment
object becomes hard and durable. Of the four raw may interact with the fabric of the object, and this can
ingredients, earth and fire exert the most important only be achieved through familiarization with the
influence on the final product. The earth, as clay, a technology of the material.
deceptively simple material (Rhodes, 1977), can
possess an infinite range of variables in its composi­
tion that undergo a complex series of alterations
during heating. The huge legacy of ceramic art in
museums and private collections testifies to the range Clay and its origins
of possibilities that the clay and heat in combination
possess. Clay can be found in abundance on the earth’s
The making of ceram ics has been defined as the art surface. It is the product of thousands of years of
of forming permanent objects of usefulness and/or intensive geological weathering of the igneous and
beauty by the heat treatment of earthy raw materials metamorphic rocks such as granite that predominate
(Rhodes, 1977). The state of p er m a n en c e requires in the composition of the earth’s crust. The action of
some qualifying; the permanence applies only to the hot gases focused on the hard igneous rock resulted
material itself and not the object it forms. Within the in its decomposition to produce a softer rock, and
definition an enormous range of products can be eventually chemical and physical breakdown into a
included, such as those made for industrial, scientific, hydrated silicate of aluminium, a clay mineral (with a

3
4 The C onservation a n d Restoration o f C eram ics

definable chemical formula) known as kaolinite Clay bodies

(Al2 O 3 .2 SiO 2 .2 H2 O). Kaolinite is the main and most
important of the clay minerals, though it is never Originally the potter would have relied on naturally
found in a pure state. It is usually contaminated with occurring clays, making little or no additions to them.
other clays by impurities such as iron oxide, However, the demands which the potter or manu­
calcareous material and other mineral decomposition facturer makes on the clay usually necessitate the
products of igneous rock including quartz (Hodges, addition of other materials. Such clays that have been
1964). Kaolinite has an ordered crystal structure, designed for a specific purpose are called bodies. The
made up of com paratively large ( 1 . 0 micron) usual modern recipe for a clay body is based on a
hexagonal, plate-like crystals arranged in stacks. careful balance of clay, fillers and fluxes. However,
Another important group of clay minerals is the outside China, fluxes were rarely added to clay before
montmorillonites derived from basaltic rather than the post-medieval period. The clay imparts plasticity
granitic rocks. Their composition differs from kaoli­ and workability, while the fillers contribute non­
nite, the ratio of silica to alumina being doubled. In plastic materials that help with shape retention during
addition, they also contain various other oxides firing, and the fluxes control the fusion or hardening
including magnesium, sodium, iron and calcium. point of the clay body during firing. Before the clay
The crystals in montmorillonite are extremely small can be worked, a certain amount of preparation must
and disordered, contributing to the high plasticity of take place. Adjustments may have to be made to the
the clay. Illite is a clay mineral derived mainly from recipe in order to improve the clay. Following this, the
the breakdown of micas and is relatively rich in natural weathering process is continued artificially,
potassium. It is common in many older sedimentary using such processes as grinding, sieving, settling,
clays. dewatering, kneading and pounding the clay.
Clays can be classified in various ways, though the
simplest is based on origin and divides them up as
either p rim ary or secon d ary clays.
Plasticity and fillers
Primary clays, or residual clays, are those which are
found at the site of their formation. They are derived The feature that distinguishes clay from other minerals
from rock that has been weathered by the action of formations is the extremely small size of the particles
groundwater, steam and gases. Typically, deposits of and their ability to adsorb water chemically. When
primary clay will occur as irregular pockets amongst fully wetted, each clay particle becomes covered with
the unchanged parent rock (Rhodes, 1977). Such a layer of moisture. Because of their flat shape, the
deposits tend to be mixed with small fragments of moisture, known as the w ater o f plasticity, causes the
unaltered rock producing a coarse texture and limited particles to adhere, and at the same time allows them
plasticity. However, once sorted from the rock to be moved over one another in response to
fragments, primary clays can be very pure. An pressure. In this way, the whole mass of particles
example is china clay which comprises 98% kaoli­ provides a material that is plastic and capable of
nite, and bentonite which is derived from volcanic holding its shape after being deformed by pressure.
ash. Bentonite is often added to modem ceramic The plasticity of clay is related to its water content.
bodies to impart plasticity. If the moisture is allowed to evaporate the mass of
Most clays rarely remain at their site of origin and particles becomes progressively more rigid until it can
are usually transported thousands of miles by water, no longer be modelled (Figure 1.1). At the same time,
wind or ice. During their journey, these secondary or because so much of the mass of clay is made up of
sedimentary clays, as they are known, are exposed to water, it will shrink as it dries. Depending on the type
an intensive, prolonged weathering process that of clay and the particle size, shrinkage can be
reduces the clay into smaller particles. By a natural between 5 and 17% (Rhodes, 1977; Casson, 1977). If
sorting process, the finest particles are the last to be drying is too rapid, warping and cracking may occur.
deposited in the lower reaches of rivers, lake beds or To get round this problem, the clay is mixed with
the sea. Many impurities, such as iron, organic matter, sand-sized material that will make the mixture more
quartz and mica, are picked up along the way; porous and will at the same time adsorb less water on
consequently clays can vary greatly in composition. the surfaces of its particles than clay would. These
Usually they consist of disordered kaolinite mixed materials, usually called fillers, may include sand,
with other clay minerals and oxides. The oxides are finely ground rocks and shells, and even comminuted
responsible for producing a range of different colours. pottery, known as grog. Quite apart from opening up
Because of their fine particle size, most secondary the body, these fillers may enter into the chemical
clays are much more plastic than primary clays. structure of the wares during firing. Some fillers, such
Amongst the secondary clays, examples include: ball as sand may already be naturally mixed with the clay.
clays, red clays, earthenware clays, marls and fire As a result of being hydrated, the clay particles
clays. possess a polarity, their surfaces being covered with
 The technology o f ceram ics 5

sufficiently dehydrated and takes on the typical red

colour. The presence of carbonaceous matter,
generally decayed plant materials, may give some
clays a very dark grey, brown or black colour. On
firing, this carbon may bum out resulting in a body
that is virtually white, as is the case with ball clays
(a) obtained from beneath coal measures. Some con­
taminants are less benign and may cause severe
problems. In most kiln-fired pottery clays containing
limestone or calcite inclusions (calcium carbonate
C aC 03), the marls, can only be used if the limestone
is present as very small particles, in which case it
will be rendered inert by reaction with the
decomposing clay or flux. The mineral is converted
(b) to calcium oxide or calcia (CaO) during firing,
releasing carbon dioxide (C 0 2), and will later,
months after firing, absorb water from the environ­
ment to become calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2). If the
particles are large enough, the hydration, which is
accompanied by expansion, may be sufficient to
push a flake of fired clay out of the pottery surface
or even break the piece. Similarly, clay contaminated
(c) with fragments of plaster of Paris during shaping will
suffer disruption. Such problems were usually
Figure 1.1 (a) Water acts as a lubricant between clay
avoided in prehistoric pottery which was fired at
particles, making the clay soft and pliable, (b) As the water
evaporates the particles are drawn closer together, low temperatures so that calcite fillers like shells did
producing increased friction and the clay becomes leather- not decompose.
hard. (c) When most of the water has evaporated, the
particles can no longer move, and the resulting effect is hard,
dry clay. Fluxes
In order to decrease the firing temperatures of the clay
body, fluxes may be added. These form viscous
liquids at high temperatures, combining with other
materials such as quartz, and then cool to give glasses
or glass-like materials. Examples include alkaline
earth metal oxides and feldspathic materials. Calcite
strong negative charges. Consequently, if the clay is or whiting (calcium carbonate CaC 03) in a very finely
mixed into water containing an alkali, the negative divided form can also be used as a flux.
hydroxyl ions in the solution prevent the particles
from coagulating and they will remain in suspension.
In an acidic solution, however, the hydrogen ions will Forming processes
serve as links between the negative surfaces of the
particles and they will coalesce and flocculate. Hence There are many techniques that may be employed in
by adding an acidic material, as for example humus, making ceramic objects. They range from the most
the clay can be made more plastic, while an primitive methods to highly mechanized industrial
excessively plastic clay can be rendered less so by processes.
adding an alkaline substance such as sodium The simplest way of making a vessel form is to take
bicarbonate. a ball of soft clay in one hand, and make a series of
even pinches outwards from the centre while rotating
the form. The hollow shape, or p in c h p o t (Figure 1.2),
will have a crude and irregular finish. Coiling is a
Contaminants
progression from pinching and involves forming the
Naturally occurring clays are usually contaminated, walls of a vessel shape using a series of clay coils. The
most commonly with compounds of iron, usually in starting point is usually a flattened pad of clay. The
the hydrated state. Hence the presence of hydrated coils are rolled out on a flat board and gradually built
iron oxide (Fe20 3) gives many clays a characteristic up, winding round and round (Figure 1.3). Irregula­
yellow ochre colour; when heated it becom es rities may be scraped away later using a flattened tool
6 The C onservation a n d Restoration o f C eram ics

Figure 1.2 Making a simple pinch pot.

Fieure 1.4 Slab buildins.

firing, the edges must be scored with a point, then

wetted with slurry of clay mixed with water to cement
the two parts, which are then luted together.
For thousands of years the technique of press
m ou lding has been employed to mass produce a
shape (Kingery and Vandiver, 1986). Clay is pressed
into moulds made from an absorbent material such as
low-fired unglazed (i.e. biscuit) clay, plaster of Paris,
or wood. After trimming away any surplus, the clay is
left in place until dried to leather-hard stage, after
which shrinkage facilitates its removal. Complex
forms can be assembled from a series of moulds by
joining and adding pieces.
The development of press moulding techniques
into a mechanized process is represented by jiggering
and jollying (Figure 1.5). For making circular or
cylindrical forms (such as flat ware or hollow ware
respectively), a mould roughly lined with clay is
Figure 1.3 Coiling a pot. rotated while a template is gradually brought towards
the mould, squeezing away excess clay (Hodges,
1964).
Another type of moulding technique involves
pouring a homogeneous mixture of clay or slip into
or rib. Both pinching and coiling techniques are used an absorbent mould. As the water is drawn from the
to make utilitarian wares and sculptural forms. slip into the plaster, or biscuit clay, a thick layer of
If flat sheets of clay are rolled out, or sliced from a clay builds up on the inner surface of the mould.
lump of clay, then built up to make a form, the When the desired thickness has been reached, the
technique is known as slab building (Figure 1.4). The remaining liquid slip is poured away. Complex
success of the method relies on making the slabs hollow forms such as figurines can be made using
when the clay is at the right state of plasticity. They the technique which is known as slip casting. Moulds
must be allowed to dry slightly, to a leath er-h ard or may be made up of several pieces in order to
ch eese-h a rd consistency, before joining. In order to accommodate undercuts. Components may be slip
ensure the joins do not separate and crack during cast individually, then luted together later.
 The technology o f ceram ics 7

Figure 1.6 Throwing a pot.

until a point is reached when no more water can

escape. At this stage the clay consists of a dry open
framework. Some water will remain trapped in the
pores and also as a film of water molecules on the
surface of the clay particles.
Drying may have to be interrupted in order to fin is h
Figure 1.5 Templates are used in jiggering and jollying to the pottery. In some cases finishing may be minimal,
form the upper and lower surface of flat ware. while in others it may be quite complex. For simple
pinched or coiled pots the finishing may involve
scraping away all the irregularities to give a smooth
and even surface. Moulded pieces that are made up of
The art of throw ing clay is well documented several parts can only be put together after the clay
(Leach, 1976; Cardew, 1969) (Figure 1.6). It involves has been allowed to dry to a stage when it may be
centring a ball of clay on a rotating turntable or wheel easily handled. Once the pieces are joined, seams and
and then, by applying firm pressure with both hands, edges will have to be trimmed and smoothed off.
pulling up the walls of the vessel aided by the Thrown pots may require some further refining by
centrifugal force. Individual potters develop distinct removing any excess from the outside in a process
styles and variations in their technique. The basic called turning. This involves inverting the pot on the
vessel form may be manipulated to give a range of flat wheel trimming away excess clay with a sharp tool, as
and hollow shapes to which additions such as handles the pot revolves to form a foot rim on the base.
and spouts may be added. Handles, spouts and knobs may be luted on at this
point.
The application of some types of decoration may
also interrupt the drying process, utilizing the plastic
Drying and finishing condition of the clay. By incising, carving or
impressing the surface, using whatever tools or
It is important that most of the water content of the objects are to hand, an enormous variety of effects
clay has evaporated prior to firing, otherwise steam can be achieved. Different coloured clays can be
trapped in the pores of the body may blow the pot inlaid into grooves or impressions made in the surface
apart. Evaporation takes place at the surface, water (Figure 1.7). Clay shapes may also be moulded and
being drawn by capillary action from the interior of applied onto the surface to produce a raised
the pot. Gradually the particles shrink closer together decoration known as sprigging. Slips or en gobes can
to fill most of the spaces formerly occupied by water, be used to coat the semi-dry pot and, depending on
8 The C onservation a n d Restoration o f C eram ics

Figure 1.7 A detail of inlaid white slip on a Korean box Figure 1.9 A detail of sgraffito decoration where a pattern
cover, partly obscured by the overlying celadon glaze has been scratched into a layer of slip exposing the
(Victoria and Albert Museum, London). underlying body colour (Victoria and Albert Museum,
London).

the raw bodies are set in the kiln, to the moment the
fired objects are withdrawn. The term also encom­
passes the time taken to cool the kiln, the rate of
temperature change, the position of the wares and
any atmospheric changes that occur within the kiln.
Clearly, there may be many variations in the cycle
between the production of one vessel and another,
but in general a number of events and stages will
follow one another in sequence (Figure 1.10). An
object may undergo a number of separate firings in
order to achieve a certain decorative effect. The first
firing or biscuit firin g will generally be followed by a
g la z e firin g , then a succession of lower-temperature
firings may be necessary in order to achieve different
Figure 1.8 A detail of combed slip decoration on effects such as enamels, lustres and gilding (Hamer
earthenware. Bands of a contrasting dark-coloured slip have and Hamer, 1986). It should be remembered however
been combed across the underlying slip (Victoria and Albert that before the medieval period glazed pottery was
Museum, London). rare outside China.
With modem studio and industrial ceramics the
initial rate of temperature increase is kept below 60°C
per hour, in order to allow the remaining water
how they are applied, whether dipped, poured or trapped in the pores to escape gradually. Too rapid an
painted, different surfaces can be produced. Slips of increase may result in the sudden production of steam
an appropriate consistency may be used rather like and could burst the body. By the time the boiling
icing, in order to p ip e and trail lines onto the surface. point of water is reached, most of this moisture should
Contrasting colours can be co m b ed (Figure 1.8), or have evaporated. Subsequently the water adsorbed
partially mixed at random to give swirled or m a rb led on the surfaces of the particles is driven off, again
effects. Sgraffito is where designs are scratched slowly. On reaching 200°C all this water should have
through a layer of slip into the underlying body been eliminated. Any organic material derived from
(Figure 1.9). vegetation should also start to break down at this
stage.
Between 400°C and 600°C the chemically com­
bined water that forms part of the molecular structure
Firing of clay is given off. The temperature increase must be
gradual (100°C per hour) to prevent rapid evolution
Although the composition of the body is the major of steam and consequential damage of the object.
factor in deciding the nature of manufactured wares, After 500°C has been passed dehydration of the clay
the firin g cycle is of equal importance. The term ‘firing will be complete. The clay will now be irreversibly
cycle’ implies the sequence of events from the time altered, having undergone the ceram ic ch a n g e, and
 The technology o f ceram ics 9

°C C

1400* Hard-paste porcelain glaze -1 4 0 0

No pores left in clay
1300- M u llite ceases to develop M axim um stoneware glaze *1300

1250- M axim um stoneware biscuit

1100 M axim um earthenware biscuit Body glaze starts to integrate 1100

(m aximum earthenware glaze)

1000 - Form ation of m ullite starts Glazes semi-molten M000

950- Form ation o f spinels (finished by 1000°C )
900
-V itrific a tio n begins ‘
800
.* Carbon and sulphur burn ou t . •
(main strength produced by sintering)- .
700

Fusion of glaze begins----------- ■600

57 3 - — — — — Quartz inversion “ "Quartz inversion — — 573
(risk of dunting)
500

• - Chemically combined water ‘

• driven o ff
(p ottery very weak at this stage)*.
35 0 -1-- "• Ceramic change starts --' Ceramic change proceeds

Decomposition and breakdown of

organic material

200

Loss of remaining pore water

(care still needed in raising temperature)
120 120
. * -’ Drying: * ■ •
• loss of mechanically combined pore water • Drying off
(great caution needed owing to steam)
Room Room
temp. temp.
Biscuit firing Glaze firing

Figure 1.10 Example of possible sequences of changes that occur in kaolinitic stoneware or porcelain clay bodies during
firing.

will no longer disintegrate or slake in water. In theory, Every time a pot undergoes heating or cooling a
the dried clay particles will be just touching each reversible alteration occurs at 573°C, at which point
other at a few points of contact, fastened together by any quartz present in the body will undergo inversion.
the process called sintering (Figure 1.11). Although This involves a molecular rearrangement in its
no shrinkage will have occurred, the clay body will crystalline structure, resulting in a slight increase in
now be extremely fragile and porous. Somewhere volume ( 2 %), or shrinkage of the same amount on
betw een 700°C and 900°C carbon and sulphur cooling; cracking or dunting may occur unless the
contained in the body will h u m out with the creation temperature is carefully controlled. This is the
of dioxide and trioxide gases (CO, C 0 2, SO, S 0 2, commonest cause of cracks during firing (Rhodes,
S 0 3). These are derived from carbonate and sulphate 1977). Between 600°C and 800°C calcite (calcium
impurities, and also the organic carbon that does not carbonate CaC03) is converted to quicklime (calcium
burn off at lower temperatures. It is important that the oxide CaO) and essentially all the iron in the body is
burning out process is completed with no carbon or by now oxidized to anhydrous red iron oxide (Fe 2 0 3).
sulphur remaining, otherwise bloating may occur at a The body may have shrunk, and will have attained
later stage in the firing as the trapped gases attempt to maximum porosity. Consequently wares allowed to
escape causing blister-like formations. cool from this temperature (800°C to 900°C) will be as
10 The C onservation a n d Restoration o f C eram ics

cla y p a rticles Wares fired above 1250°C, the hard porcelains, are
w e ld e d to g e th e r thus non-porous and their bodies may be seen largely
at p o in ts o f as a mass of glass supported by crystals of mullite.
co n ta c t
Wares fired around 1100°C are generally not very
porous and vary from white earthenwares to stone­
wares and soft-paste porcelains. There are, however,
exceptions. Bone china, for example, is made with a
body containing a high proportion of bone ash (up to
50%), which is essentially a phosphate of calcium.
During firing the other ingredients, kaolin and
feldspar, tend to form a glassy matrix, while the
bone ash provides long slender crystals of tricalcium
phosphate (Ca3(PC>4 ) 2) which behave as a support for
the body in a similar way to mullite in other wares.
So far consideration has only been given to a firing
sequence where oxygen is present in the kiln. If the
oxygen supply is decreased, two important factors
Figure 1.11 Sintering: the clay particles are secured to each come into play. First, the fuel may not be fully
other at points of contact. Although the pot is extremely consumed and the kiln atmosphere may contain a lot
fragile at this stage, sintering provides enough support to of smoke, which may be deposited as soot on
hold the object together. surfaces in the kiln. To avoid this, pottery may be
enclosed in fire clay boxes, saggars, to prevent
penetration of soot and ash. In addition, any organic
red as all the iron compounds in the body allow and matter in the body of the wares may not be fully
highly porous. Biscuit firings tend to be within the consumed if the oxygen supply is too low, resulting in
range 950°C to 1100°C, depending on the properties free carbon being retained as a b la ck core within the
of the body and the strength required. ware (Figure 1.12).
Vitrification starts to occur around 800°C as the The second important phenomenon induced by a
fluxes and free silica in the clay body start to melt and low supply of oxygen is the chemical reduction of
fuse. If this were allowed to progress indefinitely, the some ingredients of the bodies. Red iron oxide
body would eventually fuse completely to form a (Fe20 3), for example, may be reduced to the black
glass. At 950°C the formation of spinels starts; these iron oxide (Fe3C>4 ) to a point where an otherwise red­
are the double oxides of various metals, usually bodied ware may become completely blackened,
magnesium, iron and aluminium, derived from the though strengthened by the fluxing action of the
clay matter. They are short-lived in the firing monovalent iron. In any but the crudest of structures it
sequence, and by 1000°C they have been totally is possible to control the kiln atmosphere by opening
absorbed into the subsequently formed glass. They or closing the vents so that the atmosphere may be
are of relevance in this context since their presence in oxidizing or reducing at will; this has allowed the
a mineralogical section can sometimes indicate the
firing temperature of the wares from which the
sample was taken.
From now on as the temperature increases, the
fusible components of the clay body continue to melt,
filling the pores and dissolving the particles that they
surround. In stoneware and porcelain clays the
formation of the mineral m ullite starts at about
1000°C within the amorphous regions caused by the
decomposition of the clay minerals. Mullite, alumino-
silicate (3Al20 3.2 S i0 2), forms as sub-microscopic
needle-shaped crystals that grow and elongate within
the glassy matrix knitting the structure together and
strengthening it. By 1300°C this metamorphosis is
complete, and even if the temperature were raised
slightly further there would be no change in the
mullite. The body now shrinks dramatically and at the Figure 1.12 Detail of black core exposed within the break
same time the open pores of the original body edge of a damaged earthenware tile (the material on the
gradually become closed, so that by the time the upper edge is discoloured old adhesive) (Victoria and Albert
temperature reaches 1250°C no pores remain open. Museum, London).
 The technology o f ceram ics 11

production of some interesting colour contrasts, as for colours. The behaviour of these metallic com ­
example classical Greek red and black wares. pounds - in various concentrations, under different
firing conditions and temperatures, in association with
other materials - produces a surprising range of
Glazes effects. Five such colourants, iron, copper, cobalt,
manganese and antimony, were known from anti­
A glaze is little more than a thin layer of glass that has quity, and until the range of colourants was
been fired onto the surface of the ware. It has three dramatically increased in the nineteenth century,
main functions: to strengthen the pottery, to provide some colours were difficult to achieve. A good red
an impermeable hygienic coating and to decorate the colour was one of these, and copper could be made
surface (Hamer and Hamer, 1986). Like glass, a glaze to yield a sa n g -d e-b o eu f only under severe reducing
will contain glass-forming materials, fluxes and conditions during the cycle. In oxidizing conditions
stabilizers. The most important glass-forming material moderate amounts of iron would give yellow through
is silica (S i0 2), which is usually derived from flint, ochres and browns to black (e.g. temmoku) depend­
feldspar or china clay. The fluxes, such as oxides of ing on the concentration used. A bright yellow,
sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium and lead, are although somewhat opaque, could also be achieved
added to lower the melting point of the glass-forming using antimony, provided the glaze contained lead,
oxides. The glaze stabilizer is most commonly the colourant being in fact a very fine dispersion of
alumina (aluminium oxide Al2 0 3). Other metallic lead antimonate. Similarly, for greens, around 3% of
elements may be added to produce colours (Green, copper in a lead glaze would give a leaf green, while
1963; Shaw, 1971). in a sodium or potassium glaze the resulting colour
From a functional and practical point of view it is would be a bright turquoise-blue. The common
important that the glaze and body have comparable colourant for blue was cobalt, while manganese
rates of thermal expansion. The glaze-fit, as it is gave mauves and purples, depending upon the
known, is determined by its composition; each quantity present. Black glazes were made by using
component has a direct effect on the expansion rate various admixtures of cobalt, iron and manganese,
depending on the amount present. In general it is while an opaque white resulted from a very fine
usual for there to be some stress between the glaze dispersion of tin oxide in the glaze.
and body, and preferably for the glaze to be under The eighteenth century saw the introduction of
compression. Where the relationship is not balanced, several important new colouring materials, principally
faults such as crazing, dunting and shivering may oxides of chromium and nickel. Undoubtedly the
occur (see Chapter 2). most important of these is chromium oxide (Cr2 0 3)
In practice, either glazes are made raw, where since it can be made to yield red, yellow, pink, brown
ingredients are ground together, suspended in water or green glazes, depending on the glaze composition
and applied to the surfaces of the wares; or they may and the firing temperatures. Nickel oxide (NiO), while
be produced as frits, in which case the ingredients are less versatile, is mainly used to make bright colours
heated until fused to form a glass and then cooled, more sober. Other red and yellow colourants such as
ground to a powder and suspended in water prior to vanadium, selenium, titanium and cadmium are of
application. There are also exceptions to this general
outline in which silica in the body provides the quartz
of the glaze. For instance lead compounds, such as
the red or yellow oxides, are sometimes applied
directly to the surfaces of the dried unfired vessels. On
firing, the lead forms a glaze with the silica in the
body. In a similar way salt g lazes are achieved by
throwing com m on salt into the kiln. At high
temperatures the salt volatilizes and ionizes, the
sodium ions forming a glaze by reacting with the
body at the surface of the pottery. Such salt glazes are
often characterized by an oran g e p e e l appearance
(Figure 1.13) .

Glaze colourants
The colour associated with glazes is achieved using a Figure 1.13 Detail of salt-glazed stoneware, showing the
relatively small number of metallic compounds, the typical orange peel textured surface (Victoria and Albert
metallic ions generally being responsible for the Museum, London).
12 The C onservation a n d Restoration o f C eram ics

more recent introduction, as too is the use of uranium

which provides a vivid yellow.
There are a number of ways in which these
colourants may be applied. They may be painted
directly to the surface of the wares before glazing as
u n d erg laze colours (Figure 1.14), or they may be
incorporated in the glaze composition to produce a
glaze stain or in -glaze colou r (Figure 1.15). Alterna­
tively, the colourant may be prepared with a frit or
low-firing glaze, and applied on the already glazed
surface of the ware as an en a m el (Figure 1.16). Such
o n -g laze or overglaze colours are fired to relatively
low temperatures around 750°C.
Colours that are applied under the glaze are less
vulnerable to deterioration, since the overlying glaze Figure 1.16 Detail of enamel decoration, fired on or over the
glaze. The enamel firing is at a much lower temperature than
must be destroyed before they are attacked. In
the previous glaze firing (Victoria and Albert Museum,
contrast, enamels may have very poor adhesion to
London).
the glaze if the firing is inadequate and the decoration
may spall away easily. Some enamels may prove to be
too soft for practical purposes, making them prone to
abrasion; while others may be chemically too reactive
and readily attacked, for example, by alkaline
cleaning materials. The low temperatures to which
enamels are fired allows a wider range of colours.
Originally enamel colours were applied with a
brush, as frits suspended in oil. The labour intensive
nature of the technique led to the development, from
the mid eighteenth century, of transfer prin tin g, a
process that lent itself to cheap mass production. A
transfer would be made by inking an etched copper
plate with the finely ground frit in oil, printing the
image from the plate onto specially prepared paper,
and then transferring this to the surface of the object.
At first only a single colour was used (Figure 1.17), but
Figure 1.14 Detail of underglaze cobalt blue decoration on a by the middle of the nineteenth century full colour
fragment of oriental porcelain. The decoration would have printing, using as many as five different etched plates,
been applied before the object was coated in glaze and fired.
came into use.
Lustres are another type of on-glaze decoration,
resulting from a low-temperature reduction firing of
compounds containing copper, tin, silver, bismuth,

Figure 1.15 Detail of in-glaze colour on a tin-glazed

earthenware tile. The oxides would have been painted
directly onto the freshly applied glaze surface prior to firing Figure 1.17 Detail of transfer printing on an earthenware
(Victoria and Albert Museum, London). dish (Victoria and Albert Museum, London).
 The technology o f ceram ics 13

gold or platinum. The end product is a very thin

vulnerable film of metal overlying and adhering to the
glaze. The Persian lustre wares are the result of the
application of preparations containing metallic salts
fired in a very strong reducing atmosphere. Copper
will produce red, salmon or gold colours; gold
produces reddish purple; silver yields yellowish or
ivory lustres; and bismuth gives an iridescent quality
to the glaze. Lustres may also be fired in an oxidation
kiln, in which the colloidal metal or metallic salts are
present as a suspension in a resin or oil. Carbon from
the resin and oil reduces the metal which is then
deposited as a thin layer.
Early examples of the use of gold as decorative on-
glaze decoration have rarely survived. Until the first Figure 1.18 Detail of gilded decoration on the surface of a
quarter of the eighteenth century the only gilding dish. The thin layer of metal is very vulnerable to abrasion
(Victoria and Albert Museum, London).
practised was leaf gilding, a technique comparable to
the gilding of wood or manuscripts, not involving a
firing stage. During the following century, a number
for example Garrus ware, or by naming the makers,
of variants of this technique were introduced, using
such as Pennsylvania Dutch ware. However in this
either ground gold leaf or a granular gold precipitated
context only the technical aspects of such nomen­
from a solution of its salts. Honey gilding was a
clature will be considered.
technique in which honey was mixed with gold leaf
or powder gold in order to grind up and disperse the
gold particles. The gold was washed and mixed with a
flux and gum prior to application and then fired. The Wares described by shape
resulting gilding, which was dull and rich in The simplest of these definitions must be the
appearance, was popular at Sevres and Chelsea. distinction between hollow and fl a t w ares: flat wares
Mercuric gilding involved the use of an amalgam of being essentially flat (plates and saucers) and hollow
mercury and gold; during a low firing the mercury wares having some volumetric capacity (cups and
would vaporize leaving a thin gold layer which could bowls). Hollow wares may be further subdivided into
be burnished to a brassy finish. Another approach open and closed w ares: open wares being those in
involved the use of a precipitation technique with a which the aperture is the widest part of the vessel,
solution of mercurous nitrate. A far better method and closed wares being those in which the widest part
appeared in the early nineteenth century when it was of the vessel is below the aperture (flasks, bottles and
found that a liquid preparation, previously used to most jars).
produce a pink lustre, could in greater concentration
give a more durable gilding (Figure 1.18). The mixture
consisted of a solution of gold chloride in balsam o f
Wares described by clay body
su lphu r (the product of a reaction of sulphur with
turpentine). The method in a more refined form is still The term pottery is generally used to include all the
used today, though for superior quality the use of wares derived from clay (Casson, 1977), although
precipitated gold powder combined with a mercury amongst the literature there appears to be much
compound is still favoured (Hunt, 1980; Savage and confusion as to whether pottery includes just earth­
Newman, 1976). enware (Rado, 1969) or both earthenwares and
stonewares (Payton and Payton, 1981). The common
major categories of ware used by most authorities are
those of earthenwares, stonewares, and porcelains
Wares (Tables 1.1, 1.2). Archaeologists may choose to use
texture or the size of inhomogeneities as a means of
One of the more confusing aspects of the study of distinguishing coarsew are from fin ew are.
pottery can be the wide range of ways in which
various wares may be described. Thus the same Earthenware
vessel might be variously noted as earthenware, Generally earthenware bodies are distinguished from
slipped ware, sgraffito ware, or lead-glazed ware, all those of stonewares by possessing a porosity of more
of which terms may be technically correct. Further­ than 5%. This is usually the result of a biscuit firing at
more, vessels made by the same techniques may be temperatures up to 1150°C where there is a glaze,
distinguished by the area from which they come, as followed by a glost firing at temperatures generally
14 The C onservation a n d Restoration o f C eram ics

Table 1.1 General categories of earthenware (porosity >5%)

General type Characteristics Average firin g temperatures (°C) Examples

Biscuit Glaze

Raku Porous body due to low firing 900 + 750-1000 Japanese tea bowls, some studio
temperature. Body contains much pottery, and other ceramics of
grog and fire clay in order to ethnic origin
withstand the thermal shock of the
rapid uneven glaze firing.

Common Usually made from impure clays 600-950 800-1100 Includes unglazed ancient and
pottery which produce a porous, light primitive wares, medieval wares,
ware, demanding thick walls to some Staffordshire pottery slipwaie
give added strength. Colours range and also some studio ceramics,
through buff, grey, red-brown, and amongst others
dark brown

Terracotta Technically a type of common 750-1050 Usually Generally associated with sculpted
pottery. The word ‘terracotta’ is unglazed and modelled clay as well as
derived from the Italian for fired ancient Greek and Roman pottery
earth. Loosely includes unglazed
low-fired bodies made from grey-
or buff-coloured clay firing to red,
though also includes red clays and
cream firing clays

Tin-glazed Low-fired, porous, soft body, 850-1000 850-1000 M ajolica Italian tin-glazed wares,
earthenware coated with a lead glaze opacified usually with polychrome
with tin oxide. The unfired glaze decoration. The name is derived
surface is then painted with from the route via which the
different metal oxides which fuse technique arrived in Italy: from the
and blend into the glaze during Near East, then Spain and lastly
firing. The body is usually of a marl Majorca
or malm calcareous clay Faience Tin-glazed earthenware
usually from France, Germany or
Scandinavia; originally imitating
wares from Faenza in northern Italy
Delft Traditionally a cobalt blue
decoration on a white ground first
made by migrant Italian potters
working in Delft in the Netherlands.
English delftware was made at
Lambeth, Bristol and Liverpool

Fine Usually white or off-white porous 1050-1150 900-1050 Cream ware Earthenware body
earthenware body with glazes commonly with a butter-coloured lead glaze,
containing lead oxide. The advent developed in the early eighteenth
of transfer printing in the mid century in England. The body
eighteenth century lent itself to this (typically: china clay 25%, ball clay
type of popular ware 25%, flint 35%, Cornish stone 15%)
was very porous, light and fine (e.g.
Wedgwood, Leeds, Whieldon)
Pearlware Introduced early in the
eighteenth century; similar body to
creamware, though more durable
(with additional flint and china
clay). The glaze has a hint of cobalt
imparting a blue tint (e.g. Liverpool,
Wedgwood). Other examples:
Minton and Spode
 The technology of ceramics 15

Table 1.2 General categories of stoneware and porcelain (porosity <5%)

General type Characteristics Average firin g temperatures (°C) Examples
Biscuit Glaze

Stoneware Hard, durable, vitrified body with 950-1000 1200-1300 Salt-glazed stoneware has single
low porosity. Body and glaze firing at about 1150°C. The glaze is
mature at the same temperature deposited as a result of vapourized
producing a well developed glaze- salt in the kiln combining with the
body layer. Can be made from clay body at the surface of the pot
naturally occurring clays that are
Other examples include: ovenware,
rich in fluxes, or from other clays
red stoneware, black basalt, jasper
modified by the addition of fluxes
and some studio ceramics

Semi-vitreous Basically a fine earthenware-type 1100-1200 950-1100 Examples include: ironstone china,
and vitreous body with increased amounts of flintware and white granite
china flux. Dense, though slightly
translucent, off-white-colour, with a
slightly granular fracture. The
relatively low-fired glaze is soft and
liable to scratching

Bone china The body typically contains 50% 1250 900-1100 In England during the middle of the
bone ash; the remaining ingredients eighteenth century, Thomas Frye
added in equal proportions include patented the recipe for a body that
china clay and Cornish stone. The included the addition of a small
bone can act as a flux or a amount of calcined bone as a flux.
refractory depending on the Bow was the first factory to include
amount added and the other it in a porcelain body, then Chelsea,
ingredients present. The body is Derby and Worcester. The typical
pure white and translucent. It is recipe, where half the body consists
softer than hard-paste porcelain, of bone ash, was developed
and more durable than soft-paste subsequently by Josiah Spode II in
porcelain the late eighteenth century
Other examples include: Minton,
Crown Derby and Doulton

Soft-paste Consists of a brittle body with a 900-1000 900-1250 Towards the end of the sixteenth
porcelain high flux content which allows a century the Medici factory in
lower firing temperature than that Florence developed a porcelainous
of hard-paste. The body is more body with a high silica and alkali
porous than the hard paste, with content. A similar recipe was
colour varying from a translucent adopted in Rouen, France (1673),
white to yellow, orange or brown. then spread to St Cloud and Sevres,
It fractures with a grainy sugary and finally to England: Bow, Derby
texture and Chelsea (amongst others) also
explored its use

Hard-paste Smooth, white, glossy, high-fired 900-1000 1250-1400 First made in China, then
porcelain non-porous body with a glassy developed in Europe at Meissen
conchoidal fracture. The classical (1709), from where it slowly spread
composition is 50%. Kaolin (white to the rest of Europe
china clay), 25% feldspar and 25% Examples include:
quartz or flint Meissen, New Hall, Coalport and
Spode
16 The C onservation a n d Restoration o f C eram ics

Figure 1.19 Detail of a broken edge on a piece of Figure 1.20 Detail of a broken edge on a stoneware
earthenware. The body is coarse with open pores and small fragment with an overlying celadon glaze. The body is more
coloured inclusions. The layers of slip and glaze are visible vitrified than that of earthenware, although there are still
as distinct layers (Victoria and Albert Museum, London). pores visible. The overlying celadon glaze is closely attached
to the body (Victoria and Albert Museum, London).

below 1100°C. The lower temperatures produce a 1100°C. The ware is generally mechanically stronger
softer glaze and a greater range of colours. The bond than the normal hard-paste porcelain and earth­
between the glaze and underlying body is often enware and the density of the body results in a far
poorly developed with the glaze appearing as a better surface quality than that of earthenwares.
distinct layer in section (Figure 1.19). Earthenware
bodies are generally derived from naturally occurring
common clays. Other materials may be added to
Porcelain
Porcelain can generally be regarded as a collective
improve both the working and firing properties.
term for those ceramic wares that are white and
Depending on the constituents, a range of colours
translucent (Rado, 1969). The name is derived from
including cream, yellow, buff, grey, red and brown
the Italian p o r c e lla meaning ‘little pig’ after a
will result after firing. Earthenwares include raku,
Mediterranean sea shell that is white and translu­
slipware, majolica, faience, creamware and terracot­
cent. The more important groups include porcelain,
tas.
soft-paste porcelain, and bone china.
Hard-paste porcelain, or true p o rc e la in , as it is
Stoneware sometimes referred to, is made from around 50%
Stoneware bodies are fired to temperatures within the kaolin (white china clay), 25% feldspar (to act as a
range 1200°C to about 1300°C, depending on the flux), and 25% quartz or flint (to stabilize the body and
amount of flux, resulting in a vitrified almost provide a good glaze-fit). It is fired in reduction at
impermeable body that is hard and strong. The body higher temperatures than other types of ware (up to
is usually grey, buff or brown in colour being around 1400°C). Both the glaze and the body mature
composed mainly of naturally occurring clays, such together, fusing to form a distinct body-glaze layer
as ball clay or fire clay, and modified according to the that strengthens the form (Figure 1.21).
potter’s requirements (Fraser, 1979). The body and Historically, soft-paste porcelains were developed
glaze are usually fused in close association with a in an attempt to imitate the hard-paste porcelains from
distinct body-glaze layer (Figure 1.20) an exception China. They contain more flux and are fired to a lower
being salt glaze. (or softer) temperature than the hard-paste porcelains
(around 1150°C), resulting in a more brittle body with
Semi-vitreous and vitreous chinas slight porosity. The body itself has a higher flux
The semi-vitreous and vitreous chinas slot into the content in order to mature at a lower temperature; this
sequence somewhere between the stonewares and in turn contributes to the brittleness of the body
the porcelains. They are derived from earthenwares, (Figure 1.22).
with an increased feldspar content. The result is a Bone china was an English development, being a
stronger and denser body (e.g. the ironstones and type of porcelain to which bone ash is added as a flux
white granite wares). Semi-vitreous china has a low or refractory, depending on the quantities added. The
porosity, while vitreous china is almost non-porous. resulting body is mechanically stronger than both soft-
The biscuit firing is around 1100 to 1200°C and the and hard-paste porcelain. The ware is first fired to a
low-temperature brilliant glazes mature around 9 50- critical temperature of 1 2 6 0 °C, after which its lack of
 The technology o f ceram ics 17

Figure 1.23 Detail of bone china (Victoria and Albert

Figure 1.21 Detail of hard-paste porcelain (Victoria and Museum, London).
Albert Museum, London).

surface as lines or other decorative features. Sgraffito

wares are those where decorative devices have been
cut or scratched through an overlying slip to reveal
the body underneath.

Wares described by glaze

Another rather different and confusing method of
describing wares is by glaze type, normally by
reference to the composition of the glaze. Thus le a d
g lazes are those in which the major flux is a lead
compound. However the term tin g la z e does not
imply that the flux used was tin, but rather that a lead
Figure 1.22 Detail of soft-paste porcelain (Victoria and
glaze has been opacified with tin oxide. Feldspathic
Albert Museum, London).
glazes are those rich in feldspars. To some authorities
feldspathic glazes should be properly included in the
alkaline glazes; to others alkaline glazes are those
porosity (about 0 .5 %) makes glaze application
whose composition includes any alkaline material
difficult. The lower glaze firing (1100°C) results in a
other than feldspars. Salt glazes however, although
greater range of colours. In addition, the softer
clearly alkaline, are usually classified as a distinct type
composition of the glaze, which is lead-rich, pro­
of glaze. Leadless glazes, while being free of lead,
duces a more brilliant appearance than that of hard
may include boron and zinc as fluxes: the former
paste porcelain due to its higher refractive index
being often referred to as borosilicate glazes, the latter
(Figure 1.23).
as Bristol glazes after the city of their origin.
There is no simple means of distinguishing visually
between one glaze type and another, and such a
Wares described by decoration
method of description is not entirely satisfactory for
Wares may also be classified according to their what is undoubtedly a complex subject. Detailed
decoration. For example: slipw are may describe explanation of glaze technology will not be consid­
objects with surfaces covered wholly or partly with ered here; the subject is covered in depth elsewhere
a slip, and then usually glazed; while slip trailed (Hamer and Hamer, 1986; Wickham, 1978; Fraser,
wares are those where slip has been applied to the 1979; Rhodes, 1977; Rado, 1969).
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