ERGONOMICS

● Ergonomic Engineering - Industrial engineers also design the work area in which
humans interact with machines.
- There are two general divisions of ergonomics:
1. Occupational ergonomics
- human factors
- is concerned with the strength capabilities of the human body in performing
manual work (such as lifting, turning, and stretching), and with the environmental
effects of temperature, humidity, vibration, and so forth on the human worker.
- This is done to reduce occupational injuries and increase work productivity.

2. Cognitive ergonomics
- task analysis
- is concerned with understanding the behavior of humans as they interact with
machines.
- This information is used to design machine display interfaces and controls to
support operator needs, to limit their workload, and to promote awareness of the
operation

OCCUPATIONAL ERGONOMICS
Occupational ergonomics uses information about human ability in the design of tools,
machines, jobs, and work environment for productive, safe, and effective human use.
Occupational ergonomics provides methods for optimizing tasks in the workplace. The design of
workplaces requires the understanding of the ergonomic principles of posture and movement
that produce a safe, healthy, and comfortable work environment. Worker posture and movement
is dictated by the task and the body’s muscles, ligaments, and joints needed in carrying out the
task. Poor posture and movement can produce stress that results in damage to the neck, back,
shoulder, wrist, and other work-related injuries.
One of the most common work-related injuries is musculoskeletal disorder. These
disorders result in persistent pain, loss of functional capacity, and work disability. For example,
a poorly designed tool can adversely impact overall worker performance, create injuries, and
produce human task error. Industrial engineers evaluate these tools to determine potential
sources of injury and attempt to improve them to fit the needs and workflow of workers.
For example, a worker should be able to operate the electric drill shown in Fig. 11.3 with
one hand. To do this safely and comfortably, the weight of the tool should not exceed two
pounds (1kg) and the center of gravity should be near the center of the gripping hand. The tools
should be easy to hold in any position needed. Drills that are front-heavy can produce stress in
the wrist and forearm.

COGNITIVE ERGONOMICS
A time and motion study for repetitive tasks is a method for establishing worker
productivity standards in which
● a complex task is broken into small, simple steps,
 ● the sequence of movements taken by the worker in performing those steps is
carefully observed to eliminate wasteful motions,
● the precise time taken for each movement is measured.

A time and motion study is a method to determine the best way to complete a certain
task. The simplest way to conduct it is to break the task into a series of individual steps and
record the motion and time required for each step. This should be done repeatedly in order to
refine the process of completing a task. You can then determine the ‘normal’ or average time for
a task by recording how much time is devoted to each part of the task. This can be done as
follows:
1. List the steps needed to perform the task.
2. Discuss them with the worker.
3. Measure each step with a stopwatch as the worker performs the task.
4. Repeat the complete process at least 10 times.
5. Compute the mean and standard deviation of each step and of the complete
task.
6. Be aware of worker disruptions and learning curves.
From these measurements production and delivery times and prices can be computed
and worker incentive schemes can be devised.

Information processing model: Understanding our mental mechanisms

We've all been there — you're trying to remember something and it's just on the tip of
your tongue. But no matter what you do, you just can't seem to recall it. Why does this happen?

According to the information processing model, our memory works like a computer.
Information comes in via our senses through various stimuli and is processed by our brain. This
information can be stored in our short-term or long-term memory, depending on its importance.

However, this processing system doesn't always work smoothly, and information loss
can occur at any time, especially if we're distracted. That's why it's so hard to remember where
you put your keys or the name of that song you heard — the information just hasn't been
appropriately encoded in our memory.

Let’s examine the information processing model and how it assists us in absorbing and
recalling new information.

What is an information processing model?

An information processing model is a framework used by cognitive psychologists to

explain and describe the processes of the human brain. According to these models, our brain
receives, interprets, and uses information in stages corresponding to different steps in the
information processing system.
 The information processing theory likens the human brain's processing system to a
computer. The computer (our brain) receives the data (sensory information), then processes it,
either using it right away to perform a task or storing it in its files for later use.

However, this isn't a perfect analogy for how the brain works. The human brain isn't
simply a passive information processor. We aren't born with data, algorithms, and decoders —
we're born with senses, reflexes, emotions, and the ability to learn and change over time.

This "uniqueness problem" has driven cognitive psychologists and scientists to study the
human brain — successfully and disastrously — and form models to explain how we process
information.

The information processing model — or models

The information processing approach is more of a framework than one model. Cognitive
psychologists use it to build models to understand our mental processes. Psychologists have
proposed several information processing models, each with its own twist.

You may be wondering — how can there possibly be more than one explanation for how
something works? After all, there isn't more than one way a car engine works.

The answer lies in the complexity and uniqueness of the human mind.

As psychologist Robert Epstein, a senior research psychologist at the American Institute

for Behavioral Research and Technology explained in his incredible essay "The Empty Brain:"

"Think how difficult this problem is. To understand even the basics of how the brain
maintains the human intellect, we might need to know not just the current state of all 86 billion
neurons and their 100 trillion interconnections, not just the varying strengths with which they are
connected, and not just the states of more than 1,000 proteins that exist at each connection
point, but how the moment-to-moment activity of the brain contributes to the integrity of the
system. Add to this the uniqueness of each brain, brought about in part because of the
uniqueness of each person's life history..."

The complexity of our cognitive systems explains why many models have been
developed to understand the human brain. More will follow as our understanding grows.

Assumptions of information processing models

A few assumptions must be made for any information processing model to be accepted
as accurate. These assumptions are the things that must be true for the model to work. In
general, any information processing model relies on the following assumptions about the brain:

● It's capable of managing and processing information. Individuals are genetically adapted
to process information and simplify complexities in specific ways.
 ● A controlled system is required. A regulatory mechanism is necessary to oversee how
information is received, interpreted, changed, recalled, and used by the brain.
● It has a limited capacity. The system can only process so much information, either
because of information flow restrictions or individual mental capacity.

With these assumptions in place, psychologists have a foundation for studying cognitive
information processing and building models to describe the process.
Parts of an information processing model

The basic information processing model has been very influential in cognitive
psychology and has helped shape our understanding of how information is processed by the
human brain. There are several models to conceptualize information processing, but most
models include the same essential parts.

1. Sensation and perception

The information processing model begins with sensation and perception. Sensation is
the capacity to have a physical feeling or perception by receiving information from
environmental stimuli through our senses. Perception is becoming aware of, organizing, and
interpreting this information so that it makes sense to us.

For example, if you are a sighted person and a friend walks toward you, your eyes first
take in information about your friend's appearance through your sense of sight. This information
is then transmitted to your brain, where it is organized and interpreted based on your past
experiences. In this case, you might recognize your friend and be able to tell that they are happy
to see you.

While sensory information is often the starting point of information processing, it's not the
only input source. Our brains can also receive information from our thoughts and feelings, and
these mental processes also impact our perception.

If you've seen an optical illusion, you know that perception isn't always accurate. What
we perceive can be influenced by our prior knowledge and experience and the context in which
we see something.

When your eyes take in the image, your brain organizes it and interprets it based on
what you already know (your experience). Your brain fills in missing data based on how you
perceive the information, so you will either see a young woman or an older woman.

Optical illusions such as ambiguous figures are a good reminder that our perception is
not always accurate. This is why we must be careful when interpreting information, especially in
decision-making.

2. Memory
 The second part of the information processing model is memory. Once information is
gathered from the environment, it must be stored in memory so that it can be accessed and
used later. Memory is essential for learning and understanding new information, and there's a
lot we still don't understand about it.

One thing we do know is that there are a few different types of human memory, and
each type has a different capacity. For example, you have a different kind of memory capacity
for your phone number than you do for the events of your childhood.

There are three main types of memory:

Sensory memory. This type of memory allows you to temporarily store information after
bringing it into your brain through your senses. For example, you can repeat someone's phone
number after hearing it.
Short-term memory. This type of memory allows you to hold information in your mind
for a short period, just long enough to use. For example, if you need to remember a grocery list,
you can hold the information in your short-term memory until you've written it down or until
you've gone to the store.
Long-term memory. This form of memory allows you to store information for an
extended period of time. Long-term memory can be divided into two types:
Explicit memory. This is the form of long-term memory that you can consciously recall. For
example, you might clearly remember a favorite childhood toy.
Implicit memory. This is the long-term memory you can't consciously recall, but that
affects your behavior. You probably still remember how to ride a bike, for instance, even if it has
been a while.

Sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory are all essential and work
together to help you store and organize information. It's important to note that our memories are
not perfect. They are often quite flawed, in fact, because they can be influenced by our biases,
emotions, and past experiences.

3. Cognition
Cognition is the third part of the information processing model. It refers to how we
process information in our minds. Our cognitive abilities include simple mental processes (like
sensation and perception) and more complex mental processes (like memory and problem-
solving). These processes allow us to make sense of the information we receive from the world
around us.

A few examples of cognitive information processing include:

Attention. This is the mental process of selecting certain environmental information to

focus on. For example, if you're in a noisy room, you can choose to pay attention to the
conversation you're having with your friend and tune out the other noise.
 Chunking. This is the cognitive ability to group information together. For example, if you
see a phone number like 5558675309, you can group the numbers into three chunks — 555,
867, and 5309 — to make the number easier to remember.
Organization. Using this process, we put information into a meaningful order. For
example, suppose you're trying to remember the steps of a recipe. In that case, you might
organize them in the order you do them — preheat the oven first, mix the ingredients together,
and finally, bake for 30 minutes.
Cognition is a complex process, and there's still a lot we don't understand about it.
However, research on cognitive development and cognitive abilities has helped us to better
understand our mental processes and how we can improve our cognitive skills.

The 3 top information processing models

Throughout history, a few models have contributed significantly to our understanding of

the human brain and its functions. These models differ in their strengths and weaknesses, but
they all share similar features.

1. The Atkinson-Shiffrin model

The Atkinson-Shiffrin model is the earliest and most well-known information processing
model. Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed the "multi-store model" in 1968, which
suggests that information processing occurs in three distinct stages:

Sensory Memory. This is the first step in processing information and includes all the
information currently being sensed by the individual. Unless addressed, this information is
stored in a brief, unorganized manner and lasts for a split second.
Short-Term Memory. The short-term memory, or working memory, is where we hold the
information we are aware of at the moment. During this stage, the information is still
unorganized and usually only partially processed, and is stored for a short period of time,
usually around 20-30 seconds.
Long-Term Memory. Long-term memory is the final stage of information processing.
We can store this information for a long time, sometimes even for the rest of our lives. At this
stage, information is usually well organized and retrievable.

Many criticize this model for putting memory items and cognitive tasks in one short-term
storage. Whether or not rehearsal is necessary to transfer information to long-term memory is
also debated. While the model did not provide a comprehensive solution, it provided a basis for
future research and development in the field.

2. The Baddeley-Hitch model

Working memory was added to the Atkinson-Shiffrin model in 1974 by Graham Hitch
and Alan Baddeley. The Baddeley-Hitch model, also known as the "working model," suggests
that short-term memory has several subsystems that process different types of information.
These include:
 The phonological loop. This area of working memory is responsible for processing
information we hear, such as spoken words.
The visuospatial sketchpad. This part of working memory is responsible for visual
processing information we see, such as images and spatial relations.
The central executive. This part of working memory is responsible for coordinating
information processing, making decisions and critical thinking, and controlling attention.
Episodic buffer. Later, Baddeley and Hitch proposed the addition of an episodic
memory buffer to their model. This temporary storage system allows information from the other
parts of working memory to be integrated and stored temporarily.

The Baddeley-Hitch model is the most widely accepted information processing model
and has been supported by a great deal of empirical evidence. One of the main criticisms of this
model is that it relies too heavily on verbal information, which doesn't reflect how information is
processed in the real world.

3. The parallel distributed processing model

The parallel distributed processing (PDP) model was proposed by David Rumelhart and
James McClelland in the 1980s. The PDP model, also called the "connectionist" model, asserts
that the brain handles large numbers of cognitive operations at once through a distributed
network of locations in the brain.

PDP is complicated and hard to explain in detail. The idea is that information is handled
through multiple interconnected nodes, each representing a different piece of information. Each
node is connected by a series of links, and rather than being stored locally, the knowledge and
memories we hold are found in the connections between them.

The PDP model has been very influential in information processing and has led to the
development of several different computer models that simulate how information is processed in
the brain. However, the PDP model has also received criticism for not providing a clear
explanation of how information is stored in the brain.

Enhance your learning and problem-solving skills with the information processing model

The information processing model is a cognitive psychology tool that can help you
understand how the brain takes in, stores, and recalls the world around you. Learning how the
human brain processes information allows us to solve problems more effectively and efficiently.
The next time you're stuck on a problem, think about how information is processed in your brain.
You may just find the solution you're looking for.

Signal Detection Theory

First of all, what is Cognitive Ergonomics?

 First of all, cognitive ergonomics may be unfamiliar to some. It is a field which “studies
cognition in work and operational settings, in order to optimize human well-being and system
performance” according to Wikipedia. Here’s how I would describe it:

Cognitive ergonomics tries to explain how humans receive, process, and react to
information using concepts from both psychology and science.

It sounds pretty complicated, but some of the concepts from the field has many
applications in UX design. An example is signal detection theory.

What is the signal detection theory?

Have you ever:

Looked for the “perfectly ripe” bananas?

Sorted through your inbox for an important email?
Clicked on a fake download link on an ad-filled website?
Congratulations, you’ve already applied signal detection theory in your daily life. Essentially,
signal detection theory (SDT) is about:

How an operator can tell the difference between a signal (what they’re looking for) or noise
(anything that’s not a signal)

There are four main outcomes in a signal detection task:

Hit, operator responds to a signal (second quadrant)

Miss, operator does not respond to a signal (third quadrant)
False Alarm, operator responds to a noise (fourth quadrant)
Correct Rejection, operator does not respond to a noise (first quadrant)

Example
You go to download something but the website seems to be plagued with fake buttons.
The four outcomes of this signal detection task are:

Hit, you click on the correct button.

Miss, you scroll past the correct button.

False Alarm, you click on the wrong button.

Correct Rejection, scroll past the wrong buttons.

This example can be extended to pretty much any situation that requires you to make a decision
based on the given information:

A doctor looking at an x-ray (Is this tumor benign or malignant?)

Pilots during WWII (Is that an enemy plane or a something else?)
How do I design using SDT?
Salience is how much something stands out from the background. It helps the operator become
better at a signal detection task by “highlighting” the important stuff. This should be the priority
when trying to design with SDT in mind.

Let users know what to expect

If the users know what they are searching for, they are more likely to find it. This is why it is
important to follow common design patterns: if they have seen it before, they are more likely to
recognize it.

For example, links are usually underlined & in different colour than body text. If you are looking
for a link, these characteristics are probably what you are searching for. This helps links stand
out against the background, improving the salience.

Bigger importance = bigger visual weight

Let’s take a look at what Material Design Guidelines says about visual hierarchy:

Hierarchy is communicated through differences in font weight (Light, Medium, Regular), size,
letter spacing, and case.

The more important the information, the more it should stand out. The Material Design
typography is organized from biggest visual weight to lowest visual weight, from the most
important to least important.

Another example is using contrast. A good Call To Action (CTA) must stand out compared to
other design patterns. Multiple A/B tests showed salience (high contrast) was what mattered
most when comparing click rates with CTAs [CXL]. No wonder accessible design with good
contrast is considered good design!

Reduce number of distractors

Let’s talk about when you have too much noise going on, like when there’s a lot of fake buttons
on a website. Having too much information can cause cognitive overload, which is generally bad
for decision making tasks.

So if you have something within your design that needs to stand out, try keeping your screen
simple, making the important action more salient.

Absolute Judgement

Absolute judgement is a concept in psychology that pertains to the ability of an individual

to assess or evaluate something based on its inherent qualities, rather than relying on external
references or comparisons. It involves making unbiased judgments by focusing solely on the
characteristics of an object, event, or experience.

Definition
When it comes to absolute judgement, individuals strive to form an objective assessment
without considering any external factors. This means that they make judgments solely based on
the qualities or attributes of what they are evaluating. In essence, it is an attempt to perceive
things as they truly are, independent of other contextual influences.

Examples of Absolute Judgement

Let’s dive into a few examples to illustrate the concept of absolute judgement more
effectively:

Taste Testing: Imagine you’re a food critic tasked with evaluating a dish. Instead of
comparing it to other dishes you’ve tasted or relying on other people’s opinions, you try to
assess the dish solely based on its taste, presentation, and other intrinsic qualities.
Art Appreciation: When looking at a piece of artwork, someone utilizing absolute
judgement would focus solely on the aesthetic qualities, composition, use of color, and other
artistic elements, disregarding external factors such as the artist’s reputation or the artwork’s
market value.
Product Evaluation: Consider someone assessing the quality of a smartphone. Rather
than being influenced by brand reputation or comparisons to other models, they focus solely on
objective factors such as performance, features, durability, and user experience.
 These examples demonstrate the essence of absolute judgement – the ability to set
aside biases, comparisons, and external influences, allowing individuals to form unbiased
opinions based purely on the object or experience under scrutiny.

The Importance of Absolute Judgement

Absolute judgement plays a vital role in various domains, including psychology, decision-
making, and critical thinking. Here are a few key reasons why it is important:

Minimizes Bias: Absolute judgement helps individuals reduce the impact of biases and
preconceived notions that can distort their perception and decision-making. By focusing on the
intrinsic qualities and avoiding external influences, it enables a more accurate and objective
assessment.
Enhances Critical Thinking: The ability to evaluate things independently of external
references strengthens critical thinking skills. It fosters a deeper understanding of the subject
matter, facilitates logical reasoning, and encourages the development of well-rounded
perspectives.
Promotes Fairness: Absolute judgement promotes fairness and equal treatment. By
disregarding factors such as reputation, background, or social comparison, individuals can
provide more equitable evaluations and judgments.

Conclusion
Absolute judgement is a psychological concept that emphasizes the ability to form
unbiased assessments based solely on the inherent qualities or attributes of what is being
evaluated. By adopting this approach, individuals can minimize bias, enhance critical thinking,
and promote fairness in their evaluations. Practicing absolute judgement can lead to more
accurate and objective judgments, enabling a deeper understanding of the subject matter at
hand.

( Wala pay apil sa exam) Memory

Memory is the ongoing process of information retention over time. Because it makes up
the very framework through which we make sense of and take action within the present, its
importance goes without saying. But how exactly does it work? And how can teachers apply a
better understanding of its inner workings to their own teaching? In light of current research in
cognitive science, the very, very short answer to these questions is that memory operates
according to a "dual-process," where more unconscious, more routine thought processes
(known as "System 1") interact with more conscious, more problem-based thought processes
(known as "System 2"). At each of these two levels, in turn, there are the processes through
which we "get information in" (encoding), how we hold on to it (storage), and and how we "get it
back out" (retrieval or recall). With a basic understanding of how these elements of memory
work together, teachers can maximize student learning by knowing how much new information
to introduce, when to introduce it, and how to sequence assignments that will both reinforce the
retention of facts (System 1) and build toward critical, creative thinking (System 2).
Dual-Process Theory
Think back to a time when you learned a new skill, such as driving a car, riding a bicycle,
or reading. When you first learned this skill, performing it was an active process in which you
analyzed and were acutely aware of every movement you made. Part of this analytical process
also meant that you thought carefully about why you were doing what you were doing, to
understand how these individual steps fit together as a comprehensive whole. However, as your
ability improved, performing the skill stopped being a cognitively-demanding process, instead
becoming more intuitive. As you continue to master the skill, you can perform other, at times
more intellectually-demanding, tasks simultaneously. Due to your knowledge of this skill or
process being unconscious, you could, for example, solve an unrelated complex problem or
make an analytical decision while completing it.

In its simplest form, the scenario above is an example of what psychologists call dual-
process theory. The term “dual-process” refers to the idea that some behaviors and cognitive
processes (such as decision-making) are the products of two distinct cognitive processes, often
called System 1 and System 2 (Kaufmann, 2011:443-445). While System 1 is characterized by
automatic, unconscious thought, System 2 is characterized by effortful, analytical, intentional
thought (Osman, 2004:989).
Dual-Process Theories and Learning
How do System 1 and System 2 thinking relate to teaching and learning? In an
educational context, System 1 is associated with memorization and recall of information, while
System 2 describes more analytical or critical thinking. Memory and recall, as a part of System 1
cognition, are focused on in the rest of these notes.

As mentioned above, System 1 is characterized by its fast, unconscious recall of

previously-memorized information. Classroom activities that would draw heavily on System 1
include memorized multiplication tables, as well as multiple-choice exam questions that only
need exact regurgitation from a source such as a textbook. These kinds of tasks do not require
students to actively analyze what is being asked of them beyond reiterating memorized material.
System 2 thinking becomes necessary when students are presented with activities and
assignments that require them to provide a novel solution to a problem, engage in critical
thinking, or apply a concept outside of the domain in which it was originally presented.

It may be tempting to think of learning beyond the primary school level as being all about
System 2, all the time. However, it’s important to keep in mind that successful System 2 thinking
depends on a lot of System 1 thinking to operate. In other words, critical thinking requires a lot
of memorized knowledge and intuitive, automatic judgments to be performed quickly and
accurately.

How does Memory Work?

In its simplest form, memory refers to the continued process of information retention over
time. It is an integral part of human cognition, since it allows individuals to recall and draw upon
past events to frame their understanding of and behavior within the present. Memory also gives
individuals a framework through which to make sense of the present and future. As such,
memory plays a crucial role in teaching and learning. There are three main processes that
characterize how memory works. These processes are encoding, storage, and retrieval (or
recall).

Encoding. Encoding refers to the process through which information is learned. That is,
how information is taken in, understood, and altered to better support storage (which you will
look at in Section 3.1.2). Information is usually encoded through one (or more) of four methods:
(1) Visual encoding (how something looks); (2) acoustic encoding (how something sounds); (3)
semantic encoding (what something means); and (4) tactile encoding (how something feels).
While information typically enters the memory system through one of these modes, the form in
which this information is stored may differ from its original, encoded form (Brown, Roediger, &
McDaniel, 2014).
Storage. Storage refers to how, where, how much, and how long encoded information is
retained within the memory system. The modal model of memory (storage) highlights the
existence of two types of memory: short-term and long-term memory. Encoded information is
first stored in short-term memory and then, if need be, is stored in long-term memory (Roediger
& McDermott, 1995). Atkinson and Shiffrin argue that information that is encoded acoustically is
primarily stored in short-term memory (STM), and it is only kept there through constant
repetition (rehearsal). Time and inattention may cause information stored in STM to be
forgotten. This is because short-term memory only lasts between 15 and 30 seconds.
Additionally, STM only stores between five and nine items of information, with seven items
being the average number. In this context, the term “items” refers to any piece of information.
Long-term memory, however, has immense storage capacity, and information stored within LTM
can be stored there indefinitely. Information that is encoded semantically is primarily stored in
LTM; however, LTM also stores visually- and acoustically-encoded information. Once
information is stored within LTM or STM, individuals need to recall or retrieve it to make use of
said information (Roediger & McDermott, 1995). It is this retrieval process that often determines
how well students perform on assignments designed to test recall.
3. Retrieval. As indicated above, retrieval is the process through which individuals access stored
information. Due to their differences, information stored in STM and LTM are retrieved
differently. While STM is retrieved in the order in which it is stored (for example, a sequential list
of numbers), LTM is retrieved through association (for example, remembering where you parked
your car by returning to the entrance through which you accessed a shopping mall) (Roediger &
McDermott, 1995).

Improving Recall
Retrieval is subject to error, because it can reflect a reconstruction of memory. This
reconstruction becomes necessary when stored information is lost over time due to decayed
retention. In 1885, Hermann Ebbinghaus conducted an experiment in which he tested how well
individuals remembered a list of nonsense syllables over increasingly longer periods of time.
Using the results of his experiment, he created what is now known as the “Ebbinghaus
Forgetting Curve” (Schaefer, 2015).

Through his research, Ebbinghaus concluded that the rate at which your memory (of
recently learned information) decays depends both on the time that has elapsed following your
learning experience as well as how strong your memory is. Some degree of memory decay is
inevitable, so, as an educator, how do you reduce the scope of this memory loss? The following
sections answer this question by looking at how to improve recall within a learning environment,
through various teaching and learning techniques.

As a teacher, it is important to be aware of techniques that you can use to promote

better retention and recall among your students. Three such techniques are the testing effect,
spacing, and interleaving.

The testing effect. In most traditional educational settings, tests are normally
considered to be a method of periodic but infrequent assessment that can help a teacher
understand how well their students have learned the material at hand. However, modern
research in psychology suggests that frequent, small tests are also one of the best ways to
learn in the first place. The testing effect refers to the process of actively and frequently testing
memory retention when learning new information. By encouraging students to regularly recall
information they have recently learned, you are helping them to retain that information in long-
term memory, which they can draw upon at a later stage of the learning experience (Brown,
Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014). As secondary benefits, frequent testing allows both the teacher
and the student to keep track of what a student has learned about a topic, and what they need
to revise for retention purposes. Frequent testing can occur at any point in the learning process.
For example, at the end of a lecture or seminar, you could give your students a brief, low-stakes
quiz or free-response question asking them to remember what they learned that day, or the day
before. This kind of quiz will not just tell you what your students are retaining, but will help them
remember more than they would have otherwise.
Spacing. According to the spacing effect, when a student repeatedly learns and recalls
information over a prolonged time span, they are more likely to retain that information. This is
compared to learning (and attempting to retain) information in a short time span (for example,
studying the day before an exam). As a teacher, you can foster this approach to studying in your
students by structuring your learning experiences in the same way. For example, instead of
introducing a new topic and its related concepts to students in one go, you can cover the topic in
segments over multiple lessons (Brown, Roediger, & McDaniel, 2014).
Interleaving. The interleaving technique is another teaching and learning approach that was
introduced as an alternative to a technique known as “blocking”. Blocking refers to when a
student practices one skill or one topic at a time. Interleaving, on the other hand, is when
students practice multiple related skills in the same session. This technique has proven to be
more successful than the traditional blocking technique in various fields (Brown, Roediger, &
McDaniel, 2014).
As useful as it is to know which techniques you can use, as a teacher, to improve
student recall of information, it is also crucial for students to be aware of techniques they can
use to improve their own recall. This section looks at four of these techniques: state-dependent
memory, schemas, chunking, and deliberate practice.

State-dependent memory. State-dependent memory refers to the idea that being in the
same state in which you first learned information enables you to better remember said
information. In this instance, “state” refers to an individual’s surroundings, as well as their
mental and physical state at the time of learning (Weissenborn & Duka, 2000).
Schemas. Schemas refer to the mental frameworks an individual creates to help them
understand and organize new information. Schemas act as a cognitive “shortcut” in that they
allow individuals to interpret new information quicker than when not using schemas. However,
schemas may also prevent individuals from learning pertinent information that falls outside the
scope of the schema that has been created. It is because of this that students should be
encouraged to alter or reanalyze their schemas, when necessary, when they learn important
information that may not confirm or align with their existing beliefs and conceptions of a topic.
Chunking. Chunking is the process of grouping pieces of information together to better
facilitate retention. Instead of recalling each piece individually, individuals recall the entire group,
and then can retrieve each item from that group more easily (Gobet et al., 2001).
Deliberate practice. The final technique that students can use to improve recall is deliberate
practice. Simply put, deliberate practice refers to the act of deliberately and actively practicing a
skill with the intention of improving understanding of and performance in said skill. By
encouraging students to practice a skill continually and deliberately (for example, writing a well-
structured essay), you will ensure better retention of that skill (Brown et al., 2014).

Vigilance
- (from Latin, vigil;awake) is conceptualized as a special case of the broader
psychological construct of sustained attention. Sustained attention refers to the
ability to consciously or semiconsciously focus on tasks over extended periods of
time whereas vigilance may be defined more narrowly as a person’s
preparedness to detect infrequent and unpredictably occurring events or signals
over prolonged periods of time. Vigilance is not easy for humans because it is
difficult to sustain attention over long periods of time. The distinction made here
between vigilance and sustained attention is not always made clear in the
scientific literature and the two terms are often used interchangeably. Vigilance is
typically measured using tests that require an individual to detect infrequent
targets and discriminate them from “noise” or distractor stimuli and to do this over
extended periods of time.

Information Processing and Human Memory

Information processing is a cognitive learning theory that helps explain how individuals acquire,
process, store, and retrieve information from memory. The cognitive architecture that facilitates
the processing of information consists of three components: memory stores, cognitive
processes, and metacognition. The memory stores are sensory memory, a virtually unlimited
store that briefly holds stimuli from the environment in an unprocessed form until processing
begins; working memory, the conscious component of our information processing system,
limited in both capacity and duration, where knowledge is organized and constructed in a form
that makes sense to the individual; and long-term memory, a vast and durable store that holds
an individual’s lifetime of acquired information.
Information is moved from sensory memory to working memory using the cognitive processes
attention, selectively focusing on a single stimulus, and perception, the process of attaching
meaning to stimuli. After information is organized in working memory so it makes sense to the
individual, it is represented in long-term memory through the process of encoding, where it can
later be retrieved and connected to new information from the environment. Metacognition is a
regulatory mechanism that facilitates the use of strategies, such as chunking, automaticity, and
distributed processing, that help accommodate the limitations of working memory, and schema
activation, organization, elaboration, and imagery that promote the efficient encoding of
information into long-term memory. Information processing theory has implications for our daily
living ranging from tasks as simple as shopping at a supermarket to those as sophisticated as
solving complex problems.

State of science: mental workload in ergonomics

Mental workload (MWL) is one of the most widely used concepts in ergonomics and
human factors and represents a topic of increasing importance. Since modern technology in
many working environments imposes ever more cognitive demands upon operators while
physical demands diminish, understanding how MWL impinges on performance is increasingly
critical. Yet, MWL is also one of the most nebulous concepts, with numerous definitions and
dimensions associated with it. Moreover, MWL research has had a tendency to focus on
complex, often safety-critical systems (e.g. transport, process control). Here we provide a
general overview of the current state of affairs regarding the understanding, measurement and
application of MWL in the design of complex systems over the last three decades. We conclude
by discussing contemporary challenges for applied research, such as the interaction between
cognitive workload and physical workload, and the quantification of workload 'redlines' which
specify when operators are approaching or exceeding their performance tolerances.

Mental workload (MWL) can affect human performance and is considered critical in the
design and evaluation of complex human-machine systems. While numerous physiological
measures are used to assess MWL, there appears no consensus on their validity as effective
agents of MWL. This study was conducted to provide a comprehensive understanding of the
use of physiological measures of MWL and to synthesize empirical evidence on the validity of
the measures to discriminate changes in MWL. A systematic literature search was conducted
with four electronic databases for empirical studies measuring MWL with physiological
measures. Ninety-one studies were included for analysis. We identified 78 physiological
measures, which were distributed in cardiovascular, eye movement, electroencephalogram
(EEG), respiration, electromyogram (EMG) and skin categories. Cardiovascular, eye movement
and EEG measures were the most widely used across varied research domains, with 76%,
66%, and 71% of times reported a significant association with MWL, respectively. While most
physiological measures were found to be able to discriminate changes in MWL, they were not
universally valid in all task scenarios. The use of physiological measures and their validity for
MWL assessment also varied across different research domains. Our study offers insights into
the understanding and selection of appropriate physiological measures for MWL assessment in
varied human-machine systems.
 This study provides a systematic synthesis of empirical research on mental
workload (MWL) in air traffic control (ATC). MWL is a key concept in research on
innovative technologies, because the assessment of MWL is crucial to the evaluation of
such technologies. Our specific focus was on physiological measures of MWL. The
used search strategy identified 39 peer-reviewed publications that analysed ATC tasks,
examined different levels of difficulty of the ATC task, and considered at least one
physiological measure of MWL. Positive relations between measures of MWL and task
difficulty were observed most frequently, indicating that the measures indeed allowed
the assessment of MWL. The most commonly used physiological measures were brain
measures (EEG and fNIR) and heart rate measures. The review revealed a need for more
precise descriptions of crucial experimental parameters in order to permit a transition
of the field towards more interactive and dynamic types of analysis. Practitioner
summary: Research on innovative technology in air traffic control (ATC) depends on
assessments of mental workload (MWL). We reviewed empirical research on MWL in
ATC. Brain and heart measures often allow assessments of MWL. Better descriptions of
experiments are needed to allow comparisons among studies and more dynamic and
interactive analyses.