Magnetism

MATERIALS SCIENCE and ENGINEERING by William D. Callister, Jr.David G. Rethwisch

Magnetism and Electromagnetism
Introduction

▪ Magnetism—the phenomenon by which materials exert an attractive

or repulsive force or influence on other materials.

▪ Magnetic materials are used in electric motors, transformers,

loudspeakers and data processing.

▪ Magnetic forces are generated by moving electrically charged particles.

Poles of a Magnet

If we take a bar magnet and dip ‫ يغمس‬it into iron filings ‫بسادة حدةيسة‬, it will be observed that
the iron filings cluster about the ends of the bar magnet. The ends of the bar magnet are
points of ‫ تشياحدلي‬maximum magnetic effect we call them the poles of the magnet.

A magnet has two poles; north pole and south pole. The following points may be noted
about the poles of a magnet:
1. The poles of a magnet cannot be separated. If a bar magnet is broken into two parts,
each part will be complete magnet with poles at its ends. No matter how many times a
magnet is broken, each piece will contain N-pole at one end and S-pole at the other.
2. The two poles of a magnet are of equal strength.
3. Like poles repel each other and unlike poles attract each other.
Laws of Magnetic Force

Charles Coulomb, a French scientist observed that when two isolated poles are placed near each
other, they experience a force.
He performed a number of experiments to study the nature and magnitude of force between
the magnetic poles .He summed up his conclusions into two laws, known as Coulomb’s laws of
magnetic force. These laws give us the magnitude and nature of magnetic force between two
magnetic poles.
1. Like poles repel each other while unlike poles attract each other.
2. The force between two magnetic poles is directly proportional to the product of their pole
strengths and inversely proportional to the square of distance between their centres.
Laws of Magnetic Force
Consider two poles of magnetic strength m1 and m2 placed at a
distance d apart in a medium as shown in Fig. 1. According to
Coulomb’s laws, the force between the two poles is given by;

𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭∝
𝒅𝟐

𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 Figure1
𝑭=𝑲
𝒅𝟐

where K is a constant whose value depends upon the surrounding medium and the system of units
employed.
Laws of Magnetic Force

Force is measured in newtons, pole strength in weber, distance in meters and

the value of K is given by ;

1
𝑲=
4𝝅𝝁𝒐 𝝁𝒓

𝝁𝒐 = Absolute permeability of vacuum or air

𝝁𝒓 = Relative permeability of the surrounding medium. For vacuum or air, its value is 1.

The value of 𝝁𝒐 = 4π × 10−7 H/m and the value of μr is different for different media.
Hence;
𝒎1 𝒎2
𝑭=
4𝝅𝝁𝒐 𝝁𝒓 𝒅2
Magnetic Field

▪ The space (or field) in which a magnetic pole experiences a force is called a magnetic field.

▪ The magnetic field around a magnet is represented by imaginary lines called magnetic lines of
force .

▪ it is clear that magnetic lines of force would emerge from N-pole of the magnet, pass through the
surrounding medium and re-enter the S-pole
 Magnetic Field
Properties of magnetic lines of force. The important properties of magnetic
lines of force are:
❑ Each magnetic line of force forms a closed loop i.e. outside the magnet, the
direction of a magnetic line of force is from north pole to south pole and it
continues through the body of the magnet to form a closed loop (See Fig. 2).
❑ No two magnetic lines of force intersect ‫ يتقسطع‬each other. If two magnetic lines of
force intersect there would be two directions of magnetic field at that point which
is not possible.
❑ Where the magnetic lines of force are close together, the magnetic field is strong
and where they are well spaced out, the field is weak. Figure 2
❑ Magnetic lines of force are always ready to pass through magnetic materials like
iron in preference to pass through non-magnetic materials like air.
 Magnetic Flux
The magnetic flux density is defined as the magnetic flux passing normally per
unit area i.e. Magnetic flux density.
∅
𝑩=
𝑨

Where,
∅ = flux in Wb

A = area in m2 normal to flux

 Magnetic Flux
❑ When the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the flux direction [See Fig.
3], maximum flux will pass through the coil i.e.

∅𝒎 = 𝑩𝑨

❑ When the plane of the coil is inclined at an angle θ to the flux

direction [See Fig. 4], then flux f through the coil is Figure 3

∅ = 𝑩𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 Wb

❑ When the plane of the coil is parallel to the flux direction, q = 0° so

that no flux will pass through the coil (∅ = 𝑩𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽° = 0).

Figure 4
 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

When an electric current flows through a conductor, magnetic field is set up all along the length of the
conductor. Fig. 5 shows the magnetic field produced by the current flowing in a straight wire. The magnetic
lines of force are in the form of concentric circles ‫ةودئساحمتدسة حدلما س ح‬around the conductor. The direction of
lines of force depends upon the direction of current and may be determined by right-hand rule. Hold the
conductor in the right-hand with the thumb ‫ دالبهطمح‬pointing in the direction of current (See Fig. 5). Then the
fingers will point in the direction of magnetic field around the conductor.

Figure 5
Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

The following points may be noted about the magnetic effect of electric current:

1. The greater the current through the conductor, the stronger the magnetic field and vice versa.

2. The magnetic field near the conductor is stronger and becomes weaker and weaker as we
move away from the conductor.

3. The magnetic lines of force around the conductor will be either clockwise or anticlockwise,
depending upon the direction of current. One may use right-hand rule to determine the
direction of magnetic field around the conductor.

4. The shape of the magnetic field depends upon the shape of the conductor.
Typical Electromagnetic Fields

• The current carrying conductor may be in the form of a straight

wire, a loop of one turn, a coil of several turns.

• The shape of the magnetic field would depend upon the shape of
conductor.

• By way of illustration, we shall discuss magnetic fields produced by

some current carrying conductor arrangements.
Typical Electromagnetic Fields
Long straight conductor.

Figure 6
Typical Electromagnetic Fields

Long straight conductor.

If a straight long conductor is carrying current, the magnetic lines of force will be concentric
circles around the conductor as shown in Fig. 6.

In Fig. 6 (i), the conductor is carrying current into the plane of paper (usually represented by a
cross inside the X-section of the conductor). Applying right-hand rule, it is clear that direction of
magnetic lines of force will be clockwise.

In Fig. 6 (ii), the conductor is carrying current out of the plane of paper (usually represented by a
dot inside the X-section of the conductor). Clearly, the direction of magnetic lines of force will be
anticlockwise.
Typical Electromagnetic Fields

Parallel conductors.

Figure 7
Typical Electromagnetic Fields

Parallel conductors.

Consider two parallel conductors A and B placed close together and

carrying current into the plane of the paper as shown in Fig. 7 (i).

The magnetic lines of force will be clockwise around each conductor. In the
space between A and B, the lines of force due to the conductors are in the
opposite direction and hence they cancel out each other.

This results in a field that entirely surrounds the conductors as shown in

Fig. 7 (ii).
Typical Electromagnetic Fields

Parallel conductors.

Figure 8
Typical Electromagnetic Fields

Parallel conductors.

If there are several parallel conductors placed close together and carrying current into the
plane of the paper as shown in Fig. 8 (i), the magnetic field envelops ‫يغلف‬the conductors.

If the direction of current is reversed, the direction of field is also reversed as shown in Fig.8
(ii).
Magnetizing Force (H) Produced by Electric Current

The magnetic flux (∅) can be produced by:

(1) current-carrying conductor or coil or

(2) a permanent magnet.

• We generally use current-carrying conductor or coil to produce magnetic flux.

• Experiments show that magnetic flux (∅) produced by a current-carrying coil is directly proportional to
the product of number of turns (N) of the coil and electric current (I) which the coil carries .
Magnetizing Force (H) Produced by Electric Current
The quantity NI is called magnetomotive force (m.m.f)
and is measured in ampere-turns (AT) or amperes (A)

𝒎. 𝒎. 𝒇 = 𝑵𝑰 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆. 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔(𝑨𝑻ሻ

The magnetizing force (H) produced by an electric current is defined as the

m.m.f. set up per unit length of the magnetic circuit i.e

𝑵𝑰
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 = 𝑯 =
𝒍
Relation Between B and H
The Magnetic flux density in a material— dependence on permeability and magnetic field
strength
𝑩 = 𝝁𝑯
 Magnetization/magnetic susceptibility

Another field quantity, M, called the magnetization of the solid, is defined by the expression

B =𝝁𝒐 H +𝝁𝒐 M

• Magnetic flux density—as a function of magnetic field strength and magnetization of a material
• Magnetization of a material— dependence on susceptibility and magnetic field strength
𝑴 = 𝝌𝒎 H

𝝌𝒎 is called the magnetic susceptibility, which is unitless.1 The magnetic susceptibility and the relative
permeability are related as follows:
𝝌𝒎 = 𝝁𝒓 -1
 DIAMAGNETISM, PARAMAGNETISM

Diamagnetism is a very weak form of magnetism that is nonpermanent and persists only
while an external field is being applied. It is induced by a change in the orbital motion of
electrons due to an applied magnetic field. The magnitude of the induced magnetic moment
is extremely small and in a direction opposite to that of the applied field

paramagnetism For some solid materials, each atom possesses a permanent dipole moment In the absence of
an external magnetic field, the orientations of these atomic magnetic moments are random, such that a piece of
material possesses no net macroscopic magnetization. These atomic dipoles are free to rotate, and
paramagnetism results when they preferentially align, by rotation,

• Paramagnetic materials are those having permanent atomic dipoles, which are acted on
individually and aligned in the direction of an external field

• Diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials are considered nonmagnetic because the magnetizations are
relatively small and persist only while an applied field is present.
DIAMAGNETISM, PARAMAGNETISM
 FERROMAGNETISM

• Certain metallic materials possess a permanent

magnetic moment in the absence of an external field
and manifest very large and permanent
magnetizations. These are the characteristics of
ferromagnetism,
• Large and permanent magnetizations may be
established within the ferromagnetic metals (Fe,
Co, Ni).
Magnetic Materials
Force on Current-carrying Conductor Placed in a Magnetic Field

When a current-carrying conductor is placed at right angles to a magnetic field, it is found that
the conductor experiences a force which acts in a direction perpendicular to the direction of
both the field and the current.
Consider a straight current-carrying conductor placed in a uniform magnetic field as shown in
Fig. 9.

Figure 9
Force on Current-carrying Conductor Placed in a Magnetic Field

Let:
B = magnetic flux density in Wb/m2
I = current through the conductor in amperes
𝒍 = effective length of the conductor in meters (i.e. the length of the conductor lying in the magnetic field)
θ = angle which the conductor makes with the direction of the magnetic field

It has been found experimentally that the magnitude of force (F) acting on the conductor is
directly proportional to the magnitudes of flux density (B), current (I), length (l) and sin θ i.e.

𝑭 = 𝑩𝑰𝒍 𝐬𝐢 𝐧( 𝜽ሻ
 Force on Current-carrying Conductor Placed in a Magnetic Field

Direction of force. The direction of force F is always perpendicular to the plane

containing l and B and can be determined by right-hand rule for cross product stated
below:

Orient your right hand so that your outstretched

fingers point along the direction of the conventional
current; the orientation should be such that when you
bend your fingers, they must point along the direction
of the magnetic field (B) Then your extended thumb
will point in the direction of the force on the
conductor.
Force on Current-carrying Conductor Placed in a Magnetic Field

Direction of force. The direction of force F is always perpendicular to the plane

containing l and B and can be determined Fleming’s Left-hand rule stated below:

Fleming’s Left-hand Rule. Stretch out the First finger, second finger and thumb of your left
hand so that they are at right angles to one another. If the first finger points in the direction of
magnetic field (North to South) and second finger (i.e. middle finger) points towards the
direction of current, then the thumb will point in the direction of motion of the conductor.
Force on Current-carrying Conductor Placed in a Magnetic Field