IGCSE

PHYSICS
Edexcel
4PH1
Syllabus
 Topic 1 Forces and Motion
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
Measurement means comparing any physical quantity with a standard to determine
its Relationship to standard this standard is called unit all measurable quantity
expressed in
a) Some number or magnitude and
b) Some unit
For example if the distance is 200km, 200 is the number or magnitude and km
(kilometer) is the unit

Standard International Unit

M.K.S. system: meters – kilogram – second system used internationally. This system
is also called SI (system international) unit

kilometer ton
meter kilogram
centimeter gram

hour
minute
second

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Powers of prefix
Prefixes are used to give multiples and submultiples. The prefix represents a power
of ten. The standard multiples and submultiples are mostly in steps of 103

Symbol Prefix Value

n Nano 10-9
μ Micro 10-6
m Milli 10-3
C Centi 10-2
K Kilo 103
M Mega 106

Scalar and Vector Quantities

 Scalar quantities: a quantity which has magnitude (size) only and is
described by its numerical value. ( distance, mass, speed, volume, time and
temperature )

 Vector quantities: a quantity which has both magnitude and direction, and both
should be mentioned to describe it ( displacement, weight, velocity and
acceleration )

Speed

Do you know how fast you can run?

The fastest runners in the world can run 100 meters in just 10
seconds. That means they cover 10 meters each second, or 10
meters per second. This is written as 10 m/s.

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  To calculate the speed

distance moved (m)

speed (m/s) =
time taken (s)

Questions

1. The runner completes 400 m is a time of 160 seconds. What is her average
speed?

Answer

distance moved 400

average speed = =
time taken 160

So the average speed = 2.5 m/s

2. An athlete completes a 4 km mountain race in at an average speed of 3 m/s.

How long does the race take?

Answer

distance moved 4000

time taken = =
average speed 3

The distance is given in 'km' and needs to be converted to meters

4 km = 4000 m.
So the time taken = 1333 seconds.

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displacement and distance

Speed and distance are difficult ones. To explain this, imagine a simple journey
If you walk 1 km to a cinema and back again, how far have you gone?

If we ignore direction, we call this the distance travelled. Distance is a scalar.

If we include the direction , it is called the displacement. Displacement is a vector.
So in the example above shown in figure 2, the distance travelled = 2km, and the
displacement = 0 km.

Speed is a scalar quantity and velocity is a vector quantity.

Acceleration
Is rate of change in velocity

When we speed up - increasing our velocity - we are accelerating , When we slow

down we are decelerating

 u = the initial, or starting velocity. (m/s)

 v = the final velocity (m/s)
 Δv = the change in velocity (m/s)
 t = the time taken (s)
 a = acceleration (m/s2)

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 change in velocity (m/s)
acceleration (m/s2)=
time taken (s)

v-u Δv
a= or a =
t t

 + acceleration (speed up )
 - acceleration (slow down )
 Zero acceleration ( constant speed )

Questions

3. The school bus accelerates from rest to a velocity of 16 m/s in a time of 20

seconds. Calculate the acceleration of the bus.

Answer

We know that the change in velocity (v-u, or Δv) is 16 m/s

Δv 16
a= =
t 20

so the acceleration = 0.8 m/s2

4. A cheetah is widely believed to be the fastest animal on Earth. It can

accelerate at 2.5 m/s2. If the cheetah starts at a velocity of 3 m/s, how long will
it take to reach a velocity of 13 m/s?

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Answer

In this question, the change in velocity Δv = 13-3 = 10 m/s.

Δv 10
t= =
a 2.5

so the time taken = 4 s.

 There is a more complicated formula that can be used to find the final
velocity if we know the distance travelled rather than the time taken

(final speed)2 = (initial speed)2 + (2 x acceleration x distance)

v2 = u2 + (2 x a x s)

Question

5. An eagle swoops down from a cliff, accelerating from an initial speed of 2

m/s at a rate of 5 m/s2. It covers a distance of 6 m. Calculate the final velocity
of the eagle.

Answer

First, write down which values are given in the question

 initial velocity u = 2 m/s

 acceleration a = 5 m/s2
 distance s = 6 m
 final velocity v = ?

Now substitute these into the formula

v2 = u2 + (2 x a x s)

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so: v2 = 22 + (2 x 5 x 6)

v2 = 4 + 60 = 64

v = √64 = 8

So the final velocity = 8 m/s.

Motion graphs

There are two main types of graph used:

 Distance - Time graphs

 Velocity - Time graphs

1- Distance - time graphs

 Graph ( A ) gradient is speed and graph is straight line so it constant speed

opposite direction of ( D )
 Graph ( B )gradient is speed and graph is increasing ( stepper up ) so
increase in speed

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  Graph ( C ) gradient is speed and graph is decreasing (stepper down ) so
decrease in speed
 Graph ( D ) gradient is speed and graph is straight line so constant speed

 Rest or stationary when graph is horizontal as

shown on figure

Questions

1. A man is taking his dog for a walk. When he opens the front door, the dog
runs off in a straight line at a steady speed. It then stops at a lamp post for
some time.

Sketch a distance-time graph for this motion. You do not need

to estimate any values for this question.

Answer

 The distance should be labeled on the y-axis.

 The time should be labeled on the x-axis.
 The first section of the line should be a straight line sloping upwards showing
"a steady speed".
 The next section should be a flat, horizontal line showing the dog remaining
in one spot at the lamp post.

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2. A student writes a program to make a small robot move
across the desk. This graph shows the motion of the robot

 a). Describe the motion in part 'X' on the graph.

 b). Describe the motion in part 'Y' on the graph.
 c). Describe the motion in part 'Z' on the graph.
 d) Calculate the speed of the robot when it is moving at
its fastest.

Answer

a) Line 'X' shows the robot moving away from the start at constant velocity.

b) Line 'Y' shows the robot stops / is stationary (100 cm from the start).

c) Line 'Z' shows the robot moving back towards the start at constant velocity.

d) The fastest speed is where the line is the steepest, (the highest gradient), which is
line X. For this section, reading from the graph, the robot covers 100 cm in 5
seconds. As we are using cm, the speed will be given in cm/s.

distance 100 cm
speed = =
time 5s

so the speed, or velocity, is = 20 cm /s.

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2- Velocity - time graphs

 Graph ( A ) gradient is acceleration and graph is straight line so it constant

deceleration as velocity decrease
 Graph ( B )gradient is acceleration and graph is increasing ( stepper up ) so
increase in acceleration
 Graph ( C ) gradient is acceleration and graph is decreasing (stepper down )
so decrease in acceleration
 Graph ( D ) gradient is acceleration and graph is straight line so constant
acceleration

 when graph is horizontal as shown on figure zero

acceleration or constant velocity

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Calculations distance using velocity-time graphs
A velocity-time graph is often used to show motion because you can use it to find
other information. The two that we will cover here are how to find
the acceleration and the distance travelled from the graph.

 The distance travelled = the area under the line.

 The acceleration = the gradient of the line.

Area under line

Area of triangle = 0.5 x base x height

Area of rectangle = base x height

Area of trapezium = 0.5 x h x (a + b)

Acceleration

This is the gradient of the line the steeper the line, the higher the acceleration. The
'steepness' of a line is the gradient

'rise' change in y-axis

gradient = or gradient =
'run' change in x-axis

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Questions

The graph shown in figure gives data on the

movement of a city tram moving away from a station.
Which section or sections of the graph shows the tram

a) Moving with constant velocity?

b) Decelerating?

c) Accelerating at the highest rate?

Answer

a) A constant velocity will be shown as a flat, horizontal line on a velocity-time

graph.
Therefore the sections showing this are Q and S.
b) Deceleration means slowing down, and this is shown by a sloping line with a
decreasing velocity.
The section showing this is section T.
c) A high acceleration is shown by a sloping line with a high gradient (like a very
steep hill).
This is shown by section R.
(Section P is also showing acceleration, but the tram is not accelerating as much as
in section R).

Using the graph shown in figure for the velocity of a

tram, calculate:

 a) The acceleration of the tram in section R.

 b) The distance travelled between 30 and 40
seconds.
 c) The distance travelled in the first 10
seconds.

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Answer

a) The acceleration is given by:

change in velocity
acceleration =
time taken

change in y-axis
or by using acceleration = gradient =
change in x-axis

15 - 5 10
acceleration = =
10 10

So the acceleration of section R = 1 m/s2.

b) The distance travelled between 30 and 40 s is given by:

Distance = area under line = rectangle of height 15 (m/s) and length 10 (s).
Therefore the area = distance = 15 x 10 = 150 m.

c) The distance travelled in the first 10 s is given by:

Distance = area under line = area of triangle = ½ base x height,
So area = ½ x 10 x 5,
Area = distance = 25 m.

Forces

A force is basically a push or a pull on something. There are many different things
that cause forces, but they are all measured in newton’s (N)

Here are a few of the most common types of forces found in nature

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  Magnetic - between magnetic materials. This can be a push (repulsion) or a
pull (attraction)
 Gravitational - between any mass. This is always a force of attraction.
 Friction - this is a force that acts against motion.
 Electrostatic - between positive and/or negative charges. This can be
attraction or repulsion, depending on the charge.
 Friction is a general term for any force produced when an object is in contact
with a solid, liquid or gas that pushes against the motion. If a liquid or gas is
involved, we often call this force of friction the 'drag'. If it is an object like a
plane moving through the air, we often call this type of friction air
resistance.

When a force acts on something, many things can

happen
 Change the speed of a body.
 Change the direction of motion (if it is already moving).
 Change the shape of a body. (For example, squashing a rubber ball).

Drawing forces
Force is a vector so can be drawn with an arrow. The length of the arrow can be
used to show the size of the force, and obviously the direction of the arrow shows
the direction of the force.

 If two or more forces are acting in the same direction, we can add them
together to find the total.
 if they act in opposite directions, we need to subtract, as shown here by
two forces acting on a ball

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Questions

1. A block of wood is pushed across a table, from left to right. Describe the
direction of the following forces:

 a) Friction.
 b) Gravity.

Answer

a) Friction always acts in the opposite direction to the motion, so it acts from right
to left.
b) Gravity always pulls objects downwards, (towards the centre of the Earth).

2. A small van is travelling down a road. The forward force provided by the
engine is 2 kN . The air resistance acting on the van is 600 N, and the friction
between road and tiers is 300 N.

a) What is the resultant force acting on the van?

b) Describe the motion of the van at this point.

Answer

 a) The forward force is 2 kN, which equals 2000 N. Air resistance AND
friction both act to prevent movement so act backwards, and total 900 N.
Therefore there is a resultant force of 1100 N (1.1kN) acting forwards.

b) As there is a resultant forward force, the van will accelerate

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Mass

Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object. In simple terms, it relates to

the number of atoms present, and how big those atoms are. The international unit
for mass is the kilogram (kg).

Weight

Weight is a measure of the pull of gravity on an object. As it is a pull, it is also a force

and is therefore measured in newton (N)

Weight = mass x gravitational field strength

W=mxg

[Newton] = [kilograms] x [N/kg]

 For many of these questions, the mass of an object will remain the
same (assuming it is the same object), but the weight can change as it depends
on the strength of gravity acting on it.
 Take the weight of 1.0kg to be 10 N (acceleration of free fall = 10 m/s2)

Questions

1. If we took the 5 kg bag of fruit on a space journey, how much would it weigh
in the following locations?

 a). The Moon. On the Moon, g = 1.6 N/kg

 b). Jupiter. On Jupiter, g = 23 N/kg
 c). Deep Space. Deep space, there is no gravity g = zero.

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Answer

 a) W= m x g =5 x 1.6 = 8.0 N
 b) W= m x g =5 x 23 = 115 N
 c).In deep space, there is no gravity! g = zero.
Therefore W = 0 N (The bag is 'weightless').

2. On the Moon mission in 1972, the astronauts picked up a rock to bring back
to Earth. The weight of the rock was 32 N on the Moon. Calculate

 a). The mass of the rock.

 b). The weight of the rock when it was returned to Earth.

Answer

a). We know w = m x g. We also know that gmoon = 1.6 N/kg. Therefore

W
m=
g 32
m=
1.6

m = 20 kg.

b) If m = 20 kg, and on the Earth g = 10 N/kg,

then W = m x g
W = 20 x 10
Therefore W = 200 N

Force and acceleration

If there are unbalanced forces acting on the object, the object will accelerate. The
acceleration depends on the size of the unbalanced/net force and the mass of the
object

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  A force can make an object accelerate. The bigger the force acting on an
object, the bigger the acceleration that it gives to the object 𝑎 ∝ F
(proportional) so, doubling the force acting on an object doubles its
acceleration.
 The mass of an object affects how easily it can be accelerated or decelerated.
The bigger the mass, the smaller the acceleration given by a particular force
𝑎∝ (inversely) so, doubling the mass of the body will halve the

acceleration

Force= mass x acceleration

F=mxa

[newtons] = [kilograms] x [m/s2]

Questions

A mountain bike rider and bike together have a total mass of 80 kg. If the bike
is to accelerate at 1.8 m/s, what force needs to be applied?

Answer
F= m x a
Therefore F = 80 x 1.8 = 144 N

A firework rocket of mass 200 g is set alight, and the force produced at the
start is 5 N.

 a). Calculate the initial acceleration of the rocket.

 b). the rocket burns and releases fuel, making it lose mass. At what
mass will the acceleration be 40 m/s2, assuming the force produced is
still 5 N?

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Answer

a). We know F = m x a and also that 200 g = 0.2 kg (the mass MUST be in kg, not g).

Rearranging the formula gives:

F
5 a=
a= m
0.2

a = 25 m/s2

b) If a = 40 m/s2 and F = 5 N,
then F = m x a gives:

5 F
m= m=
40 a

Therefore m = 0.125 kg (or 125 g)

The Effect of a Force acting perpendicular to the direction

of motion (CH .8 ASTRO PHYSICS)
Here, the force is neither driving nor resisting, it acts as a centripetal force which is
the inward force needed to make an object move in a circle As a result Object moves
along circular path (or part of a circular path).
 For car moving round a circular road, what provides the
centripetal force? The sideway friction exerted by the road
on the tires.
 Object can have a steady speed but a changing velocity as
object moving in a circular path (acceleration change )

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Larger centripetal force
1) if the mass of the object is increased
2) if the speed of the object is increased
3) If the radius of the circle is reduced

Newton's third law

For each Action there’s reaction are equal in magnitude and opposite direction

 A common example of this is when you inflate a balloon and then release it
without tying the end. The balloon accelerates away. This happens because
the balloon pushes the air backwards, so the air pushes back on the balloon
(forwards) making the balloon move

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Questions

This question is about using a swimming stroke like front crawl to move.

 a) Explain how a swimmer uses Newton's third law to move through the
water.
 b) Explain why an astronaut cannot use a swimming' stroke to move
through space.

Answer

a) The swimmer uses his/her arms and legs to push the water backwards.
As the swimmer pushes the water backwards, the water pushes the swimmer
forwards due to Newton's third law.

b) In space, there is no air or water, space is a vacuum. Therefore the

swimmer cannot push anything backwards. If there is no 'action' there cannot be
a 'reaction' and the astronaut will not move.

Air Resistance and Terminal Velocity of falling object

There are two main forces which affect a falling object at different stages of its fall:

 The weight of the object - this is a force acting downwards, caused by the
Earth's gravitational field acting on the object’s mass.

 Air resistance - this is a frictional force acting in the opposite direction to

the movement of the object. (Note that in space and other vacuums there is
no air resistance.)

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Stages of falling

When an object is dropped, there are three stages before it hits the ground:

1. At the start, the object accelerates downwards because of its weight. There is
very little air resistance. There is a resultant force acting downwards. The
acceleration is constant when the object is close to Earth.

2. As it gains speed, the object's weight stays the same but the air resistance on
it increases. There is a resultant force acting downwards.

3. Eventually, the object's weight is balanced by the air resistance. There is no

resultant force and the object reaches a steady speed – this is known as
the terminal velocity

 in skydiver as he open parachute the air resistance increase because large

surface area of parachute , air resistance is greater than weight so he start
to decelerate

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23
Questions

1. The diagrams below figure show forces acting on a skydiver who has
jumped out of a plane. There are 3 diagrams, showing different stages of the
descent

 a). Describe the acceleration in diagram A.

 b). Describe the acceleration in diagram B.
 c). Describe the acceleration in diagram C.
 d). State the causes of the forces acting downwards
and upwards on the skydiver.
 e). Complete the velocity time graph shown below
to show each of these stages of the skydiver's fall
from figure. You do not need to include numbers
on the graph.
The initial downwards velocity of the skydiver is zero, as shown by the
line section given at the start of the graph.

Answer

 a). The downwards force in diagram A is larger (by 300 N) and so the
skydiver accelerates downwards.
 b). The forces are balanced, so the skydiver stays at a constant velocity.
Remember the question asks you to describe acceleration - the acceleration
is zero.
 c). There is now a resultant force upwards. Be careful - this does NOT make
the skydiver go back up to the plane. They are falling
downwards, so the unbalanced force just slows them down.
The skydiver decelerates (or has negative acceleration).
 d) The downwards force is gravity, and the upwards force
is air resistance.
 e) See the example here

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Falling object in vacuum (space)
The graph will be straight line due to absence of air resistance
as shown in figure

Stopping distances
The stopping distance of any vehicle involves 2 stages

1 -Thinking Distance

Whenever we see a source of danger or an obstacle, it takes time to react. Typically -

for a fit and healthy person - our reaction time is about 0.2 to 0.3 seconds.
However, during this short time the vehicle will continue down the road at the same
speed.
The distance covered in this time is called the thinking distance, and this increases
if the vehicle is going faster.

There are several things that can affect our reaction time and hence the thinking
distance

 Tiredness - lack of sleep can simply make us less well focused on the road
and cause us to miss an obstacle ahead.
 Medicines and other drugs (alcohol) - all of these can affect our reaction
time. Some cough mixtures have a warning on the packet that it is not safe to
drive when taking this medicine.

2-Braking Distance

Once we have reacted and the brake is applied, it takes a time to decelerate and
stop. The distance covered in this time is called the braking distance. This distance
is affected by several factors

 Speed -the faster the speed, the more time taken to stop and therefore the
higher the braking distance.

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  Mass of vehicle - the higher the mass, the larger the stopping distance as the
vehicle will not decelerate at the same rate.
 Quality of brakes/tires - it is important that the brakes and tires are not
faulty to ensure the smallest stopping distance.
 Road surface - these needs to be - for example - clear of dirt or gravel that
could cause a car to skid and take longer to stop.
 Weather conditions - rain or snow on the road can - again- make it difficult
to brake.

Total stopping distance

Total stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance

Questions

1. Using data from the graph shown in figure above, calculate

 a). The distance covered whilst the driver was reacting.

 b) The deceleration of the car whilst braking.
 c) The distance covered whilst braking.
 d) The total stopping distance.

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Answer

a). The distance covered is the area under the line. For the time when the driver was
reacting (the thinking time) we need the blue area shown. This is a rectangle so the
area is:
Area = height x length
area = distance = 10 x 0.5
So thinking distance = 5 m

b) The deceleration of the braking stage is the gradient of the line:

change in velocity
gradient = deceleration =
time taken

10
so deceleration =
2.5

deceleration = 4 m/s2 (or acceleration = -4 m/s2).

c) Here the area is a triangle shape, so the area is equal to:

Area = ½ x base x height,
Area = distance ½ x 2.5 x 10,
So braking distance = 12.5 m

d) The total stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance = 5 + 12.5,

So total stopping distance = 17.5 m

2. A second car takes longer to stop even though it is travelling at the same
speed as the car in figure
State 1 factor that might have affected

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  a) the driver's thinking time.
 b) the drivers braking time.

Answer

a) Tiredness / medicine / drugs / alcohol / distractions.

b) Higher total mass / road surface / brake or tire conditions / weather e.g. rain on
road

Forces and Deformation

If an object is under the effect of a force, that changes its shape, then this object has
experienced deformation. Deformations of objects are either:
1. Elastic deformation
Is when an object (under the effect of a certain force) experiences a change in shape,
then returns to its original shape when the deforming force is removed,
stretching a rubber band
2. Plastic deformation
Is when an object (under the effect of a certain force)
experiences a change in shape, and does not return to its
original shape when the deforming force is removed,
squeezing a piece of plastic
Most materials are elastic for a certain range for forces “the
Elastic limit”, beyond which they have plastic behavior.

Hooks experiment
In the opposite figure, a clamp and stands are used to show
a stretched spring supporting some weights at rest. When
the spring extends (increases in length), therefore the
difference between the non-stretched length of the spring
and its stretched length (when loaded) is called “Extension”.

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 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛=𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐𝑕𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕−𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑐𝑕𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡𝑕 (original length)

 Attach a spring to a clamp or similar support, and measure the upstretched

length with a ruler.
 Add a load to the spring. Remember that a mass of 0.1 kg will have a weight
of 1 N.
 Measure the new, stretched length.
 Repeat this with additional weights, recording the new length.
 Once finished, work out how much the spring has stretched compared to the
original length - this is known as the extension, shown in the diagram as 'x'.

Plot the extension x (cm) against the load (N) applied to see how the spring has
behaved under a force

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The limit of proportionality
 Is the point beyond which the spring extension will not be proportional to
the load Up to this limit the extension increases by a set amount for every
newton of force applied Above this limit the increase in extension per
newton will be greater.
 The limit of proportionality is an important point.
If the spring is stretched beyond this point, it will no longer
extend proportionally to the load (weight) applied.

Hook’s law
Force (F) is Directly Proportional with extension (X) Until Elastic Limit
F=K xX
Where k is spring constant

Springs connected in series and in parallel

Springs can be connected in different ways; end to end (in series) or side by side (in
parallel).
 When two springs are connected in series, they produce
twice the extension because the two extensions add up.
 When two springs are connected in parallel, they
produce half the extension because each spring is
affected by half the force.

Questions

1. A wire of length 50 cm stretches to 70 cm under a load of 40 N. What will be

the length of the wire when 60 N is applied?

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Answer

If the wire extends from 50 cm to 70 cm, the extension for 40 N loads is 20 cm. (0.5
cm per 1 N load).
Therefore for 60 N, the extension will be 30 cm. However this is NOT the final
answer! The question asks for the length, not the extension.
The original length was 50 cm, so the extended length will be 50 + 30 = 80 cm

2. How is Hooke's Law identified on a graph of the load on a spring against the
spring's extension?

Answer

Hooke's Law behavior is shown by a straight line

section on a load-extension graph.

3. What do we mean by elastic behavior?

Answer

Elastic behavior means that a material will return to its original shape after being
deformed.

Moment (turning effect)

When a force acts on an object which has a pivot a point around which an object
can turn or rotate, it creates a turning effect or moment. When forces are used to
open doors, steer and pedal bicycles or turn a tap; they are causing turning effect
The moment of a force is defined like this

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 Moment = force x perpendicular distance (from the pivot)

Moment = F x d

 The moment of a force is a vector quantity that can only have one of two
directions; either clockwise or anticlockwise

Combining moments
Questions

In the diagram, there are two forces acting, F1 and F2:

 a) Which of these two forces is trying to rotate the

spanner in a clockwise direction?
 b) Calculate the clockwise moment on the spanner.
 c) Calculate the anticlockwise moment on the
spanner.
 d) Which way will the spanner turn, if at all?
 e) Calculate the total moment acting on the spanner.

Answer

a) Force F2 is pushing upwards on the left hand side, so is trying to turn the spanner
in a clockwise direction.

b) The moment of F2 = force x perpendicular distance to the pivot

So moment = 40 x 0.4 = 16 Nm clockwise

c) The moment of F1 = force x perpendicular distance to the pivot

So moment = 30 x 0.6 = 18 Nm anti-clockwise

d) The anti-clockwise moment is larger (18 Nm compared to 16 Nm) so the spanner

will rotate anti-clockwise.

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e) The anti-clockwise moment is larger by 2 Nm, so therefore the total resultant
moment is 2 Nm anti-clockwise.

The principle of moments

A system will not rotate (is in equilibrium) if the sum clockwise moments equal the
sum anti-clockwise moments

F1 d1 = F2 d2
or m1 d1 = m2 d2

Conditions for equilibrium

1. The resultant force must be zero. The sum of the forces in one direction must
be equal to the sum of the forces in the opposite direction.
2. There should be no resultant turning effect the sum of the clockwise moments
equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments about any point (so the object is
balanced).
Questions

1. Two children (with unusual body shapes) are on a

'seesaw' in a playground. The seesaw is balanced.
What is the weight, W, of the child on the right hand
side?

33
Answer

If the seesaw is balanced, then the anti-clockwise moment = clockwise moment

The child on the left (L) is turning the seesaw anti-clockwise, so we can write:
FL x d L = FR x d R
The weight W of the child on the right is called FR in this formula, so:
300 x 1.5 = W x 1.2
450 = W x 1.2

450
W=
1.2

W = 375 N

2. Two boxes are balanced on a

long beam as shown. What is the
missing distance labeled d - the
distance of the center of the
right hand box from the pivot?

Answer

If the system is balanced, then the anti-clockwise moment = clockwise moment, So

FL x d L = FR x d R ,
6 x 30 = 9 x d 180
180 = 9 x d , so d =20 cm (or d = 0.2 m) d=
9

34
Questions

3. What about the situation where a heavier 60 kN bus is closer to the right?

Which of these answers do you think will correctly give the sizes of forces A
and B?

 a) Force A = 40 kN, force B = 20 kN

 b) Force A = 30 kN, force B = 30 kN
 c) Force A = 20 kN, force B = 40 kN
 d) Force A = 60 kN, force B = 60 kN

Answer

The answer is (c) Force A = 20 kN, force B = 40 kN.

Center of Gravity (center of mass)

It is a point where the whole weight of a body may be considered to act.

Center of gravity of a regularly shaped object

It is easy to find the center of gravity/mass for regularly shaped objects as it usually
lies at the point you would immediately identify as the middle.

35
Center of Gravity and Stability
The stability of a body is increased by
1) Lowering its center or mass
2) Increasing the area of its base (wide)

Momentum
Imagine you work in a sports shop. Some of the equipment is stored on very high
storage platforms. Your job is to catch the equipment as it is thrown down to you.

Which would you rather catch - the netball or the large punch
bag from the top platform?

This idea of 'how hard it is to stop' is called the momentum of

an object. A heavy, fast object will have a lot of momentum.
A fast car has more momentum -is harder to stop - than a
bicycle because it has more mass and a higher velocity.

The formula for momentum depends on the mass and the

velocity of the object

Momentum = mass x velocity

p=mxv

[kg m/s] = [kg] x [m/s]

The units of momentum are simply the units of mass (kg) multiplied by the units for
velocity (m/s), and are therefore kg m/s

For example, a 2 kg rock rolling down a hill at 3 m/s will have a momentum of 6 kg
m/s.

36
Impulse
The impulse of a force is the change in momentum that it causes. Using the concept
of impulse, the second law can be written as
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑐𝑕𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚

change in momentum (kg m/s)

force (N) =
time (s)

Impulse, like momentum, is measured in Ns or Kg m/s.

Questions

1. 100 g toy car accelerates from rest to 2 m/s in 5 seconds.

What force is needed to make the car accelerate?

Answer

Δp (mv - mu)
F= =
t t

 m = 100 g = 0.1 kg (remember to convert units to kg!)

 u = 0 m/s
 v = 2 m/s
 t=5s

(0.1 x 2) - (0.1 x 0)
F=
5

37
 (0.2) - (0) 0.2
F= =
5 5

F = 0.04 N

2. On a roller-coaster ride, passengers are held safely in their seats by seat

belts. The belt provides a force that will push backwards on the passengers
and slow them down in an emergency.

The maximum force that the seat belts can apply is 2 kN.
If a 100 kg passenger slows down from 15 m/s to rest, calculate:

a) The change in momentum of the passenger.

b) The shortest time in which the passenger can be stopped safely.

Answer

a) The initial velocity here is 'u' and equals 15 m/s. The final velocity v = 0, so:
Change in momentum Δp = mv - mu,
so Δp = (100 x 0) - (100 x15),
Δp = -1500 kg m/s. (or just 1500 kg m/s - the negative sign tells us that the
momentum is reducing instead of increasing. however the change is momentum is
still 1500 kg m/s, so both answers will be marked as correct).

b) We know that

Δp (mv - mu)
F= or F =
t t

1500
so the maximum force 2000 =
t

38
 1500
t=
2000

t = 0.75 seconds at the shortest.

If the time is shorter than this, the force will exceed 2 kN and the seatbelt may
break.

Momentum and safety

 The force on our bodies depends on the change in momentum and also
the time taken to do this. If the time is longer, the force needed will be
smaller.
 seat belt or air bag or crumble zone is safety features on car as it increase
impact time , so reduce force on passenger for less injures since change in
momentum is conserved

Conservation of momentum
The total momentum before any collision is equal to the total momentum after the
collision, as long as no external forces act

Momentum before collision = momentum after collision

39
 elastic collision ( bounce off )
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Questions
Use information in the diagram and calculate velocity of van after
collision?
Answers
Momentum before collision = momentum after collision
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
1200 x 10 + 3200 x zero = 1200 x 2 + 3200 x m2
12000 = 2400 + 3200 x V2
12000 – 2400 = 3200 x V2
9600 = 3200 x V2
V2 = 3 m/s

 inelastic collision ( join together )

m1u1 + m2u2 = ( m1 + m2 )v

40
Questions
Use information in the diagram and calculate velocity of van and car after
collision?
Answers
Momentum before collision = momentum after collision
m1u1 + m2u2 = ( m1 + m2 )v
1500 x 8 + 900 x zero = (1500 + 900) V
12000 = 2400 V
V = 5 m/s

Questions
Use information in the diagram and calculate velocity of two player
immediately after the collision the two player move together to right ?

Answers
Momentum before collision = momentum after collision
m1u1 + m2u2 = ( m1 + m2 )v
78 x 7.5 + 91 x -5.5 = (78 + 91) V
84.5 = 169 V
V = 0.5 m/s

41
 Topic 2 Electricity
Circuit diagrams
Have you ever used a battery or cell to light up a bulb? It is a simple circuit as shown

There are some standard circuit symbols that you need to be familiar with

This is simply drawn as a long line and a short

A simple
1. line, the long line indicating the positive (+)
cell
end of the cell.

A battery is a line of cells joined together end

to end. There are two ways of drawing this as
2 A battery shown here. The second version just uses a
dotted line instead of drawing all of the
individual cells.

These - like LEDs that you will meet later -

A bulb or
light up when an electric current passes
3. filament
through them. They are useful to indicate that
lamp
a current is flowing.

An on/off A simple switch that stays on or off, like a light

4.
switch switch.

42
Series and parallel circuits

Series

In the series circuit, current flows

through bulb A and then onwards to
bulb B, and back to the cell. The current
continues to flow around and around in
this way. If one bulb breaks, then the
flow of current round and round is broken, and BOTH bulbs turn off.

Parallel

In the parallel circuit shown in figure , current flows through both branches, and
then back to the cell. If bulb A breaks, current can still flow through the other branch
and bulb B will stay on.

Questions

1. In a school or office, there are many light bulbs in use in a single room. How
should these be arranged?

 a) In parallel.
 b) In series.
 c) Either circuit is fine.

Answer

The answer is (a) in parallel. This is because if one bulb fails, the others will stay on.
It also means you can spot which bulb is broken. If they are wired in series,
then if one breaks, they ALL turn off and then you cannot find the broken
one easily

2. A circuit is made using two bulbs, X and Y, arranged in parallel as

shown here.

43
In which position - A, B, C or D - should a switch be added to turn X on and off,
but leave Y on?

Answer

The switch should go in position C. This is because you need to break the current
flowing in the top branch, but leave current flowing in the bottom branch

Electric current
Electron flow and conventional current
Electric current is the flow of charge (carried by electrons)
 If a cell or battery is connected across the conductor (in a closed circuit), the
electrons flow in the direction away from the negative terminal and towards
the positive terminal. This flow of charge is an electric current.
 The free electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal of the
battery “Direction of electron flow”.
Whereas the “direction of conventional current” is from the positive terminal to
the negative terminal of the battery

Measuring Electric current

Electric current is the rate of flow of charges.
Electric charge (Q) is measured in coulombs (C). One coulomb of charge is the
equivalent of the charge carried by electrons.
Electric current is measured in amperes where 1 C/s = 1 A

44
 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝐼) =

 The size of the current flowing in a circuit is measured using an

ammeter which is connected in Series with the component of the
circuit being investigated

 Ammeters have low resistance so that they measure the size of the current
flowing in the circuit without affecting its value.

Questions

1. A 0.3 amp household lamp is left on for 5 minutes. Calculate the charge
flowing through the lamp in this time.

Answer

In 5 minutes, the time in seconds is 5 x 60 = 300 s,

We know that Q = I x t
Therefore Q = 0.3 x 300
Q = 90 coulombs

2. A 30 mA L.E.D. is left on for some time. During this interval, 6 C of charge

flows through it. How long was the L.E.D. on for?

45
Answer

30 mA = 0.03 A, or if you are using standard form, 30 x 10-3 A (= 3 x 10-2 A).

If Q = I x t

6
Q
t=
t=
3 x 10-2
I

t = 200 s

Electrical sources
1. Direct Current D.C
it is the supply which has an e.m.f. of constant polarity
and the
current is always in the same direction. Cells and
batteries provide direct current, which may change in
value but remains in the same direction.

2. Alternating Current A.C

It is the supply which has an e.m.f. of varying
magnitude and alternating polarity. This means that
the voltage is continuously changing in magnitude and
the direction of the current is reversed continuously.

Electricity generators provide alternating current

46
Voltage (potential difference)
 Cells or batteries transfer energy to the charges as they move them around
circuits. If a 1.5V cell is connected into a circuit, it means that 1.5 Joules of energy
is given to each coulomb of charge that passes through the cell.
 So the potential difference (voltage) between two points in a circuit is the
work done to drive one coulomb of charge between these two points. It is the
energy transferred per unit charge which is measured in Volt (V). 1 Volt = 1 J/C.

𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 (V) =

 The potential difference (voltage drop) across a component (or between two
points in a circuit) is the drop in electric potential energy experienced by each
coulomb of charge due to resistance between these two points ( difference in
electrical energy )

Measuring the voltage

 To measure the voltage across a component in a circuit we use a voltmeter
which is connected in parallel with this component.
 Voltmeters have a very high resistance (very little
current flows through it) so that they measure the
potential difference across a component without
affecting the value of the current passing through this
component.

Questions

3. A kettle needs 20 kJ to boil the water inside. If the kettle voltage is 240 V,
calculate the total charge flowing through the kettle.

47
Answer

20 kJ is equal to 20 000 J.
We know E = Q x V,

20 000
E Q=
Q= 240
V

Q = 83.333 coulombs

4. A small cell is used to run a camping lamp. The cell stores 180 J of energy,
and is rated as 1.5 V.

 a) What is the total charge that can be delivered by the cell before it
runs out? (Assume when running, the cell voltage remains constant and
the cell is 100% efficient).
 b) The lamp needs 20 mA to operate. Using this information and your
answer from part (a), calculate the time for which the lamp can remain
lit.

Answer

a) If E = Q x V
180
E Q=
Q= 1.5
V

Q = 120 C

48
b) If I = 20 mA (0.02 A) and Q = 120 C,
then using Q = I x t

Q 120
t= t=
I 0.02

t = 6000 s

Resistance
The resistance of a component is what causes a voltage drop “potential difference”
across this component. The resistance of a conductor is “the ratio of the p.d.
applied across it, to the current passing through it”.
Resistance can be calculated by
𝑃 𝑑 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 ( R ) =

 Where R is measured in Ohms (Ω), V in volts and I in amperes. Thus,

1 Ohm= 1 Volt/Ampere

Type of resistor
1-fixed resistor
A resistor which have constant value all the time ( obey ohm’s law )

2-variable resistor (rheostat)

A resistor which has range of value which could be change manually
function: vary the current in the circuit by varying
resistance

49
Measuring the resistance of a resistor
Set up the following experiment
 The voltmeter measures the voltage drop across the
resistor.
 The ammeter measures the current through the
resistor.
 The variable resistor allows you to change the size of
the current

Accordingly note the readings of the ammeter and voltmeter.

Then move the variable resistor and take more readings.

Finally, plot a graph of voltage against current using your readings:

The slope of V against I graph gives the resistance of the wire
( R= V/I )

Ohm’s law
The current that flows through a metallic conductor is directly
Proportional to the potential difference across its ends, provided
its temperature remains constant

Questions

1. A 20 Ω resistor is connected to a 6 V battery. What current flows through it?

Answer

We know that V= I x R, So
6
V I=
I= 20
R

I= 0.3 A

50
2. A 4 kΩ resistor has a current of 2 mA flowing through it. What is the p.d.
across the resistor?

Answer

As 1 kΩ = 1000 Ω, then 4 kΩ = 4000 Ω

There are 1000 mA in an amp. So 2 mA = 0.002 A ( 2 ÷ 1000)

p.d. means potential difference - the voltage across the component.

Therefore as V = I x R;
V= 0.002 x 4000
V=8V

Wires and cables

 The longer the wire, the higher the resistance
 The thinner the wire, the higher the resistance

Bulbs / lamps
The graph is not a straight line, so the lamp is a non-ohmic
 Conductor. As more current flows, the metal filament gets hotter and electron
in the wire collide with the particle inside the wire the electron transfer energy
to the particle therefore internal energy of wire increase

51
Other circuit components
Thermistor
Thermistors are used as temperature sensors, for example, in
fire alarms. In the most common type of thermistor,
the resistance decreases as the temperature increases
 at low temperatures, the resistance of a thermistor is
high and little current can flow through them
 at high temperatures, the resistance of a thermistor is
low and more current can flow through them

LDRs (light-dependent resistors)

LDRs (light-dependent resistors) are used to detect light levels,

for example, in automatic security lights. Their resistance
decreases as the light intensity increases

 in the dark and at low light levels, the resistance of an LDR is high and little
current can flow through it

 in bright light, the resistance of an LDR is low

and more current can flow through it

52
Diode

It allow the current to flow in one direction only

A diode has a very high resistance in one direction. This means

that current can only flow in the other direction.

 diode have to be forward biased for current to pass

This is the graph of current against potential difference for a diode

53
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

Produce light when a current flows through them in the forward

direction.

LEDs and lamps are often used for indicator lights in electrical
equipment, such as computers and television sets

Current in series and parallel circuits

Current in series

 The current at all points around a series circuit is always the same
Current in parallel

 The current in a parallel circuit splits between the branches of the circuit.

Voltage in series and parallel circuits

54
Voltage in series

 The voltage in a series circuit is split (or shared) between the components

Voltage in parallel

 The voltage (p.d) across all components in a parallel circuit is the same
Resistors in series and parallel
Series
If we connect two resistors in series, it makes it harder for current to flow - the
total resistance has increased. In fact, we can just add the value of the
resistors together to find the total resistance.

Parallel
If we connect two resistors in parallel, there are now two paths for the current,
and it makes it easier for current to flow round the circuit. The total resistance
is lower and the current is higher.

55
 Summary

Series connection Parallel connection

 IT = I1 = I2  IT = I1 + I2

 VT = v1 + v2  VT = v1 = v2

 RT = R1 + R2
 = +

Calculating Electrical power & Electrical energy

To calculate the power used up by any electrical component

𝑃 = 𝐼𝑉 & 𝐸 = 𝐼𝑉𝑡
 energy (E) is measured in joules (J) , power (P) is measured in watts (W)

56
Questions

1. A 240 V toaster uses a current of 2A.

 a) Calculate the power used by the toaster whilst in operation.

 b) When the toast pops up after 1 minute, the toaster turns off.
Calculate the total energy transferred by the toaster.

Answer

a) We know that P = I x V, so:

P = 2 x 240
P = 480 W

b) Firstly, remember to use 60 seconds, not 1 minute.

For this part of the question we can use E = I x V x t
E = 2 x 240 x 60
E = 28 800 J

2. The diagram below shows two heating elements connected in

series. The current flowing through the elements is 2.5 amps.

 a) Calculate the power output of 1 heating element.

 b) Calculate the total thermal energy produced from both
elements over a 5 minute interval.
 Answer

a) The p.d. across each element is 6 V, NOT 12 V.

Using P = I x V gives:
P = 2.5 x 6
P = 15 W each.

b) The total energy is given by E = I x V x t, and the total voltage is 12 V.

5 minutes = 300 seconds, so : E = 2.5 x 12 x 300 E = 9000 J

57
3. A 230 V, 2kW mains kettle is used to boil a litre of water. This requires 340
kJ of energy.

 a) State one difference between mains electricity and the electricity

from a 9V cell.
 b) Calculate the current through the heating element of the kettle.
 c) Calculate the time required to boil the water.

Answer

a) Mains is a.c., whereas a cell is a d.c. supply

b) We know P = I x V

2000
P I=
I= 230
V

I = 8.70 amps

c) E = I x V t

E
t= 340 000 340 000
IxV t= =
8.7 x 230 2000
t = 170 seconds

E 340 000
t= =
P 2000

t = 170 seconds

58
Mains electrical plugs
1 = cable grip
2 = neutral pin and wire
3 = earth pin and wire
4 = live pin and wire
5 = fuse

 The live wire - this is the wire that is effectively connected to the power
station, pushing and pulling current around the circuit. If
you touch the live wire, you will receive a shock!
 The neutral wire - this is the 'return wire' completing the
circuit back to the power station.
 The earth wire - this is the third wire that is frequently
missing in some plugs, along with the third pin.
 The cable grip - this simply locks the cable in place,
preventing someone pulling on the connections, and
possibly disconnecting part of the plug. Sparks inside the plug can cause fires.
 Fuse - this is another safety feature like the earth wire,

Protection

1. Fuse

It consists of a thin metal wire, mounted inside a short cylinder the fuse is designed
to melt when a specific current passes through it
When the fuse melts, it breaks the circuit and turns the appliance off preventing a
fire or other hazard. The appliance no longer works, so
the fault is investigated, fixed, and the fuse replaced

59
Choosing the fuse
The fuse used must be chosen carefully to match the appliance. This is because the
fuse should always be rated as just above the current needed for the appliance
 This is because the fuse should always be rated as just above the current
needed for the appliance.
Questions:

1. A 2kW hairdryer is connected to the mains supply of 240 V.

 a) Calculate the current used by the hairdryer when in operation.

 b) Fuses of 1 A, 5 A, 8A and 13 A are available. Which of these fuses
should be fitted to the mains plug?

Answer

a) We know that P = I x V, so

P
I=
2000
V
I=
240

I= 8.33 A

b) If the hairdryer uses 8.33 A, then an 8 A fuse will blow, as will anything rated
lower than 8 A. The next one available above 8.33 A is the 13 A fuse.

60
2. Circuit breakers

A circuit breaker is basically a more modern adaptation to the fuse. They work using
electromagnets, which open a switch if the current gets too high, and this breaks
the circuit. Many different current ratings are available.
Although the large circuit breaker box used in many homes is expensive, the
advantage is that the switches can be easily reset.

3. Insulation
If we touched the copper, we could get a shock. The most obvious - and
simple - preventative measure is to insulate the copper cables with a
substance such as plastic

4.Double insulation
Some devices do not need an earth wire, The symbol for a double insulated
device is 2 squares, one inside the other

5.The earth wire

The earth wire is connected to the metal casing of the

appliance, and leads into the ground. As it is made of copper

61
Static charges
Insulators do not have freely moving electrons like metals. However, when we rub a
cloth on an insulator we can 'dislodge' a few of the electrons on one surface

Before the experiment After rubbing with the cloth

 the negative electrons move from the rod to the cloth. This makes the rod have
an overall positive charge and the cloth has a negative charge.

 In this example, the negative electrons now move from cloth to rod, leaving the
rod negative and the cloth positive.

 ONLY negative electrons that move - the positive charges (protons in the
nucleus) are not able to move through friction”

62
Attraction and repulsion
 Identical charges repel.
 Opposite charges attract.
 Static charges will always attract other uncharged objects.

Some common examples of attraction and repulsion

 You may know that rubbing a balloon will make it stick to a wall - this is a
charged object sticking to an uncharged object.
 If you comb your hair, the charges separating can mean that the comb and
hair now have opposite charges and will attract.

Questions

1. Describe a simple experiment to produce static electricity. Include an

explanation of how you can demonstrate the presence of static electricity.

Answer

 friction or rubbing,
 on an insulator / plastic / other named insulator,
 With a cloth / duster/ other named (soft) insulator.

To demonstrate the presence of static, the insulator must be placed next to another
insulator such as hair, small tissue paper pieces (or another named insulator that is
free to move) and a force of attraction (or repulsion if similar charge) stated.

2. Explain how a positive charge can be produced on a plastic rod.

Answer

Friction between the rod and a cloth / duster results in electrons being transferred,
from the rod to the cloth.This leaves more positive charges than negative on the
rod

63
Uses and dangers of static electricity
Uses
1) Inkjet printers
Charged ink droplets are directed at the correct spot on the paper by forces
produced from charged plates either side of the jet.

2) Photocopiers
Static electricity is used to attract ink to the correct location on a copy of the image,
and this is then printed on the paper.

3) Dust in chimneys
Charged plates in power station chimneys attract uncharged soot and dust (caused
by combustion) for safe removal.

Dangers
1- Petrol stations
When refueling a car or aircraft, a spark could ignite the fuel. Friction between the
fuel flowing through the pipes can -in certain circumstances- produce large sparks.
To prevent any build up of charge, the metal nozzle of the fuel pump is connected to
an earth wire to discharge any static build-up.

2- Electronics
Many modern microchips and other miniature devices are very sensitive, and a

64
static spark could destroy them. To prevent this, technicians often wear an earth
wire on their wrists to discharge any static build up and prevent damage to
expensive circuit boards.

3.-Lightning
If a lightning ( spark thunder ) bolt hits a building, damage can occur. To prevent
this, tall buildings are fitted with a metal spike on top and a thick wire connected to
the ground. The lightning strike will flow down this cable rather than through the
building, preventing damage.

65
 Topic 3 WAVES
Waves
Waves are a means of transferring energy from one place to another through
vibrations without transferring matter

Types of waves
1) Mechanical waves
These are waves that require a medium to travel through; they cannot travel
through vacuum.
Sound waves ripple waves and slinky spring waves. These waves are either:
transverse or longitudinal.

2) Electromagnetic waves
These are waves that do not require a medium to travel through and can travel
through vacuum.
Radio waves, X-rays, infrared waves… All electromagnetic waves are transverse.

 Waves can be classified according to how the particles vibrate relative to the
direction of wave propagation into two categories transverse or longitudinal

1) Transverse waves
A transverse wave is one that vibrates or oscillates at right angles (perpendicular)
to the direction in which the energy or wave is moving light waves and waves
travelling on the surface of water.

 This can be shown by a slinky spring: give one end a quick wiggle at right angles
to the spring the coils of the slinky are vibrating up and down “across” the
direction

66
2) Longitudinal waves

A longitudinal wave is one in which the vibrations or oscillations are along

(parallel to) the direction in which the energy or wave is moving, sound waves.

Longitudinal waves are recognized by their compressions and rarefactions.

 This can be shown by a slinky spring: push and pull the end of a slinky in a
direction parallel to its axis the coils of the slinky are vibrating in the directions
that are along its length.

Questions

1. A wave produced on a long rope is a transverse wave.

 a) Explain what is meant by a transverse wave.

 b) Give one other example of a transverse wave.
 c) Give one example of a longitudinal wave.

Answer

67
a) A transverse wave is where the particles/disturbance moves at 900 -
perpendicularly - to the wave motion.

b) Water (surface) waves, Light (or any electromagnetic wave) are all transverse
waves.

c) Sound is the most common example of a longitudinal wave.

Wave properties
Amplitude (A)
The amplitude ‘A’ is the maximum height of wave from rest position

Wavelength (λ)
The wavelength of a wave, represented by the Greek letter λ (lambda), is the
distance between the two successive points (crests or troughs).

Frequency (f)
The frequency f is the number of complete waves generated per second. The unit of
frequency is ‘cycle per second’ or hertz (Hz). Where 1 Hz = 1 wave/second

Time period (T)

It is the time taken for a wave to complete one cycle or one wave.

68
The frequency and the period are related by the following equation

𝑓=
Questions

1. Ocean waves hit a wall in a harbor at a rate of 12 waves per minute. What is
the frequency of these waves?

Answer

If there are 12 waves per minute, then we have 12 waves per 60 seconds.
The frequency is defined as the number of waves per second, so we need to divide
12 by 60

12
frequency =
60

Frequency = 0.2 Hz (hertz)

2. A guitar string produces a sound of frequency 1.2 kHz. What is the time
period of this wave?

Answer

1.2 kHz is equal to 1200 Hz. using the formula above, the time period is therefore:

1
time period =
1200

Time period = 0.000833 s

Wave fronts
The wave front can generally be thought of as continuous line,
perpendicular to direction of propagation, like view sea waves
from top of cliff (Straight lines and can be thought as the crests or
troughs of the waves)

69
Wave equation
The higher the frequency (f) of a wave the smaller its wavelength (λ) It is true for all
types of waves and the relation between them is called wave equation which is
Speed of wave = wave length x frequency
v=fxλ

Questions

1. Sound waves have a velocity of 340 m/s in air. A car horn in a stationary car
makes a sound of frequency 500 Hz.

 a) Calculate the wavelength of the sound produced.

 b) Describe how the frequency of the sound changes if the car moves
quickly away from the observer.

Answer

a) We know that v = ƒ x λ, so the wavelength λ is

v 340
λ= λ=
ƒ 500

λ = 0.68 m

b) As the car moves away from the observer, the frequency decreases (because the
pitch we hear is lower).

70
The Doppler Effect
if the source moves away from the detector? In this The velocity still remains the
same, but the wavelength increases as the frequency decreases.
This effect is called the Doppler effect, and is
most often noticed when listening to moving
vehicles, like police cars or ambulances. As the
vehicle moves towards us, the frequency is
higher (higher pitch of sound), and as it moves
away the frequency decreases and the pitch is
lower

How does this link with the formula above? Well if the frequency of the waves
increases, and the wave velocity stays the same, then from the formula v = ƒ x λ. the
wavelength must decrease. We can use the formula to describe how the wavelength
of sound waves must change from the car horn

Behavior of waves
1) Reflection
Change in direction of wave when it meets a hard boundary (mirror)
Law of reflection
“The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection”
i=r
Where
The angle of incidence (i) is the angle between the
incident ray and the normal.
The angle of reflection (r) is the angle between the
reflected ray and the normal.
The normal is a line drawn at right angles to the
surface.

71
 When a wave is reflected, it is still in the same medium so its speed doesn’t
change. Accordingly, its wavelength doesn’t change.

Questions

1. The diagram below shows a mirror angled at 300 to a flat table. A ray of light
is directed vertically down onto the mirror as shown
here:

On the diagram shown above

 a) Draw a normal line to the mirror at the point

where ray hits the mirror.
 b) Draw the reflected ray.
 c) Measure or calculate the angle between the incident and reflected
ray.

Answer

a) The normal line should be (approximately) perpendicular to

the mirror.

b) The reflected ray should be above the horizontal. It should

be drawn so that the normal line is (approximately) in the
center of incident and reflected ray.

c) The angle between the incident and reflected rays should be 600. This can be
measured, or you could calculate it by extending the normal line

72
Reflection of light
When light reflects from a plane mirror, the angle of incidence (i) is equal to the
angle of reflection (r); the law of reflection is applied.
This figure shows how an image is formed behind a plane mirror. Two rays from any
point on the object are sufficient to establish the position of the image of that point.

Properties of the formed image

1. The image is virtual it is formed by the extension of the real (reflected) rays.

 Solid lines represent real rays whereas dashed lines represent virtual rays.
2. The formed image has the same size as the object.

3. The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front (same distance)

4. It is laterally inverted.

5. It is upright.

2) Refraction
is the change in both speed and wavelength of a wave as it
travels from one medium to another or the bending of a
wave due to change in its speed as it moves from one medium
to another.

73
Remember this
a) If the incident ray is lying along the normal (the ray is perpendicular to the
boundary or the angle of incidence = zero), then no bending occurs.

b) If the wave comes from a less dense medium to a more dense medium, then its
speed decreases and it bends towards the normal (i>r).

c) If the wave comes from a more dense medium to a less dense medium, then its
speed increases and it bends away from the normal (i<r).

Where,
i is the angle of incidence (the angle between the ray incident to the boundary
and the normal) and r is the angle of refraction (the angle between the
refracted ray and the normal).

Summary
reflection refraction

speed Stays the same Increase/ decrease

wavelength Stays the same Increase/ decrease
Frequency Stays the same Stays the same

74
Refractive index
 It is a ratio that has no unit

Refractive index =

 Speed of light (3×108 m/s).

Experiment to show refraction of light

1-Place a transparent block in the middle of a plain sheet of paper; trace around the
block in pencil.
2-Position a ray box so that the light from it strikes the glass block at an angle.
3-Mark the positions where the light meets the glass boundary and where it leaves
the glass boundary with dots
4-Mark two crosses (or place optical pins) on the paper along the incident ray and
the emergent ray approximately 5cm apart.
5-Remove the glass block and switch off the ray box.
6-Using a ruler, complete the lines between the dots and the crosses.
7-Draw in the normal at 90° to where the light strikes the glass boundary.
8-Draw the second normal where the light leaves the glass boundary, again at 90°.

75
9- Using a protractor, measure the angles of incidence and refraction as shown on
the diagram above.

Critical angle

Waves going from a dense medium to a less dense medium speed up at the
boundary between them. This causes light rays to bend when they pass from glass
to air at an angle other than 90°. This is refraction.

Beyond a certain angle, called the critical angle, all the waves reflect back into the
glass. We say that they are totally internally reflected

 critical angle ( I = c ) is the incident angle when the refracted ray at the top of
the prism

n=

76
Total internal reflection
If the angle of incidence “ I “ is more than critical angle “c” (i>c) all the light is
reflected back at the boundary and no light is refracted. The ray experiences “total
internal reflection”, this takes place only in the denser medium.

Uses
1-communcation
Mobile phones and internet transmit information digitally (0,1) in form of light
pulses by total internal reflection
2-medical
Endoscope is a device used to view inside stomach of a patient
Consist of two fibers:
fibre 1 transfer light from outside of the body to the inside
fibre 2 transfer image from inside to the outside

3-periscope
The inside of glass prism can be used as mirror, total internal
reflection take place on the longest face of prism as shown in
figure

77
Questions

1. A light ray is incident on the surface of a glass of water with

an angle of incidence of 250. If the refractive index of water is 1.33, calculate
the angle of refraction of the light ray.

Answer

We know that n = 1.33, and i = 250. Using Snell's Law we get

sin 250
= 1.33
sin r

rearranging this and finding

0.423
sin r =
1.33

So sin r = 0.318,
r = sin -1 (0.318)
r = 18.50 , or 190

2. The diagram below shows a Perspex block with a refractive index of 1.5.

Calculate the angle of incidence i that produces this refracted ray with an
angle of refraction of 380.

78
Answer

We know that n = 1.5, and r = 380. Using Snell's Law we get:

sin i
= 1.5
sin 380

sin i = 1.5 x sin 380

sin i = 0.93
i = sin-1 0.93
i = 670

3. Water has a refractive index of 1.33.

 a). Calculate the critical angle of water.

 b). Describe and explain what will happen to a ray of light travelling
upwards through water, hitting the surface with an angle of incidence of
500.

Answer

a) Using the formula above, and n= 1.33 gives

1
sin C =
1.33

sin C = 0.75
C = sin-1 (0.75)
C = 48.60

79
b) At an angle of incidence of 500, the ray will be reflected, because this angle
is greater than the critical angle calculated in part (a)

Dispersion of white light

When white light falls on triangular glass prism a

band of colour called spectrum is obtained. The
effect is called dispersion. It arises because white
light is mixture of seven colours which the prism
separates because the refractive index of glass is different for each color

 red colour is the lowest frequency , violet is the highest frequency

 monochromatic means single colour , single frequency
 The spectrum of colors can be recombined through the following arrangement

Electromagnetic spectrum
A spectrum of different wavelengths this spectrum includes visible light, X-rays and
radio waves. Electromagnetic radiation can be useful as well as hazardous

80
Properties of E.M. waves

All of these waves have some key identical properties

 They all travel at the same speed (the speed of light) in a vacuum.
 They are all transverse waves.
 They are all electromagnetic waves.

They can all be reflected and refracted

Region of E.M.
Uses Dangers
spectrum

broadcasting,
radio -
communication
cooking, internal heating of body
microwaves
satellite communication tissue
heating,
infrared night vision , remote skin burns
control
photography,
visible skin burns
fiber-optic communication

fluorescent lamps blindness,

ultraviolet
and inks damage to surface cells
observing internal
structures, damage to internal cells
x-rays
for medicine and and organs
materials
sterilizing food mutation of cells,
gamma rays
and medical equipment cancer

81
Sound
✓ Sounds are produced by objects that
are vibrating.

✓ Sound is a form of kinetic energy

which travels in the form of waves.

 Sound waves is longitudinal consist of a series of :

 compressions (air molecules pushed closer together at a slightly higher
pressure)
 Rarefactions (air molecules are farther apart at a slightly lower
pressure).

Measuring the speed of sound

The speed of sound in air is approximately 340 m/s. In liquids 1500 m/s and solids
5000 m/s the particles are much closer together. This means that they are able to
transfer sound energy more quickly. So sound travels faster in solids more than
liquids more than gases
Speed of sound
gas 340 m/s
liquid 1500 m/s
solid 5000 m/s

 two people (person A and person B) are placed a

distance apart, 100 meters by measuring tape

 person A fires a starter’s pistol

82
 person B times the difference between seeing the flash of the gun
and hearing the sound - this is measured in seconds

Where,

𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 =

Human Hearing
Humans can hear a wide range of frequencies. The lowest sounds that we can
detect are about 20 Hz. The highest sounds for a healthy young adult are about 20
000 Hz or 20 kHz.

 less 20 Hz is infrasound
 more 20000 Hz ultrasound

Loudness and amplitude

The amplitude of a wave gives us
some idea of the energy it is
transferring. For a sound wave, its
amplitude is a measure of its
loudness.

Pitch and frequency

The frequency of a source is the
number of complete vibrations it
makes each second and is
measured in Hertz (Hz). Objects
vibrate quickly and produce sound
waves with a high frequency. The
sounds are heard as high pitch.

83
Questions

1. The diagram here shows a wave displayed on an oscilloscope

screen. Add a second wave on the diagram to show a wave with a
higher pitch and louder than the original sound.

Answer

 Taller than the original, showing a higher amplitude and

therefore higher volume,
 Closer together than the original (more than 4 peaks in
the box), showing a higher frequency and therefore a
higher pitch.

Echo
An echo is a reflection of the sound from the wall).

2 distance
Speed ( echo ) =
time

Questions

A wall is 80 m away from some observers. A loud bang is produced by a drum,

and an echo is heard 0.48 s later.
Using this data, calculate the speed of sound.

Answer

The sound wave travels there and back, so the distance is 160 m. The time taken is

84
0.48 s, so

distance
speed = 160
time speed =
0.48
speed of sound = 330 m/s

Measuring waves using an oscilloscope

There are two key controls as you can see

 Time (seconds or milliseconds / div) - this controls the x-axis, and how
quickly the beam sweeps across the screen. If it is set to -for example - 20
ms/div, this means it takes 20 milliseconds to cross one small box
horizontally.
 Y -amplitude (Volts / div). This controls the magnification of the height of
the wave. By turning this control to a smaller measurement, the wave looks
taller on the screen. if it is set to 0.5
V/div, this means that each vertical
box represents a signal of 0.5 volts.

…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

85
Questions

The diagram shows a wave displayed on an oscilloscope, set to 2

V /div on the y-axis and 5 ms/div on the x-axis:

 a) Calculate the amplitude of the wave, in volts.

 b) Calculate the time period of the wave.
 c) Using your answer from part (b), calculate the
frequency of the displayed wave.

Answer

a) The amplitude is the height of the wave from the center line. This is 2 small
squares, or divisions. As the oscilloscope is set on 2 V/div, then 2 divisions represent
an amplitude of 4V.

b) The time period is shown by the x-axis. The distance from one peak to another is
3 divisions on the screen. Each division represents a time of 5 ms, so 3 divisions
gives a time period of 15 ms.

c) 15 milliseconds is equal to 0.015 seconds.

1
ƒ= 1
T ƒ=
0.015
ƒ = 66.7 Hz

3. A dolphin is producing a sound under water. An underwater

microphone is used to display the sound on an oscilloscope
screen, as shown here

The oscilloscope settings are at 0.1 V /div on the y-axis and

0.01 ms / div on the x-axis

86
  a) Calculate the frequency of the sound produced.
 b) State the maximum range of human hearing.
 c) Explain if a diver underwater would be able to hear this sound.

Answer

a) The peaks of the wave are 2 divisions apart, and each division represents 0.01 ms.
Therefore the time period is 0.02 ms. In seconds this is 0.00002 s, and in standard
form this is 2 x 10-5 s.

1
ƒ= 1
T ƒ=
2 x 10-5

ƒ = 50 000 Hz (or 50 kHz)

b) The range of human hearing is from 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz.

c) The answer from part (a), 50 kHz, is higher than the range of hearing, so cannot
be heard. Note that the diver can hear other lower frequency sounds under water.

87
 Topic 4 ENERGY
Physicists say that "work is done when energy is transferred." Work and energy
are both measured in joules (J).

There are a few different classes of energy

Energy

Physicists say that "work is done when energy is transferred." Work and energy
are both measured in joules (J).

There are a few different classes of energy

1) Potential Energy
Is the type of energy stored in a body and available to do work

a) Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE)

Is the energy of an object due to its position or height (about the Earth’s surface).
The change in GPE of an object depends on the change in its height.
G P E = Mass of Object x Gravity x Height

Questions

A student of mass 60 kg climbs up a long flight of stairs of height 30 m.

Calculate the gain in gravitational energy.

Answer

G.P.E. = m g h
G.P.E. = 60 x 10 x 30
so the gain in G.P.E. = 18000 J

88
A farmer has a small hydroelectric scheme that stores water in a large tank
high on a hill when needed, the water flows downhill and through a generator,
transferring the stored gravitational energy to electrical energy. The tank is
50 m above the nearby river.
What mass of water needs to be stored at this height so that the tank stores 2
MJ of gravitational energy?

Answer

G.P.E. must be 2 MJ (2 million joules)

G.P.E. = m g h
2 000 000 = m x 10 x 50
2 000 000 = m x 500
rearranging the equation gives

2 000 000
m=
500

So m = 4000 kg

b) Chemical Potential energy

Stored form of energy released by chemical reactions.
 Chemical energy in fuels released by burning them
 Chemical energy in batteries, when in use, it is transferred to electrical energy.
 Chemical energy of food is released by chemical reactions in our body
(respiration).

89
c) Elastic Potential Energy (Strain Energy)
This is the energy stored in a body when it stretch or bend this type of stored
energy is used in rubber band , or spring

d) Nuclear Potential Energy

Energy stored in the nucleus of an atom.
This nuclear energy can be released from the
nuclei of certain elements (radioactive
elements) by either
 Nuclear Fission splitting of a heavy nucleus into lighter nuclei
 Nuclear Fusion The join of light nuclei to form heavier ones, energy is released
by nuclear fusion in the sun.

2) Kinetic Energy
Is the energy of an object due to its motion the faster the object moves, the more
KE it has.

𝐾𝐸= 𝑚 𝑣2
Where, KE = Kinetic Energy, in Joules
m = mass of object, in kg
v = speed of object, in m/s

Questions

2 kg cat is running across a room at 4 m/s. What is the kinetic energy of the
cat?

90
Answer

K.E. = ½ m v2
K.E. = ½ x 2 x 42
So K.E. = ½ x 2 x 16
so the cat has a K.E. = 16 J

A dog is chasing the cat from question 1. It has mass of 14 kg and a kinetic
energy of 63 J calculate speed ?

Answer

K.E. = ½ m v2
Substituting in the values from the question gives
63 = ½ x 14 x v2
63 = 7 x v2
rearranging the equation

63
v2 =
7

v2 = 9 square route of answers giving v = 3 m/s

Conservation of Energy
The Law of conservation of Energy states that
" 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒊𝒔 𝒏𝒐𝒕 𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅 𝒐𝒓 𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒚𝒆𝒅 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒏𝒚 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔,𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝒋𝒖𝒔𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝒐𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒚𝒑𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 ”

91
Some examples of energy conversion
 A light bulb converts electrical energy to light energy;
 A moving car converts chemical energy from petrol to kinetic and heat energy;
 A drill machine converts electrical energy to kinetic energy.

 A mountain climber changes chemical energy from his muscles to potential

energy.

Questions

A ball rolls down a hill. State the energy store at the top and at the bottom of
the hill.

Answer

At the top of the hill the ball will have stored gravitational energy. At the bottom,
the ball will have accelerated and have kinetic energy.

A catapult is used to fire a small stone, using a strong elastic band.

i) State the energy store in the catapult just before, and after firing.

Answer

i) Before firing, there is a store of elastic energy. Afterwards, the stone has a store
of kinetic energy.

92
Kinetic energy to gravitational potential energy and vice
versa
At the top of the board, the diver has gravitational potential energy. When the diver
jumps, this G.P.E. will convert to K.E. However,

G.P.E. of the diver = mgh.

Substituting in the values gives
G.P.E. = 50 x 10 x 8
So the G.P.E. = 400 0 J

This will convert into kinetic energy.

K.E. = ½ m v2
Substituting in the values from the question gives
4000 = ½ x 50 x v2
4000 = 25 x v2
rearranging the equation gives

4000
v2 =
25

v2 = 160
so v = √160 giving v = 12.6 m/s

Questions

A 100 g tennis ball is thrown upwards at 20 m/s. If we ignore air resistance,

how high will it go?

Answer

The mass of the ball is 0.1 kg (don't forget to convert 100g to kg)
If the velocity is 20 m/s we can calculate the K.E. of the ball

93
K.E. = ½ m v2, therefore
K.E. = ½ x 0.1 x (20)2
K.E. = 20 J

This is converted to G.P.E., so G.P.E. = 20 J

G.P.E. = m g h
20 = 0.1 x 10 x h
so h = 20 m

Efficiency
The efficiency of any process that does work by transferring energy

useful energy output

efficiency = x 100%
energy input

Questions

1. A small toy car uses a spring inside to drive the car. The spring can be
wound up using a key, and then the car released.

This sankey diagram shows the energy

transfers that take place. Some labels are
missing from the diagram.

a) What form of energy is stored in the

spring at the start?

b) What form of energy store does the car

have once it is released?

c) How much energy is dissipated as heat into the surroundings?

d) State the formula for efficiency.

e) Calculate the efficiency of the toy car.

Answer

94
a) The spring stores elastic energy.

b) Once the car is released, the energy stored into the spring as elastic energy is
transferred to kinetic energy.

c) The energy lost as wasted thermal energy is dissipated into the surrounds. The
missing value is 24 J - 18 J = 6 j

d) useful energy output

efficiency = x 100%
energy input

18
e)
efficiency = x 100%
24
Efficiency = 75 %

Work
Is the product of the force (F) and the distance (d) in the direction of the force
Work done = force × distance moved in the direction of force
Work = F × d
 The unit of work (and energy) is the joule

Example
 Work is done when you push a car to start it moving: you force transfers
energy to the car; the car’s KE increases (you lose energy while the
car gains)
 Work is not done when you push a car but it doesn’t move; no
energy is transferred because your force does not move the car. The
car’s KE does not change.

95
Questions

A dolphin swims for 1 km in water, producing a forward force of 800 N to

overcome the resistance from the water. Calculate the work done by the
dolphin.

Answer

We know W = F x d, and 1 km is equal to 1000 m

W = 800 N x 1000 m
W= 800 000 J

A small toy boat contains a battery storing 2 kJ of energy. When moving at top
speed, the resistance from the water is 12 N Assuming the boat motor is 100 %
efficient, how far could the boat travel before the batteries run out?

Answer

We know that W = F x d, and the work done will be 2 000 J assuming all the battery
energy is transferred. So:
2 000 = 12 x d

2000
d=
12 d = 167 m

An 8 kg drone is moving upwards at a constant speed to take pictures of a new

building from above. It travels 600 m upwards.

a) What is the weight of the drone?

b) What work has been done getting to this height?

96
Answer

a) The weight of the drone is given by = m g

so weight = 8 x 10
Weight = 80 N

b) Work done = F d
so Work = 80 x 600
Work done = 4800 J

Power
Is the rate at which energy is transformed from one form to another or the work
done per unit time

Power =
 Unit of power 1 Watt = 1 joule/second

Power can be defined in two ways

 Power is the rate of transfer of energy

 Power is the rate of doing work

Questions

A phone battery needs 28 kJ of electrical energy to be transferred to fully

charge the phone. If the charger supplies 4 W of electrical power, how long
will it take to charge the phone?

Answer

W 28 000
p= 4=
t t

97
rearranging this equation gives

28 000
t=
4

t = 7 000 seconds

Amy is timed running up some stairs. She weighs 550 N, and takes 12.5
seconds to complete the climb. The stairs have a vertical height of 9 m.

Calculate

a) The work done by Amy climbing the stairs.

b) Amy's average power output during this climb.

Answer

a) Amy's weight is the downward force of gravity (F) on her. The work done is given
by
W = F d So W = 550 x 9 = 4 950 J

b) Her power output is given by

W 4 950
p= and therefore:- P =
t 12.5

Her power output is P = 396 W

98
ENERGY SOURCES
Renewable energy source
Renewable energy source is the one that is generated from natural resources such
as sunlight,
Wind, waves, tides and geothermal and hydroelectric heat which means it can be
received from nature forever

Non-renewable energy source:

Non-renewable energy sources are those energy sources that are used up and
cannot be replaced.
One day they are going to be finished. These are fossil fuels like coal, oil and
natural gas and Nuclear fuel like uranium,

 The Sun is the source of energy for all our energy resources except geothermal,
nuclear and tidal.
1) Solar energy
Solar heating systems consist of water-filled black panels. Heat from the Sun
warms the panels, and the hot water can be used directly, for central heating
systems or for hot water at home.

Solar panels work in a different way. They convert

sunlight directly into electricity using silicon crystals.
These panels contain smaller photovoltaic cells which
generate a current.

2) Wind Power
Wind energy turns the turbine blades in a wind turbine. The turbines rotate the
generator. The kinetic energy of the wind is converted into electrical energy by the
generator.

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3) Water
 hydroelectric power station
Energy stored as G.P.E. transfers to kinetic energy as it flows down through
pipes to turbines and a generator, which convert this to electrical energy.

 A tidal power station uses the rising and falling of water in the sea to generate
electricity. The tides are produced by the gravitational pull of the Moon and Sun
on the seas

 Waves
Generators are driven by the transverse (up and down)
motion of the wave.
The kinetic energy of the wave motion causes water to rise

100
and fall in the air chamber. The air above the water causes the turbine to turn and
electricity is produced by the generator.

4) Geothermal
Geothermal power stations use heat from underground where
hot rocks lie near to the surface. Water is pumped in pipes down
to hot rocks and returns as steam to turbine and a generator
produce electricity.

5) Biofuel
biofuel are produce from natural product , as waste material
from farm crops PowerStation burn waste material to generate electricity , its
renewable source as crops can be regrown to replace resource

6) Fossil fuels
Fossil fuel power stations can produce a large power output, 24 hours a day. For this
reason, the majority of the World's electrical energy is still produced in this way.
Fuel (coal, oil, gas) energy stored as chemical energy by burning fuel it converted as
thermal energy which supply in water in boiler water turn into steam kinetic energy
of steam turn turbine and generator produce electricity

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7) Nuclear power

Nuclear power stations have a huge power output and are also reliable, working 24
hours a day. Nuclear energy stored in nucleus (uranium atom) by fission it release
huge energy thermal energy released which supply in water in boiler water turn
into steam kinetic energy of steam turn turbine and generator produce electricity

Advantages of non-renewable sources Disadvantages of non-renewable

sources

These fuels are far more energy dense Fossil fuels are becoming increasingly
than renewable sources and thus, in expensive to mine (coal) and drill for
many countries, they allow production of (oil), as reserves are running out (being
larger amounts of energy in depleted).
comparison to renewable sources. They They cause global warming due to high
are also relatively easy to transport and carbon dioxide (CO.) emissions when
can be stored ready for use. they are burnt. Some also produce sulfur
dioxide (SO,), which causes acid rain.
Nuclear power stations are expensive to
build and any radiation
leak or explosion may have a
devastating effect on the immediate
population and environment

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Advantages of renewable sources Disadvantages of renewable sources

They are all regarded as clean Generally all renewable energy sources
(producing little or no pollution) and have high installation costs
will not run out. The fuel itself is cheap
or free.

Solar energy
- When the sun doesn't shine (at night) no electricity is produced.
- Dirty solar panels are inefficient.
- To install panels is an expensive process.
- The panels take up large areas.

Wind energy
- When the wind doesn't blow no electricity is produced.
- Wind farms can destroy the natural beauty of a landscape and are noisy.
- Offshore wind farms are expensive to build and need to be avoided by shipping.

Wave energy
- Waves vary in size and therefore will produce varying quantities (amounts) of
energy. When the sea is calm, no electricity is produced
- Installation is expensive and challenging.
- Boats would have to be careful and be aware of the location of the turbines to
prevent accidents.

Tidal energy
- Many countries do not have suitable locations.
- Might affect local marine life and destroy habitats.

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Geothermal energy
- There are few locations that are suitable.
- It is often necessary to drill very deep and this makes the energy very expensive to
obtain.

Hydroelectric energy
- The local environment may be destroyed because water needs to be stored behind
a dam, the land behind it flooding.
- Dams are expensive to build.

Questions

1. Describe the energy transfers that take place in a hydroelectric power

station.

Answer

Water high up behind the dam has stored gravitational energy / G.P.E.
It flows downhill, moves quickly through the turbines and making the generator
spin, which is kinetic energy. The generator produces electrical energy for transfer.
(There is some wasted thermal energy lost to the surroundings).

2. Electricity can be generated in many ways. State two advantages of using

geothermal power to generate electricity

Answer

 Renewable resource
 Non-polluting / not contributing to global warming etc.
 High power output.
 Reliable / 24 hours a day output.
 The residual hot water can be used for heating / for a hot water supply at
home.

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Heat / Thermal Energy Transfer
Thermal or heat energy is a form of energy possessed by hot matter. Hot, Thermal
energy travels from a body/place that is hotter (at a higher temperature) to a
body/place that is colder (at a lower temperature). Thus, the cold object warms
up by receiving heat energy and the hot object cools down by losing heat energy till
thermal equilibrium takes place.
The transfer of thermal energy between bodies/places that have different
temperatures can occur in three ways conduction, convection and radiation.

Conduction
Thermal conduction is the transfer of thermal (heat) energy through a substance
without the substance itself moving.

There are 2 methods by which conduction can take place

1) Collisions between neighboring particles

When heat is applied to a substance, the kinetic energy of its atoms increases so
their vibrations get bigger. The vibrating atoms bump into neighboring atoms
and pass on their kinetic energy. These atoms then pass on their kinetic energy to
atoms close to them and so on. In such way, the heat energy moves through the
substance. Conduction takes place in solids, liquids and gases, but it works best in
solids as their molecules are closer together.

2) Flow of free electrons (for heat conductors only)

Metals are the best solids for conducting heat since they have free moving
electrons. When a metal is heated these free electrons gain kinetic energy and move
towards the other cooler parts of the metal, accordingly, spreading the energy to
these cooler parts. This process is fast and that’s why all metals are good
conductors of heat.

105
  Conduction in solids is better than in liquids than in gases.
 Liquids (water) and gases (air) are poor conductors as the spacing between
their molecules is much greater than in solids.
 All Metals are good conductors of heat due to presence of free electron
 Vacuum does not conduct heat, as there are no molecules in vacuum to pass
the kinetic energy on.
 During heat transfer by conduction, the molecules do not change their
positions within the substance.

Poor Conductors
 They do not possess free moving electrons. When such substances are heated,
the kinetic energy of the molecules increases and they move faster and bump
into their neighboring molecules giving them part
of their kinetic energy. Here, this is a much
slower process, that’s why these substances are
called poor conductors or insulators of heat.
 Generally, most non-metal solids, almost all
liquids (except mercury) and gases are poor
conductors of heat.

106
This figure shows that water is a poor conductor of heat

Investigating conduction

You will need

 A selection of identical rods made of different substances (copper, aluminum,

brass, steel, graphite).
 A wax candle to produce liquid wax.
 Drawing pins.
 A heat source - a candle or Bunsen burner.
 A tripod or wooden block to support the rods.
 A stop watch.

Method

Drop some hot wax on to the end of one rod and stick the drawing pin to the end of
the rod with the wax as it cools. If the other end of the rod is heated, thermal energy
will pass down the rod through conduction. Eventually the wax will melt and the pin
will drop off. Time how long it takes between applying heat and the pin dropping.
Repeat this for a variety of rods.
The best conductor will be the rod that takes the least time to melt the wax

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Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat through fluids (liquids and gases) by the upward
movement of warmer, less dense regions of fluid.

 When a mass of liquid (or gas) is heated, the heated liquid

expands and become less dense than the colder surrounding
liquid so it floats up to the top of the container. Colder
liquid sinks to take its place, and is then heated too. At the top,
the warm liquid starts to cool, becomes denser again and will
begin to sink, so a circulating current is set up in the liquid.
This is called convection current



 Convection cannot occur in solids as the molecules are not free to move about
within the solid structure.
 Convection cannot occur in vacuum as there are no molecules to transfer heat
by convection.
 Convection cannot occur if the fluid is heated at the top rather than at the
bottom. The warmer, less dense fluid simply stays at the top.

Why heat transfer by convection is possible in liquids and gases?

Because the molecules of liquids or gases are free to move around so they can
transfer the heat through convection currents.

108
Investigating convection

You will need

 A small colored crystal of potassium permanganate.

 A beaker of cold water.
 Tweezers to pick up a crystal or two.
 a heat source such as a candle or Bunsen burner.

Method
carefully drop a crystal or two of potassium permanganate into the side of the
beaker. it will sink to the bottom, and start dissolving, releasing a strong purple
color. Then heat the water directly below the crystal. The water will expand a little,
becoming less dense, and start to rise. The purple-colored water can be seen rising
and then sinking on the other side as a convection current is started.

Radiation
Thermal radiation is the transfer of energy by infra-red (IR) waves unlike
conduction and convection (both need matter to
occur), radiation can occur in vacuum. In
radiation, heat energy is transferred by infra-red
waves – one of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Radiation is emitted by all objects in all
directions, at the speed of light (3×108 m/s). The
amount of radiation emitted depends on the
1. Surface temperature
2. Surface area of the body



 Highly polished silvered shiny light colored surfaces are good reflectors of

109
 thermal radiation
(Are poor emitters and poor absorbers)
 Dull matt black and dark surfaces are poor reflectors of heat radiation
(Are good emitters and good absorbers)

Experiment Good and bad absorbers of

radiation
1. Two flasks are used, one covered with dull (matt) black paint
and the other with shiny white paint.
2. Both flasks contain the same amount of water, at the same
Temperature and are placed at equal distances from a radiant
heater.

Results
The temperature of the water in the flask with the dull black
surface is found to rise significantly more than the flask with the light shiny surface.

Conclusion
Dull dark matt surfaces are the best absorbers; shiny mirror-like surfaces are the
poorest.

Applications on Heat Transfer

1) Vacuum flask
A vacuum flask has several features to reduce flow of
thermal energy, and will keep liquids hot (or cold) for
several hours.
 Transfer by conduction is minimized by making the
flask double-walled glass vessel with vacuum

110
 between the walls.
 Heat loss by convection and evaporation is reduced by using a stopper.
 Radiation is reduced by silvering both walls on the vacuum side.

2) Windows are double or triple glazed

Two or three layers of glass with vacuum in between or with a moderate layer of air
trapped in-between this reduces heat loss by conduction, convection and not
radiation

111
 Topic 5 Matter
States of Matter
 All matter is made up of tiny particles (molecules) that are moving. The idea that
molecules have a certain kind of motion is called the Kinetic Theory. The way
that the particles are arranged and the way that they move determine the
properties of a material, such as its state at room temperature or it density.
Therefore, the kinetic theory can explain the existence of solid, liquid and gas
states.

 All substances can exist in any of the three states solid, liquid or gas. The
increase in particle separation during a change of state from solid to liquid is
small, whereas particle separation during change of state from liquid to gas is
large. This particle separation is responsible for the main physical properties
that we observe for any of the three states

Solid
 are tightly packed (dense)
 Are held in a fixed pattern or crystal
 Structure by strong forces between them (have a fixed
shape).
 Have fixed volume and are incompressible.
 Vibrate around their fixed positions within the close-packed regular
structure.

 As we heat a solid, the particles vibrate more quickly. The increase in the
kinetic energy of the particles is noticed as an increase in the temperature of
the substance.

112
Liquid
 Are tightly packed (but have slightly smaller densities than solids).
 Are not held in fixed positions but are still bound together
by strong forces between them. Thus, they have a fixed
volume but not a fixed shape.
 Take up the shape of their container (occupy the lowest part)
and are almost incompressible.
 Move at random with close packed irregular structure.
 As we heat a liquid, the movement of the particles becomes more
energetic.

Gas
 Are very spread out (have much smaller densities than solids and liquids)
 Have no fixed positions and the forces between them are very
weak. Thus,
 Have neither a fixed shape nor a fixed volume.
 Can fill up all the space available to them and are compressible.
 Move with a rapid, random motion.
 Bump into anything in the gas or into the walls of the container, and forces
caused by these collisions are responsible for the pressure the gas exerts.

Heating and change of state

When substances gain or lose energy, one of two things happens to the substance:
its temperature changes OR its state changes. Putting heat energy into a solid does
not necessarily increase its temperature. It may make the solid change into a liquid
and similarly heat may make the liquid change into a gas.

 Melting is the change of state from a solid to a liquid. The melting point of a

113
 substance is the temperature at which the substance changes from a solid to a
liquid. Most substances have a unique melting point that can be used to identify
them.
 Freezing is the reverse process of melting. It is the change of state from a liquid
to a solid (sometimes called solidification). During freezing, some bonds are
formed between the molecules and energy is released to do this.
 Condensation is the change of state from gas to liquid, during which energy is
also released and bonds are formed.

Heating curve
If we take an ice cube as an example, and we start heating it, the following curve is
obtained (by plotting temperature against time).

 The graph is horizontal at two places. These are where energy is being used to
break the bonds (against attractive force) between the particles to change the
state, rather than increase the speed of the particles (and so to increase the
temperature).
 The longer the horizontal line, the more energy has been used to cause the
change of state (boiling)

114
 Cooling curve
 during condensing and freezing, internal energy decreases as the motion of
particles decreases and new bonds are formed Horizontal line Freezing
(Solidifying )
 The more stepper Graph the more rate of cooling

115
Questions

1. Liquid oxygen can be stored in containers for transporting.

 a) Describe the arrangement of oxygen molecules in a liquid.

 b) Describe two changes to this arrangement as the oxygen is released
from the container as a gas.

Answer

a) The molecules are close together, moving past each other, taking the shape of the
(bottom of the) container, moving randomly, have weak forces between them
holding them near to each other

b) The molecules move far apart, move faster, have no forces keeping them together,
fill the container they go into or spread through the atmosphere.

2. Some ice cubes are left outside on a sunny day.

 a) Describe the changes that take place to the molecular arrangement

in the ice as it melts.
 b) Explain what is meant by a change of state.
 c) Explain why the temperature of the ice remains constant during this
change of state.

Answer

a) Ice is a solid, so to begin with the molecules are arranged in a fixed pattern and
are held in place by strong forces between them. They vibrate around a fixed point,
and are close together. As the ice melts, heat energy is used to break/weaken the
bonds between the molecules, allowing them to move more freely with only weak
forces between them. They stay close together, moving randomly.

116
b) A change of state occur when a substance changes between a solid, liquid or gas
state. For example, the ice cube changes state from solid to liquid as it melts.

c) Normally, heating a substance increases the temperature as the K.E. of the

molecules increases. During a change of state, the heat energy supplied is used to
break or weaken the bonds between the molecules with no increase in K.E., and
therefore no change in temperature.

Density
If the mass of the wooden block is 400 g and has a volume of 100 cm3, then we can
do a simple division and say that it has a mass of 4 g per 1 cm3. This is how density is
measured, in units of grams per centimeter cubed (g/cm3). For much larger objects,
we can switch to larger units and use kilograms per meter cubed (kg/m3)

mass (g)
density (g/cm3 )=
volume (cm3)

m
ρ=
V

 The letter used for density is the Greek letter ρ ('rho')

Measurement of physical quantities
1. The mass of an object is the amount of matter contained in this object. The mass
is usually measured in kilograms/grams using a balance (beam balance or top pan
balance).
2. The volume of an object is the amount of space occupied by this object. The
volume is usually measured in cubic meter (m3), cubic centimeter (cm3), or liter (l).

117
Determining the density of a regularly shaped object
1 .Use a mass balance to measure the mass m of the object
2 .Use a ruler to measure the dimensions (length and height and width) of the
object and then calculate its volume V = l x h x w
3.Then use the following formula to calculate density

Density =

Questions

A block of plastic is shown here.

 a) State the formula used to calculate density.

 b) Using information from the image, calculate the
density of the block.

Answer

a) m
ρ=
V

b) The volume of the block is length x height x width,

V = 10 x 8 x 8 = 640 cm3
768 g
ρ=
ρ = 1.20 g/cm3 640 cm3

Determining the density of a liquid

1- The mass m of the liquid can be measured using a
mass balance. To find the mass of the liquid we subtract
the mass of the empty measuring cylinder from the
mass of the liquid and the measuring cylinder.
2- The volume V can be read directly from the
measuring cylinder.

118
3- Then use the following formula to calculate density

Density =

Example

Use information in the diagram to calculate density of liquid

Answer

Mass of liquid = 50 – 30 = 20

Volume = 10

So density of liquid Density = = 2 g/cm3

Determining the density of an irregularly shaped object

in the procedure below we use the displacement of water method to determine
the volume V.
1- Measure the mass m of the irregularly shaped object, in this case a stone, using a
mass balance
2- Partially fills a measuring cylinder with a known volume X of water.
3- Immerse the stone into the water.

4- Measure the new volume Y

5- The volume of the stone is Y - X.
6- Use the following formula to calculate the density

Density =

119
Precautions
1. The measuring cylinder should be placed on a flat horizontal
surface.

2. Look perpendicular to the scale of the cylinder (eye level) to avoid

parallax error.

3. The object must be completely submerged in water. If the object

floats in water (less dense than water) therefore a metal sinker is
used to submerge it.

4. Tie a string round the object and lower it gently to avoid splashing
of water (which will reduce the volume of water & cause an error).
5. Always measure from the bottom of meniscus when using measuring cylinder

Questions
A customer orders are large block of aluminum for an art project.

 a) The block must have a length of 1.2 m, a width of 2.0 m, and a height
of 0.8 m. If the density of aluminum is 2700 kg/m3, calculate the mass of
this block.
 b) The customer suggests supplying the block in two halves of length
0.6 m, to make it easier to transport. What is the density of the
aluminum in one of these smaller blocks?

Answer

a) The volume of this large block will be:

V = 1.2 x 2 x 0.8 = 1.92 m3
m
The density formula is ρ=
V
So m = ρ x V,

m = 2700 x 1.92 = 5 184 kg

120
Floating and sinking

The density of pure water is exactly 1.0 g/cm3

If you put an object like a piece of wood on the surface of a pure water lake, then

 It will sink if the density is above 1.0 g/cm3 (the density of water)
 It will float if the density is below 1.0 g/cm3

Pressure
An aerosol can contain a liquid. Every time you press the button, a
fine spray of liquid jets out.
The liquid inside is under pressure. That means it is pushing
outwards in all directions.

Calculating pressure

force (N)
pressure =
area (cm2 or m2)
(N/cm2 or N/m2)

F
P=
A

 If we use m2 for the surface area, then the pressure will be in units of N/m2.
This is the international unit for pressure, and is also called a pascal (Pa).

121
Questions

1. A syringe is used to squeeze a liquid down a tube. A force of 5N is applied to

an area of 0.8 cm2. Calculate the pressure on the liquid.

Answer

F
P= 5
A P=
0.8

Therefore P = 6.25 N/cm2

2. A classroom stool has a weight of 160 N. Each of the 4 stool legs produces a
pressure of 8.0 N/cm2 on the floor.
Calculate the area of each stool leg that is in contact with the floor.

Answer

Each stool takes ¼ of the weight. This means the force on each leg is ¼ of 160 N, or
40 N each.
We know that:

F
P= F 40
A A= and therefore A =
P 8

A = 5.0 cm2 (The pressure was given in N/cm2 so the answer must be in cm2, not
m2).

122
Applying pressure

Large area, therefore small Small area, therefore large

pressure pressure

 Snow shoes  Drawing pins

 Caterpillar tracks  Needles used for
 Skis injections
 Elephant / camel feet  tent pegs
 Stiletto heels on shoes

Pressure in fluids

A fluid is a liquid or a gas, containing particles that are free

to move.

This can also be seen in the water in this bottle that is

leaking The jet at the bottom of the bottle is much stronger
than one at the top, making the water move faster and
further away from the bottle. This is because the pressure
is larger at the bottom of the bottle, due to the weight of water above pushing
downwards.

Pressure difference= density x gravitational field strength x height

P=ρxgxh

[Pa] = [kg/m3] x [N/kg] x [m]

123
The atmosphere

The Earth's atmosphere is a thick layer of a mixture of gases. This produces a

pressure just like a deep pool of water, and is actually quite high. At sea level, the
atmospheric pressure is about 100 000 Pa (100 kPa)

Questions

3. A whale is diving for food in sea water of density 1050 kg/m3.

 a) Calculate the water pressure on the whale at a depth of 500 m.

 b) The whale's eye has an area of 0.0015 m2. Calculate the inward force
acting on the eye at this pressure.

Answer

a) We know that P = ρ x g x h.
The value of 'g' on earth can be taken as 10 N/kg.
P = 1050 x 10 x 500
P = 5 250 000 Pa or 5.25 MPa

b)
F
P=
A

So F = P x A,
F = 5 250 000 x 0.0015
F = 7 875 N

4. The maximum pressure increase for safe recreational diving in water is

given as 400 kPa. In a fresh water lake of density 1000 kg/m3, how deep can a
diver go so that this limit is not exceeded?

124
Answer

P = ρ x g x h.
So 400 000 = 1000 x 10 x h
400 000 = 10 000 x h

400 000
h=
10 000

h= 40 m

Pressure in a gas

The particles of gas move random so hit the wall at very high speeds.
These collisions produce a force on the wall this force acting on a
surface produces a pressure. Therefore, the movement of particles
makes a pressure on the wall

Volume and pressure

 What would happen if the box volume is increased? In this case, there would
be fewer collisions on the sides in a certain time as the particles would have a
greater distance to travel between each collision. Therefore, an increase in
volume leads to a decrease in pressure.

 If the temperature is kept constant, and the volume changed For example if
you squeeze a plastic bottle full of air. In this case, the pressure P increases as
the volume V decreases, and a scientist called Robert Boyle realized that P x
V was a constant value.

125
 initial pressure x initial volume = final pressure x final volume

P1 x V1 = P2 x V2

[Pa] x [m3] = [Pa] x [m3]

Note

 This formula is valid if the mass and temperature are fixed

 The units for volume can be in m3 or cm3

Questions

3. A syringe contains 10 cm3 of air at a pressure of 100 kPa.

 a) Calculate the new pressure in the syringe when the gas is

compressed to a volume of 4 cm3.
 b) State one condition required for the calculation above to be true.

Answer

a) P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
Substituting in values for the initial volume (10 cm3) and pressure (100 000 Pa), and
the final volume (4 cm3) gives:
100 000 x 10 = P2 x 4

1 000 000
P2 =
4

So the final pressure P2 = 250 000 Pa (250 kPa)

b) This formula only applies if the temperature or mass of gas remains constant.

4. A diver descends to a depth of 40 m, breathing air that is at a pressure of

500 kPa. The diver's lungs have a total volume of 0.006 m3.

126
a) Calculate the volume the air in the diver's lungs would occupy at the
surface, where the pressure is only 100 kPa.

b) Suggest why it is dangerous for divers to hold their breath whilst swimming
upwards to the surface.

Answer

a) P1 x V1 = P2 x V2
Then substituting in values for the initial and final values gives
500 000 x 0.006 = 100 000 x V2
rearranging this gives

500 000 x 0.006

V2 =
100 000

So the final volume of air at the surface will be V2 = 0.03 m3.

b) This volume is 5 times larger than the volume of the lungs. The diver is in danger
of causing damage to his /her lungs or even rupturing them, as the air expands
outwards.

Temperature and pressure

If we increase the temperature, the gas particles move faster. This means two
things: They will hit the sides harder, but also more often as they will take less time
to travel between the sides of the container, an increase in temperature leads to a
pressure increase.

The Kelvin scale

If you keep cooling a gas, the particles move slower and slower. Eventually, at -
273 0C, the particles stop moving all together and cannot be cooled further. This is

127
the lowest temperature possible, and is hence called absolute zero.

As you can see from this figure, the Kelvin scale is just the centigrade (also known as
the Celsius) scale shifted down by 273 units to the left on this diagram.

Temperature (in Kelvin) = Temperature (in Celsius/centigrade) + 273

[K] = [0C] + 273

Temperature and K.E

As a substance is heated above absolute zero, the particles move faster. This means
they increase in kinetic energy. “The kelvin temperature of a gas is proportional
to the average kinetic energy of the particles/molecules".

Questions

1. Scientists are studying the conditions found on the planet Mars.

 a) One block of frozen CO2 is at a temperature of 150 K. What is this

temperature in degrees Celsius?
 b) Surface rocks can get as warm as 20 0C in the day time. What is this
temperature in Kelvin?

Answer

a) The temperature will be 150 K - 273 = -123 0C

b) The temperature will be 20 0C +273 = 293 K

128
2. An aerosol can contain a fluid under pressure. Explain why it is dangerous
to expose the can to high temperatures.

Answer

If you increase the temperature, the pressure inside the can increases further. This
could cause the can to break open or even explode in high temperatures.

3. A diver is deep under the sea. When divers breathe out, they release
bubbles of gas which rises to the surface. Explain what happens to:

 a) The pressure in the water surrounding a bubble as it rises to the

surface.
 b) The volume of a bubble as it rises to the surface.

Answer

a) The pressure in water depends on the height (h) of water above that point due to
the formula P = ρ g h.
Therefore as a bubble rises, h decreases, and so the pressure decreases.

b) If the pressure of the water decreases as a bubble rises, then the pressure on the
gas bubble also decreases. If the pressure decreases, the volume increases.

Pressure and temperature

As the temperature of a gas is increased, the particles speed up and this increases
the pressure. In fact, if you double the temperature T, the pressure P is also doubled,
It is important that the temperature is measured in Kelvin

129
 initial pressure (Pa) final pressure (Pa)
=
initial temperature (K) final temperature (K)

P1 P2
=
T1 T2

Note

 This formula is only valid of the volume and mass of gas remains
constant.
 If the temperature is given in Celsius, you need to first convert to Kelvin and
then use the formula above.

Questions

1. A sealed metal water bottle has only air inside at a temperature of 300 K
and at a pressure of 100 kPa. What is the pressure inside the bottle if it is
heated in sunlight to 360 K?

Answer

P1 P2
=
T1 T2

Substituting in values for the initial temperature (300 K) and pressure (100 000 Pa),
and the final temperature (360 K) gives

100 000 P2
=
300 360

130
 100 000 x 360
P2 =
300

So the final pressure P2 = 120 000 Pa (120 kPa)

2. An aerosol can contains a gas at 20 0C and at a pressure of 150 kPa. The can
manufacturers say that the maximum safe pressure for the can is 250 kPa.
What is the highest safe temperature for the can?

Answer

First convert 20 0C to 293 K. Then using the formula

P P
1 2 150 000 250 000
= =
T T 293 T2
1 2

250 000 x 293

T2 =
150 000

So the final highest safe temperature T2 = 488 K, or 215 0C (to 3 sig. figs.)
Specific heat capacity
It is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by
1 ºC It is measured in J/kgºC

When there is no change of state, the heat lost or gained by an object can be
calculated
𝐸 = 𝑚 𝑐 Δ𝑇

131
Where
 E is the quantity of heat energy, measured in J. note that heat energy supplied by
an electric heater is given by: 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦=𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 ×𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
 m is the mass of the object in g or kg
 c is the specific heat capacity of the material in J/kgºC or J/kgK.
 ΔT is the change in temperature in ºC or K since as the change in temperature of
1 ºC equals the change in temperature of 1 K and is always expressed as (Tf - Ti).

Finding specific heat capacities (solid)

1. Record the power of the electric heater.

2. Find the mass (m) of the aluminum block (1kg)
3. Using a thermometer, measure and record the
initial temperature of water (Ti) before
switching on the heater.
4. Start the stop watch as you switch on the heater.
5. After a certain time, switch off the heater, record
the time (t) on the stop watch and record the
final temperature (Tf).
 if the temperature rise is too large then too much heat will be lost.
6. Calculate the temperature rise Δ𝑇=𝑇𝑓− 𝑇𝑖 and the quantity of energy supplied as
heat
7. The specific heat capacity can be calculated using the following formula

c=

Improvement
 put insulating material around the aluminum block ( to reduce heat lost )
 put oil in the gap of the aluminum block (to ensure thermal conduct
between aluminum and thermometer )

132
Finding specific heat capacities (liquid)
1. put 0.25 kg of water into beaker
2. setup the experiments as shown in figure
3. measure and record the initial temperature(Ti)
of the block
4. turn on power supply and leave until the
temperature change by about 50 Co
5. turn off power supply record final temperature
(Tf)
6. calculate the change in temperature Δ𝑇=𝑇𝑓− 𝑇𝑖
7. record joule meter reading and calculate specific heat capacity by equation

c=

Questions

1. A kettle is filled with 2.5 kg of water of S.H.C. 4180 J/kg 0C. Calculate the
energy needed to heat the water from a room temperature of 25 0C to the
boiling point at 100 0C .

Answer
ΔQ = m x c x ΔT
ΔQ = 2.5 x 4180 x (100-25)
ΔQ = 784 000 J (784 kJ)

2. An investigation is carried out to find the S.H.C. of a 1 kg copper block. The

block increases from 22 0C to 61 0C with 16 400 J of heat energy transferred.

 a) Show that the S.H.C. of copper is about 400 J/kg 0C

133
  b) The heating element has a power output of 48 W. Calculate the time
it takes to heat the copper to 61 0C.

Answer

a) ΔT is 61-22 = 39 0C. Rearranging the formula for S.H.C. gives

ΔQ
c= 16 400
m x ΔT c=
1 x 39

c= 421 J/kg 0C

b) we know that power and energy /work are related by the formula

W 16 400
t= t= t = 341 seconds
P 48

3. Ice cubes of mass 60 g are placed into a glass of 300 g of water. The ice is
initially at -18 0C and warms up to -1 0C over a period of 4 minutes. Ice has a
S.H.C. of 2110 J/kg 0C.

 a) Calculate the heat energy gained by the ice during this time.
 b) Calculate the temperature drop of the water as heat energy is
transferred to the ice. The S.H.C. of water is 4180 J/kg 0C.
 C) Suggest one reason why the answer in (b) may be unrealistic and
incorrect.

Answer

a) ΔQ = m x c x ΔT, and m= 60 g = 0.06 kg

Therefore for the ice,
ΔQ = 0.06 x 2110 x 17= 2150 J

134
b) The heat energy to warm the ice comes from the surrounding water. Therefore
the water cools, losing the same quantity of heat energy.
As ΔQ = m x c x ΔT , then using m = 0.3 kg gives

ΔQ 2150
ΔT= ΔT=
mxc 0.3 x 4180
ΔT = 1.71 0c

c) The water may not cool by 1.71 0C due to any of the following:
Glass cools down as well / heat gain or loss due to surroundings / some ice may
melt / ice may not cool by the same temperature drop across the cubes

135
 Topic 6 Magnetism
Magnetism
Properties of Magnets
 Objects made from magnetic materials called
ferrous materials or ferromagnetic (such as iron,
steel, nickel and cobalt) can be magnetized or
attracted by a magnet.
 Objects made from non-magnetic materials called
non-ferrous materials (such as plastic, wood, paper or rubber) cannot be
magnetized or attracted to magnets.
 The parts of a magnet where the magnetic force is the strongest are called its
poles (as we move Away from the poles, the magnetic force strength decreases).
 The poles of a bar magnet are near its ends and occur in pairs of equal strength
(a north pole and a south pole).
 When a magnet is suspended freely, its north pole will point towards the
north of the Earth and its south pole will point towards the south of the Earth

Magnetic forces

“Similar poles repel and opposite poles attract”

136
Magnetic Fields
The magnetic field is the region around a magnet where magnetic force can be
detected. This region contains the magnetic flux which is represented using lines of
force or flux lines.
Magnetic flux is a vector quantity, so flux lines should represent both magnitude
and direction,
Accordingly they
1. Show the shape of the magnetic field.
2. Show the direction of the magnetic field (field lines travel from north to South
Pole).
3. Show the strength of the magnetic field (the closer the lines the stronger the
field).

To investigate the magnetic field of a bar magnet

1. Place a sheet of paper on top of a bar magnet.
2. Sprinkle iron filings on the paper and tap the paper gently to allow for
redistribution.
 The iron filings align themselves according to the shape of the
magnetic field

137
Other magnetic field patterns

In the second diagram, the lines directly between the two

poles are straight and evenly spaced. This indicates the
field is a uniform field, meaning it has the same strength
and direction in this region. Note that the field curves at the
edges and is no longer uniform.

To investigate Direction of magnetic field of a bar

magnet

1. place the plotting compass near the magnet on a piece of

paper

2. mark the direction the compass needle points

3. move the plotting compass to many different positions in

the magnetic field, marking the needle direction each time

4. join the points to show the field lines

The magnet could be either one of two

types

138
Questions

1. The south pole of a magnet is used to test a range of materials. Explain what
will happen when the South Pole is placed near to:

 a) Another south pole.

 b) A copper wire.
 c) A steel paper clip.

Answer

a) Like poles repel, so the other South Pole will repel.

b) Copper is a non-magnetic material, so it will not be attracted or repelled.

c) Steel is a magnetic material so will always be attracted to any magnetic pole.

2. A loudspeaker contains a magnetically soft iron core.

Explain what is meant by a soft magnetic material.

Answer

A soft magnetic material can be magnetized easily but quickly loses a magnetic field
/ is a temporary magnet.

3. Describe how to produce a uniform magnetic field between two permanent

magnets. You may add a diagram if needed.

Answer

To produce a uniform field you need two magnets,

with opposite poles facing/next to each other. The uniform
region will be between the two poles.

4. A student tries to demonstrate the magnetic field lines around a permanent

magnet by sprinkling salt crystals on a table mat placed over a strong
permanent magnet.

139
  a) Explain why no magnetic field pattern is seen.
 b) Suggest an improvement to this investigation, so that field lines can
be seen.

Answer

a) Salt is not a magnetic material. The crystals will not be affected by the magnetic
field.

b) Iron filings should be used instead, and sprinkled slowly on the region around the
magnet.

Magnetic Effect of a Current (electromagnetism)

When a current flows through a wire a magnetic field is created around the wire.
This is called Electromagnetism.

To make a powerful electromagnet, you need three things

 A coil, like the solenoid, that will produce a concentrated field inside.
 A current flowing through the coil.
 A soft magnetic material core inside the coil that will be magnetized when
the current is turned on, and quickly lose its
magnetism when switched off.

To make a powerful electromagnet, you need a large

number of turns in the coil, a high current, and a highly
magnetic material like a soft iron core, notice the 3 'C's
Remember Coil, Current, Core.

140
Coil

If you make a circle out of a current carrying wire, forming a single coil,
then you can again use the right-hand grip rule to predict the field
direction The field is stronger in the center of the coil, as shown by the
high concentration of field lines. It is weaker the further the distance is
from the coil

Solenoid
Is basically a long coil of wire When a current passes through it, a strong magnetic
field is produced in the center of the coil as shown in figure Outside the coil, the
field is much weaker.

Properties of the magnetic field around a solenoid

1. The magnetic field around a solenoid is the same as that around a bar magnet.
One end of the coil is a north pole and the other is a south pole.
2. The magnetic field inside a solenoid consists of close, equally spaced and parallel
flux lines “it is a strong uniform field”.
3. If the direction of the current flowing through the solenoid is reversed, so too are
the positions of the poles.

141
The strength of the magnetic field around a solenoid can
be increased by
1. Increasing the current flowing through the solenoid.
2. Increasing the number of turns on the solenoid – this does not mean making the
coil longer but packing more turns into the same space to concentrate the field.
3. Wrapping the solenoid around a magnetically soft core such as iron. Iron is easily
magnetized when current flows and is easily demagnetized when no current flows
in the solenoid
 reversing the direction of the current reverse the direction of the magnetic
field

Question

An iron bar is placed within a solenoid to create an electromagnet. This is

used to pick up steel nails.

 a) Describe the construction of a solenoid.

 b) Describe the magnetic field at the center of a solenoid.
 c) State 2 ways the electromagnet can be made stronger to pick up more
nails.
 d) State one advantage of an electromagnet for this purpose compared
to a permanent magnet.

Answer

a) A solenoid is a (long) coil made from a conductor / wire.

b) The field is uniform.

c) More coils / turns, or a larger current.

d) The electromagnet can be switched on / off. A permanent magnet is always 'on

142
The right hand grip rule
Hold out your right hand with your thumbs tucked in and your
thumb pointing upwards:

 the thumb is equal to the direction of current

 the fingers are equal to the magnetic field direction

The motor effect

If a single wire can produce a magnetic field when a current flows through it, what
will happen if we place the wire near to a magnet? The two magnetic fields will
(interact)produce forces, and the wire and magnet will be pushed. The way the two
magnetic, the force produced can be used to produce movement.

DC electric motor
Motor consists of
1. a rectangular coil
2. N-S poles of a permanent magnet,
3. split ring commutators
4. Carbon brushes.

143
 As current passing to coil by two carbon brushes magnetic field is created
around the coil
 Repulsion Force between magnetic field of coil and magnetic field of permanent
magnet , the coil turn 180 0 half turn
 split ring commutator reverse direction of current every half turn , to reverse
magnetic field of coil to complete rotation of coil ( complete turn )

To increase the rate of motor (the speed of rotation)

1. Increase the number of turns or loops of wire
2. Increase the strength of the magnetic field (use a stronger magnet).
3. Increase the current flowing through the loop of wire.

 If the direction of the current, or the poles of the magnet are reversed,
rotation will proceed in the Opposite direction.

Loudspeaker
The interact of the magnetic field generated by the coil and
magnetic field of permanent magnet apply force on the cone so that
it moves in certain frequency which produce sound

Questions

1. A loudspeaker is connected to an a.c. electrical supply and produces a sound

wave. Suggest one way the speaker or supply could be modified or changed to
produce:

 a) A louder sound.
 b) A higher frequency sound.

144
Answer

a) To make the sound louder, you can increase the current (or voltage) from the
supply, increase the strength of the magnet / field used in the speaker, or use more
turns on the coil.

b) To produce a higher frequency sound, the frequency of the a.c. supply must also
be increase

2. A simple motor rotates due to the 'motor effect' forces acting on the coil.
Suggest two ways of increasing the force on the coil, and hence the speed of
rotation.

Answer

 Increase the current (or supply voltage).

 Increase the magnetic field strength produced by the magnets.
 Increase the length of the wire in the field, by having more turns on the coil.

Fleming's left-hand rule

 The Thumb indicates the thrust (a force) on the current carrying
conductor.
 The First finger indicates the magnetic field (remember field lines go from
north to south).
 The second finger indicates the current.
 The magnetic field is always directed from north to south.

 Note that all three fingers in the left-hand rule are perpendicular to each other.
If there is a situation where the current is parallel to the magnetic field, then
there is no force.

145
Questions

1. A metal wire has a current flowing through it, and is placed between two
permanent magnets as shown here:

 a) Use the left-hand rule to predict the force

on the wire. Draw an arrow on the diagram to
show the direction of this force. Label the arrow 'F'.
 b) Describe a method of increasing the size of the force F without
replacing the magnets.

Answer

a) Your first finger on your left hand should point right,

from N to S. Your second finger should point into the 'page'.
This leaves your thumb pointing downwards. Your thumb
indicates the motion and hence the force. Draw an arrow downwards as shown here

b) You can increase the force by increasing the current. Alternatively, wrapping the
wire into a loop or coil with only one edge inside the field will effectively increase
the length of the wire. (Note that the magnets cannot be replaced in the question, so
you cannot increase the field strength).

146
Moving charges

"There is a force on a charged particle (alpha or beta particle ) when it moves in

a magnetic field, as long as its motion is not parallel to the field "

Questions

An alpha particle is a very small positively charged particle.

In the diagram shown here, an alpha particle (labeled 'A') is directed

into a magnetic field.

 a) Sketch the magnetic field lines in the space between the two
magnets.
 b) Describe the field at the point directly between the two
magnets.
 c) State what will happen to the alpha particle in the magnetic field.

Answer

a) The magnetic field should look like this

b) The region in the center (shaded grey in our example) is a uniform

magnetic field.

c)The alpha particle is not moving parallel the field lines, so will experience a force /
be pushed. (This will deflect the alpha particle).

147
Electromagnetic induction
If a wire is moved across a magnetic field at right angles (to cut across lines of
flux), voltage is induced or generated in the wire this is called electromagnetic
induction.

This can be demonstrated using the following experiment

a) When the magnet is moved into the coil, the galvanometer deflects in one
direction. If the magnet is pulled away from the coil, the galvanometer deflects in
the opposite direction showing that the induced current flows in the opposite
direction.
b) If the magnet is stationary, the galvanometer point is at zero and there’s no
current induced in the circuit.
c) If you move the magnet slowly, then small
deflection if you move it quickly, then large
deflection.
d) If you move a weak magnet, then small
deflection if you move a strong magnet, then
large deflection.

148
  cut off or interference between two magnetic field ( magnetic field magnet
and magnetic field of coil ) so change in magnetic field line so induced
voltage or induced current
 if it move parallel to magnetic field (no cut off) no current is induced

To increase induced current

1. Using coil with more turns (increases the peak value not the frequency).
2. Using a stronger magnet or a powerful electromagnet or winding the coil round
a soft-iron core so that the field is stronger (increases the peak value not the
frequency).
3. Rotating the coil faster (increases both the peak value and the frequency).

Questions

1. Describe the conditions necessary for induction to occur.

Answer

 Movement
 Of a wire / coil / conductor..
 Through a magnetic field /cutting through field lines / perpendicular to a
magnetic field.

149
2. An a.c. generator consists of a rotating coil in a magnetic field as shown in
figure

 a) State one way the output voltage from the

generator can be increased.
 b) Explain why an alternating voltage is produced.
 c) Explain why there is a point in the rotation where
no voltage is produced.

Answer

a) To make the voltage higher, you can either increase the strength of the magnets /
magnetic field, rotate the coil faster, or use more turns on the coil.

b) An a.c. voltage is produced because any one side of the coil moves up then down
through the field as it rotates, making the direction of the induced voltage change
constantly.

c) At one point of the rotation, the sides of the coil are moving parallel to the field, so
no field lines are cut. Therefore, no voltage is induced.

Transformers
A transformer is a device that can change the potential difference or voltage of an
alternating current AC

 a step-up transformer increases the voltage

In a step-up transformer,( Vs > Vp ) &( Ns > Np )

 a step-down transformer reduces the voltage

In a step-Down transformer ( Vs < Vp ) & ( Ns < Np )

150
Structure of a transformer
A basic transformer is made from two coils of wire, a primary coil from the
alternating current (ac) input and a secondary coil leading to the ac output. The
coils are not electrically connected. Instead, they are wound around an iron core.
This is easily magnetized and can carry magnetic fields from the primary coil to the
secondary coil

 The alternating voltage causes an alternating magnetic field to be set up

inside the iron core. This in turn induces an alternating voltage in a
secondary coil

151
 input (primary) voltage [V] number of primary turns
=
output (secondary) voltage [V] number of secondary turns

Vp Np
=
Vs Ns

Questions

1. A phone charger uses a transformer with 5 000 turns on the primary coil
and 250 turns on the secondary. It is plugged into the mains supply with an
input voltage of 240 V.

 a) Explain if this is a step-up or step-down transformer.

 b) Calculate the output voltage of the transformer.

Answer

a) There are fewer turns on the secondary coil than the primary, so this is a step-
down transformer.

b)
Vin np
240 5000
= =
Vout ns Vout 250

240 x 250 Vout

=
5000 1

So Vout = 12 V

2. A very high voltage is required for 'spark' plugs that ignite the petrol in any
car engine. The transformer used to do this has an input voltage of 12 V and an
output voltage of 4800 V. The primary coil has only 10 turns.

152
Calculate the number of secondary turns required to produce 4800 V.

Answer

V n 12 10
p p =
= 4800 ns
Vs ns

ns 4800 x 10
=
1 12

So ns = 4000

Transformers and efficiency

The formula for electrical power is P = I x V as We also know that energy cannot be
created Assuming the transformer is 100% efficient and no power is lost, then
the output power must match the input power.

Input power = output power

Vp x Ip = Vs x Is

Questions

3. A school power supply is used to run a heating element for an experiment.

The heating element runs on 12 V, and has a power output of 60 W.

The transformer used in the power supply has 240 V input and 800 turns on
the primary coil.

Calculate:

 a) The number of turns on the secondary coil of the transformer.

 b) The current output to the heating element.
 c) The current input to the transformer.

153
Answer

Vp np
240 800
= =
Vs ns 12 ns

and rearranging this gives

12 x 800
ns =
240

So ns= 40

b) P = I x V,
so 60 = I x 12 Therefore I = 5 A

c) Using the second transformer equation Vp x Ip = Vs x Is gives:

Vp x Ip = Vs x Is
240 x Ip = 12 x 5 (from part b)

Therefore:

12 x 5
Ip =
240

Ip = 0.25 A

The national Grid system

 It is a network of wires and cables that carries electrical energy from power
stations to consumers such as factories and homes. To transfer the energy from
the power station to your home we use A high voltage and a low current.
 Because if the current flowing through the wire is kept to a minimum, the heat
losses are also reduced This is done with transformers at each end of the Grid

154
 system to step-up the voltage and keep the current very low. This is the main
reason for using a.c. in the Grid (transformers do not work with d.c.).
 The step down transformer at the end of the transmission line reduces the
voltage back to safe usable levels at the consumer end

Questions

4. The diagram below shows the main stages in a local power distribution
system:

a) State the name of the type of transformer used at X and Y.

b) Explain why these transformers are required.

Answer

a) X is a step-up transformer, Y is a step-down transformer.

b) A step-up transformer increases the voltage and decreases the current. A lower
current leads to less power loss in the cables. (The high voltage and low current
makes the transmission more efficient).

155
The step-down transformer is required to reduce this high voltage back down to
safe levels for domestic use.

156
 Topic 7 Radioactivity
Atom
All atoms are made of three sub-atomic particles

 Protons - these have a positive charge (of +1) they are

found in the nucleus.
 Neutrons - these have no charge (are neutral) they are also
found in the nucleus.
 Electrons - these have a negative charge (of -1), they orbit
the nucleus.

Subatomic particle Mass Charge Location

Proton 1 +1 Nucleus
Neutron 1 Neutral Nucleus
Electron 1/2000 -1 Outer shell

 You will need to learn the terms atomic (or proton) number, mass (or
nucleon) number, and what they mean:
 The bottom number is always
the atomic number, and is the number
of protons in the nucleus.
 The top number is always the mass
number, and is equal to the mass of
the nucleus. It equals the total number of particles in the nucleus, known
as nucleons.

157
Example
an atom of oxygen is represented by O816
 is the chemical symbol for oxygen
 The atomic number is 8 (the nucleus contains 8 protons )
 The mass number is 16 (so it must have 8 neutrons).
Questions
23
1. The element sodium (Na) is written in notation as: Na
11

State the number of protons and neutrons in this atom of sodium.

Answer

The bottom number represents the proton number, so there are 11 protons.
The top number of 23 gives the total number of protons and neutrons, so there are
23 - 11 = 12 neutrons.

2. Lead is a metal with the symbol Pb. A common atom of lead has 82 protons
and 125 neutrons. Using standard notation (as shown in question 1), give the
notation for this atom of lead.

Answer

If the atom has 82 protons and 125 neutrons, the total mass is 82 + 125 = 207.
Therefore the notation will be:
207
Pb
82

158
Isotopes
Isotopes have the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons.

Questions

3. The list below shows the notation for some atoms found in a sample of sea
water. It includes 2 isotopes:

1 4 5 2 9 9
H He Li H B Be
1 2 3 1 5 4

 a) Define the term 'isotopes'.

 b) Identify the two isotopes in the list.

Answer

a) isotopes have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

b) We are looking for 2 atoms with the same proton number (the bottom number)
and hence the same symbol.

1 2
The two isotopes are: H and H
1 1

159
Radioactivity

1) Stability & radioactivity

Some elements have atoms with unstable nuclei. These unstable nuclei emit high-
energy particles and rays called radiations.

Radioactive decay
Is the spontaneous random emission of alpha (α), beta (β) particles or gamma (γ)
rays from the nuclei of unstable atoms to become more stable

Random
Means we cannot predict which particular nucleus will decay next, all nuclei have a
constant probability of decay.

Spontaneous
Means that the decay process is unaffected by environmental conditions such as
temperature, pressure,

2) Types of nuclear radiation

Nuclear radiations are sometimes called ionizing radiations. This is because these
radiations interact with neutral atoms of air, which makes atoms gain or lose
electrons, forming ions.

The three types are

 Alpha (α) particle
 Beta (β) particles
 Gamma (γ) radiation

160
a) Alpha particles (α)
It is identical to the nucleus of a helium atom (a helium atom without its orbiting
electrons, it’s not a helium atom). Alpha particles make frequent collisions with gas
molecules along their paths, causing intense ionization. Accordingly, they have
strong ionizing
Here’s its nuclear equation

Note that
 The mass number reduced by 4 and the atomic number reduced by 2
For example

b) Beta particles (β)

A beta particle is a very fast moving electron that is ejected by a decaying nucleus,
This means that the atomic number increases by 1, while the mass number stays
the same. Beta particles are smaller & carry less charge so they interact less
frequently with matter in their paths. This is why they have weak ionizing
Here’s its nuclear equation

For example

Note that
 the mass number stay the same while the atomic number increase by 1

161
C) Gamma rays (γ)
Gamma rays is electromagnetic radiation emitted from the nucleus of an unstable
atom so they have a very weak ionizing

Neutron decay
Some isotopes lose neutrons when they decay , A neutron has a mass of 1 and no
1
charge, it is therefore written as: n
0

Again, the decay of an isotope is then quite easy to work out. For example, if
Beryllium-13 decays by emitting a neutron:

13 1 12
Be → n + Be
4 0 4

Penetrating power
The penetrating power of alpha rays, beta rays, and gamma rays varies greatly.
Alpha particles can be blocked by a few pieces of paper. Beta particles pass through
paper but are stopped by aluminum foil. Gamma rays are the most difficult to stop
and require concrete, lead, or other heavy shielding to block them

162
Questions

1. A student is researching the nature of alpha, beta and gamma radiation.

Which of these three:

 a) Has the largest mass?

 b) Has no charge?
 c) Will only pass a few centimeters through air?

Answer

a) Alpha particles have the largest mass.

b) Gamma radiation has no charge.

c) Alpha can only pass through a few cm of air.

2. A radioactive isotope is thought to be a beta emitter, with no alpha or

gamma being emitted. Describe an experiment to prove this result.

Answer

You need a Geiger counter to use as a detector.

First, place paper / tissue in front of the source. If alpha radiation is present, the
detected count rate will drop significantly. If there is no drop, the radiation is beta or

163
gamma.

Second, place a thin aluminum sheet or two in front of the source. If the count rate
drops, the source is a beta emitter. Gamma rays will not be significantly affected by
the aluminum barrier.

3. An alpha particle is given the letter α

 a) State the mass number and atomic number 239 __ __

Pu → U + α
of an alpha particle.
94 __ __
 b) Complete the missing numbers in the alpha
decay equation below, for the isotope plutonium 239:

Answer

a) Alpha particles have a mass of 4 and an atomic number of 2.

b) The missing numbers are shown here

239 235 4
Pu → U + α
94 92 2

4. During beta decay, the mass of the nucleus remains constant, whilst the
atomic number increases by 1.

 a) Explain the change in the nucleus that causes

90 __ __
this result. Sr → β + Y
38 __ __

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  b) Stronium-90 (Sr) is a radioactive isotope ('radioisotope') that decays
by emitting a beta particle. The resulting nucleus is an isotope of
yttrium (Y). Complete the missing numbers in the beta decay equation
shown below:

Answer

a) During beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton and an electron, causing an
increase in the nuclear proton number of +1 but no change in mass. (The electron is
ejected from the nucleus).

b) The missing numbers - shown i

90 0 90
Sr → β + Y
38 -1 39

Detection of Radiation By
1-photographic film
Become blacked when subject to radioactivity, the darker the film the greater the
radiation dose

2-Geiger-Muller (GM) tube

The main detector used now which is connected to a count rate meter giving reading
in counts per unit time (minute or second)

165
To investigate the penetrating power of radiation from
different radioactive materials
1 Use the Geiger-Müller tube to measure
background radiation. This level of activity
should be subtracted from all readings taken to
give the activity due to the source alone.
2. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
with the alpha source a small fixed distance
from the Geiger-Müller tube, and take and
record a reading of the activity.
3. Insert a sheet of paper between the source
and the Geiger-Müller tube and take and record a reading of the activity.
4. Replace the paper with a sheet of aluminium and then with a sheet of lead,
recording the activity with each.
5. Repeat the process in steps 2 to 4 with the beta source and then with the gamma
source, making sure the distance of the source is the same in each case.
 Your results should confirm that alpha -particles are stopped by paper,
Betta -particles are stopped by 3mm of aluminium and gamma-rays are
greatly reduced in intensity by lead.

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Question
A student designs an experiment to investigate what type of radiation a radioactive
isotope emits, as shown below. The GM Tube measures radiation received in
counts/minute.

A - Detector and no source, giving a background reading of 25 counts/minute.

B - Detector and radioactive source, giving a reading of 300 counts/minute.
C - Detector, source and paper, giving a reading of 300 counts/minute.
D - Detector, source and aluminium sheet, giving a reading of 25 counts/ minute.
 The student concludes that only -particles are emitted by the source. Explain
how the results obtained show that only B -particles are emitted.
Answer
When paper was placed between the source and the detector in diagram C, the
reading did not change, so there can be no alpha-radiation emitted. This would have
been stopped by paper.
When the aluminium was placed between the source and the detector in diagram D,
the reading dropped to the background value (the reading in A), showing that the
radiation was stopped by the aluminium. Therefore the radiation must be Betta
particles.
There can be no gamma-rays present. If there were, they would not be stopped by
the aluminium, so the reading would not drop in diagram D to the background value.

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Radiation and half-life
The half-life time of a radioactive sample is the time taken for half the nuclei present
in this sample to decay
(The time taken for the activity of a radioactive sample to decrease to its half)
 The half-life is unaffected by temperature or pressure but each
radioactive element has its own definite half-life.

The decay curve

The activity of a sample is the average number of decaying
atoms per unit time. If the activity of a sample is measured
at different times, a decay curve against time can be plotted.
The decay curve of a sample starting with an activity of 200
radiations per hour is shown.
The curve shows that the activity falls by the same fraction
in successive equal intervals of time.
The half-life time of this sample is 1 hr.

Questions

1. Radioactive radon gas can be found in caves in high concentrations. The

isotope has a half-life of 3.8 days.

 a) Explain the term 'half-life'.

 b) If the total mass of radon gas found in a cave is found to be 4 grams,
calculate the quantity that should remain after 7.6 days. (Assume no
more radon gas enters the cave).

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Answer

a) The half-life of a substance is defined as the time it takes for...

 half the nuclei to decay, or

 the count rate / activity to fall to half the original value

b) After 3.8 days, the mass will have halved, from 4 g to 2 g.

After 7.6 days (a further 3.8 days), it will have halved again down to 1 gram.

2. An isotope used in engineering has a half-life of approximately 10 years and

an activity of 800 kBq.

If the dangerous isotope is buried for 30 years, what will be the activity after
this period?

Answer

For this we will use a table of results to show our working out, halving the activity
each half-life:

number of half-lifes 0 1 2 3

Time (yrs) 0 10 20 30

Activity (kBq) 800 400 200 100

From this table we can see that after 30 years, the activity is 100 kBq.

3. A medical sample of technetium-99m has an activity of 20 000 Bq. It has a

half-life of 6.0 hours. What will the activity of the sample be after 24 hours?

169
Answer

Using a table again gives these results

number of half-lifes 0 1 2 3 4

Time (hours) 0 6 12 18 24

Activity (Bq) 20 000 10 000 5 000 2 500 1 250

From the table we can see that after 24 hrs, the activity is 1250 Bq

Background radiation
A GM tube will record some count rate even in the absence of a source. This count
rate is due to the ionizing radiation which is always present from the surroundings.
It is called background radiation and should be subtracted from the counts
recorded when a source is present to give the true count rate due to the source.

Sources of background radiation

1. Radon gases in the air
2. Some rocks in the Earth’s crust or in building material
3. Radioisotopes used in certain medical procedures.
4. Cosmic rays from outer space.
5. Emissions from nuclear power stations.

Dangers of radioactivity

All radio activities can cause ionization This can disrupt the chemical bonds in
molecules. The chemistry of the human body is extremely complicated, and
exposure to a high level of nuclear radiation can cause significant medical
issues, damaging cells and tissues.

170
it may cause mutations in the cell. This can happen to all living organisms. Cancer is
caused by cell mutation, and exposure to nuclear radiation can therefore lead to
cancer.

There are two commonly used words to describe radiation hazards, with different
meanings:

 Contamination means that a radioactive isotope is present, perhaps in a

water or air supply.
 Irradiation means that an object is being exposed to ionizing radiation, but
the source causing this radiation is not physically on the object.

Safety precautions
for storing and handling include, but are not limited to
 time reducing the amount of time a person is exposed to radiation
 wearing a film badge that alerts the wearer to the possibility of dangerous
levels of radiation distance, i.e. using forceps or robotic manipulators to hold
radioactive sources
 shielding storing radioactive materials in thick lead containers
 wearing lead-lined clothing and gloves
 working behind a lead-glass shield or putting a wall between the person
and the source.

Uses of radioactivity

1. Radiotherapy

Cancer cells are still living organisms, and high levels of radiation will kill these
cells. Radiotherapy involves giving the cancer tumor a high dose of radiation,
enough to eventually kill all the cancer cells and prevent further spreading

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 2. Medical tracers

A gamma ray camera can build up a picture of where in the body the radioactive
tracer substance is going, and identify medical problems without the need for
surgery.

The radioisotope must have a half-life of a few hours. This allows enough time to
take an image but after a day or two, the radiation emitted has reduced to
negligible levels. The patient will have not been exposed to dangerous levels of
radiation.

3. Non-medical tracers

A radioisotope can be injected into a water supply just as it is

in the blood stream. Have a look at the water pipe shown in
figure It has a leak underground. As the isotope in the water
is emitting gamma rays, the pool of water underground can be
detected using a Geiger counter at the surface. This prevents
the need for digging up the entire pipe to find the leak.

4. Foil thickness

a beta emitter is required, as the level of beta particles reaching the detector varies
greatly with the foil thickness. (Alpha particles would all be stopped, and gamma
rays would all pass through the foil).

172
If the foil becomes too thick, the activity falls suddenly, and the rollers can be
automatically adjusted to make the foil thinner again without the need to stop the
process.

5. Radioactive dating

All living things on Earth are involved in the carbon cycle. Plants use carbon dioxide
for photosynthesis animals eat plants, and so on. However, some of this carbon that
is taken in is radioactive carbon-14, generated constantly by cosmic rays in the
atmosphere. As soon as a living organism dies, no more carbon-14 enters the
organism, and the isotope slowly decays.

The half-life of carbon-14 is about 5700 years. if we measure the quantity of carbon-
14 remaining in a sample, we can find the time since the animal or plant died.

Questions

1. A small quantity of a radioactive isotope is injected into a patient’s body

during a medical examination. A special camera is used to detect nuclear
radiation emitted from the isotope as it travels around the body in the blood
stream.

 a) Explain which of alpha, beta or gamma radiation is being detected.

 b) The half-life of the isotope used is 6 hours. Explain why a half-life of 6
months is unacceptable for this type of application.

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Answer

a) Gamma is detected - it is the only one of the 3 that can pass through thick body
tissues and bones.

b) If the half-life is 6 months, the patient will be exposed to this gamma radiation
for a long time, increasing the total exposure and risking illness or death. (Damage
to tissues and cells, cell mutations, cancer)

2. Radon gas decays by emitting alpha particles. Alpha particles have a short
range in air and are blocked by thin layers of paper or clothing.

 a) Suggest why radon gas in a house is still extremely hazardous.

 b) State one damaging effect of alpha radiation to the body.

Answer

a) The gas can still be inhaled, damaging lung tissue at close range, or entering our
blood stream through the lungs. this would lead to internal damage to organs.

b) Damage to tissues and cells / cell mutations /cancer.

3. A factory is producing sheets of paper for wrapping products. A radioactive

isotope that can partially pass through the paper is used to constantly monitor
the thickness of the paper.

 a) Describe and explain the type of nuclear radiation likely to be used in

this process.
 b) The half-life of the isotope used is extremely long. Suggest what
would happen to the paper thickness if the isotope half-life was shorter.

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Answer

a) Beta particles are used as they can pass through thin paper but are stopped by
thicker aluminum. Alpha particles are stopped completely by thin paper and will not
reach the detector. Gamma will all pass through regardless of the paper thickness.

b) This is a complicated question. If the half life is too low, the count rate will drop,
and the detector and processor will assume the paper is too thick. The rollers and
machinery will then start to produce thinner paper.

Fission and fusion

1-Fission
Nuclear fission is the process of a nucleus splitting into smaller parts
and releasing energy. This can happen naturally, or artificially.

There is one rare isotope of uranium called uranium-235 that has a very special
property: It is unstable, but a neutron that hits it at the right speed will cause it to
disintegrate, typically into 2 fragments. The fragments are called daughter nuclei,
and are also usually radioactive and unstable.

As you can see from this diagram, the number of nuclei involved increases rapidly,
and the energy released gets bigger and bigger at a huge rate.
This process of self-sustaining nuclear disintegrations is called a chain reaction

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  One neutron hits a U-235 nucleus.
 This makes the nucleus disintegrate into 2 daughter nuclei.
 It also releases 2 or 3 more neutrons.
 These neutrons hit other nearby U-235 nuclei .
 The process is repeated with more nuclei .

 Kinetic energy. During nuclear fission, the daughter nuclei and the neutrons
move at high speed carrying a huge quantity of kinetic energy. This energy was
originally stored in the nucleus of the uranium-235.

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Nuclear power

1. The concrete shield: This needs to be very thick and strong for several reasons.
It needs to contain the dangerous nuclear fuel and the high pressure caused by the
heat generated. It also needs to block dangerous ionizing radiation, particularly
gamma radiation and neutrons from the chain reaction.

2. The fuel rods: These need to have a much higher concentration of uranium-
235 than found in naturally occurring uranium. The fuel rods are thin and have gaps
between them. This limits the chance of all of the neutrons hitting other uranium
nuclei and the process getting out of control.

3. The control rods. These are made of an element that absorbs neutrons without
becoming dangerously unstable. Boron is an element that can do this. The control
rods can be lifted up to speed up the chain reaction, or dropped down to absorb
more neutrons and stop the chain reaction.

4. The moderator. is made of atoms that are not affected by the neutrons, but
recoil and absorb some of the neutron's kinetic energy, slowing them
down. Carbon in the form of graphite is an excellent moderator.

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Summary

Name made of function

reactor Prevent ionizing radiation escaping, withstand high

concrete
casing temperatures and pressures.

uranium- High enough U-235 concentration to sustain a

fuel rods
235 fission chain reaction

control rods boron Absorb neutrons to slow /stop the reaction

Slow the neutrons down to the required speed for

moderator graphite
the chain reaction

Questions

1. A nuclear power station uses the nuclear fission of uranium-235.

Explain what is meant by the term 'nuclear fission'.

Answer

Nuclear fission is the splitting / disintegration of heavy nuclei (like uranium). This is
forced to happen, usually by an incident neutron.

2. Nuclear reactors use uranium-235 to make a fission chain reaction occur.

 a) Explain how a chain reaction occurs.

 b) State the meaning of the term 'daughter nuclei'.
 c) Complete the following sentence:

"Nuclear energy stored in the uranium-235 nucleus is transferred to

______________ energy in the chain reaction."

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Answer

a) In this answer, you should include

 A neutron
 hits a uranium-235 nucleus
 which causes it to disintegrate / fission
 producing fragments / daughter nuclei
 and 2 or 3 more neutrons
 which cause more fission / which repeats /accelerates the process.

b) Radioactive nuclei / fragments left from fission of heavy nuclei.

c) "Nuclear energy stored in the uranium-235 nucleus is transferred

to kinetic energy in the chain reaction."

3. The core of a nuclear reactor contains many key parts vital for the safety of
the reaction. Explain the function of

 a) a moderator,
 b) a control rod.

Answer

a) A moderator slows down neutrons to a suitable speed for the fission reaction to
occur.

b) A control rod absorbs neutrons to slow the reaction down. They can be raised or
lowered for fine control of the speed of the reaction.

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2-Fusion

This process - of light nuclei fusing together - is called nuclear fusion. It only
works with light nuclei like hydrogen and helium, and only when they are put very
close together. Unfortunately, these nuclei have protons in them that repel each
other, so they really do not want to be close together The electrostatic repulsion

Fusion needs very high pressures and temperatures. This makes light nuclei
move very fast and close together, causing some to fuse. This is the energy source
that keeps the Sun and all stars producing heat and light! The temperature needed
to do this for hydrogen in stars is millions of degrees Celsius, and even then the
process is slow.

Questions

4. Nuclear fusion is a source of energy using atomic nuclei.

 a) Explain the difference between nuclear fusion and fission.

 b) State one location where fusion occurs naturally.
 c) Explain why fusion reactions are so hard to produce at low
temperatures and pressures.

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Answer

a) Fission is the splitting of heavy nuclei.

Fusion is the joining together of light nuclei.

b) Fusion occurs naturally in all stars (including the Sun)

c) Protons in all nuclei repel each other due to electrostatic repulsion, and do not
want to fuse unless bought very close together in an impact.

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 Topic 8 Astrophysics
Motion in space

1. The solar system: Our solar system consists of the Sun at the center, with 8
planets in orbit around it. There are also comets orbiting the Sun, and moons
orbiting the planets. There are similar solar systems around other stars.

2. Galaxies: There are billions of stars in most galaxies. Our Sun is in a huge
galaxy called the Milky Way. It has about 100 billion stars in it. Many probably have
planets. The galaxy nearest to us is called the Andromeda galaxy both of these
galaxies are spiral galaxies, with the outer stars orbiting around a very heavy central
mass of stars.

3. The universe: The observable universe is believed to consist of billions of

galaxies.

Gravity

The motion of galaxies, stars and planets are all ruled by the force of gravity. This
force between any 2 objects depends on the masses of the objects and also the
distance between them. The pull of gravity makes:

 moons orbit planets

 artificial satellites (like the international space station) orbit the Earth
 the Planets orbit the Sun
 Comets orbit the Sun.

182
Orbits

Moons generally travel around planets in a circular orbit. This means that they keep
approximately the same distance from the planet at all times. This is also true of
planets as they orbit the Sun. The Earth stays at approximately the same distance
from the Sun all year as it travels around in its orbit.

However, comets are very different. The distance from the Sun and the speed of a
comet varies dramatically, as shown in figure

The correct mathematical name for this orbit shape is an ellipse. All comets have an
elliptical orbit, and as they approach the Sun, the pull of gravity makes them travel
faster and faster. The comet is fastest at its closest approach to the Sun

Orbital speed
2 x π x orbital radius
2xπxr
orbital speed =
v=
time period
T

 If a question gives the radius in kilometers (km) and the time in hours (h), then
the speed will be in units of km/h.

183
Questions

1. The moon orbits the Earth in approximately 708 hours, with a radius of
orbit of 385 000 km. Using the formula given above, calculate the orbital
velocity of the Moon.

Answer
2 x π x 385 000
2xπxr v=
v= 708
T

Therefore v = 3 420 km/h (to 3 sig figs) or 0.949 km/s.

2. The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) orbits the earth at a speed of 7.6 km/s
and has an orbital time period of 5700 seconds.

 a) Using the formula given above, calculate the radius of the HST's orbit
from the center of the Earth.
 b) The Earth has a radius of 6400 km. Calculate the distance from the
HST to the Earth's surface.

Answer

a) Both time period and speed include seconds, so we can substitute the numbers
directly into the formula
2xπxr
7.6 =
2xπxr
5700
v=
T

184
 7.6 x 5700
r=
2xπ

Therefore r = 6900 km (to 3 sig figs) .

b) The Earth's radius is 6400 km, so the HST's height above the Earth's surface is
6900 - 6400;
so the distance = 500 km

3. A rocket launched from the Earth's surface has to escape from the Earth's
gravitational pull.
Explain why it might be easier to launch a rocket from the surface of Mars.

Answer

Mars has a lower mass than the Earth, and therefore lower gravitational field
strength (g). This means it takes less energy to launch the rocket into space.

4. Explain the difference between the orbit of a comet and of a planet.

Answer

Both comets and planets orbit the Sun. However, planets have an
approximately circular orbit, whereas comets have a highly elliptical orbit.

Stars
Stars have many different colors, ranging here from red and orange, to white and
blue. This is because the stars all have a different temperature at the surface.

The color of the star indicates the temperature. Red stars are not as hot as orange
stars. Then comes yellow/white, white, and finally blue stars that are extremely hot
at the surface.

185
The evolution of stars

Nebula

All stars begin from a humble cloud of gas and dust, called a nebula. If the mass of a
region of the nebula is large enough, gravity begins to pull the nebula together and
compress it form a hot ball of gas known as protostar

Main sequence stars

The gas has been compressed so much that the temperature reaches millions of
degrees Celsius, enough for a fusion reaction to begin. A star is born The fusion
reaction lasts for a long time - billions of years for a star like the Sun

Red giant

When stars begin to run out of hydrogen, more complicated fusion reactions can
start. The star begins to swell outwards and cool a little at the surface,
producing red giant stars.

186
White dwarf

When the last of the fusion reactions stops, the star shrinks. As it does this, the
compressed gases heat up making the star white hot at the surface, but very small

Very large stars (Supergiant)

Stars with a mass much higher than the sun will be extremely bright and will
convert hydrogen at a vast rate through fusion reactions when the hydrogen runs
out, they also swell up to make red supergiant stars

Supernova

Once a red supergiant runs out of fuel to sustain the complicated fusion reactions
that occur, the star collapses very rapidly. As it rushes inwards, The star explodes in
a flash releasing so much energy it can out-shine an entire galaxy This explosion is
called a supernova.

187
Neutron star

The remaining core collapses into a tiny, extremely dense core made of neutrons,
called a neutron star.

Black hole

If the core remnant has a huge mass, it collapses inwards to a point. Nothing can
stop the collapse. This is where things get very weird, as the star is still there, with a
high mass and strong gravity, but it is effectively a point in space. This is called
a black hole.

Questions

1. The Sun is currently a main sequence star, in the middle of its evolutionary
path.
Describe the next two stages in the evolution of stars like the Sun.

Answer

 The sun will eventually increase in size, and cool to become a red giant.
 After that, it will shrink to a much smaller size, and heat up to become
a white dwarf.

2. Very large main sequence stars will eventually run out of hydrogen in the
star's core. Describe the next stages in a life cycle of a star.

Answer

A very large main sequence star will

 Eventually increase in size to become a red supergiant.

 It then explodes. This is called a supernova.

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  The star remnant then collapses to form a neutron star, or - if it is a huge
remnant - to form a black hole.

3. Explain what is meant by a nebula.

Answer

A nebula is a large cloud containing gases (like hydrogen and helium) / dust.

Absolute magnitude

Is a number scale for the brightness of stars (Low numbers are brighter)

To give a better scale it’s calculated the magnitude of a star at a standard distance,
still using the same number system. This reading is called the absolute magnitude -

Star Absolute magnitude

The Sun (main sequence) 4.8

Sirius (main sequence - hot white star) 1.4

Proxima Centuri
15.6
(red main sequence, nearest star to the Sun)

Rigel (supergiant) -7.0

 the brightness of a star at a standard distance from Earth

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Classifying stars (HR Diagram)

1. Axes

 The x- axis shows the temperature. Note that hotter temperatures are to the
left (blue stars) and cooler red stars are on the right.
 The y-axis shows the absolute magnitude. A low number means a brighter
star, and these are at the top of the axis.

2. Main sequence stars

All the stars that are in the main 'fusion' stage of their life - known as main sequence
stars make a line across this diagram. it is not a perfect straight line.

3. Red giant stars

These end-stage stars are very bright and cool, and so form a cluster in the top right
of this diagram. Red supergiants will be at the very top

4. White dwarf stars

These are white hot, but as they are so small, they are not that bright and so in the
bottom central section of the diagram.

190
Questions

1. Describe what is meant by the absolute magnitude of a star.

Answer

The absolute magnitude gives a representation of the brightness of a star/object at

a standard distance from the observer.

2. HR diagrams/graphs are used to display information about stars.

 a). What measurement is typically displayed on the x-axis (the bottom

axis) of this graph?
 b). Describe or sketch the location of main sequence stars on a HR
diagram.
 c). Describe or sketch the location of white dwarf stars on this diagram.

Answer

a) The temperature is the measurement used on the x-axis.

b) Main sequence stars are placed in a band, from top left to

bottom right on the HR diagram

c) White dwarf stars are located at the bottom of the diagram,

approximately in the center

191
Cosmology
The Big Bang theory

This theory states that the Universe started at a single point. In an enormous
release of energy (the Big Bang) all matter was created and moved outward from
this point. Eventually the matter formed dust clouds, stars and the galaxies we see
today. However, these galaxies are still moving outwards - the universe is
still expanding and cool

 Key pieces of evidence led to this being the main theory that is supported today.
The two pieces of evidence are the red-shift of distant galaxies, and CMB
radiation

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1-Red-shift

When very distant galaxies were first observed, astrophysicists noticed that
frequencies produced by the hydrogen in stars had been shifted to longer
wavelengths.

 wavelength red end of the spectrum. This effect is called red shift.

Remember Doppler Effect A source of waves moving away from us produces a shift
in the wavelength of light towards longer wavelengths. That is what is being
observed here - distant galaxies are moving away from us at very high speeds. In
fact, the further the distance to the galaxy, the faster the recession
velocity (recession means 'moving away'). This higher velocity leads to a higher red
shift.

Calculating red shift

change of wavelength velocity of a galaxy

=
reference wavelength speed of light

Δλ λ - λ0 v
= =
λ0 λ0 c

193
Note

 λ0 is the original wavelength of the wave emitted

 λ is the wavelength of the red-shifted wave observed
 Δλ is the shift in wavelength
 v is the recession speed of the galaxy
 c is the speed of light

Questions

1. In a laboratory, hydrogen gas emits radio waves of wavelength 21 cm. A

distant galaxy is observed to produce these waves at a wavelength 25 cm. if
the speed of light is 300 000 km/s, calculate the speed of the galaxy using the
formula above.

Answer

The original wavelength (λ0) is given as 21cm, and the shift in wavelength Δλ is 4
cm. Using the formula

Δλ v
=
λ0 c 4 cm v
=
21 cm 300 000

(Note that we can use 'cm' on the left hand side without
converting to km, as long as both the top and bottom units of the equation are the
same).

4 x 300 000
v =
21

194
So v = 57 000 km / s (to 2 sig figs).

2. Microwaves from a distant galaxy were emitted at a wavelength of 25 mm.

Red shift has caused these waves to reach us at a wavelength of 34 mm.

 a) Explain what is meant by the term 'red shift'.

 b) Explain why the red shift of waves from distant galaxies supports the
big bang theory.
 c) If the speed of light is 3.0 x 108 m/s, calculate the speed of the galaxy.

Answer

a) Red shift is the increase in wavelength observed in light / electromagnetic waves

from distant galaxies, caused by the galaxies moving away from us.

b) If all galaxies are moving away from each other, then at some point in the
past they must have been much closer together. This adds support to the idea that
the universe started in a very compact dense state and then moved outwards - the
big bang theory.

c) The original wavelength (λ0) is given as 25 mm, and the shift in wavelength Δλ is
9 mm.

Δλ v
=
λ0 c 9 v
=
25 3.0 x 108

195
Rearranging this equation gives

9 x 3.0 x 108
v =
25

So v = 1.08 x 108 or 1.1 x 108 (to 2 sig figs).

2-cosmic microwave background radiation

If the big bang happened, releasing a vast quantity of matter and radiation, then the
radiation remaining should now be enormously red-shifted into the microwave
region of the EM spectrum. call the cosmic microwave background radiation
(CMB radiation), exactly as predicted by the Big Bang theory.

The CMB radiation, enough evidence for them to be reasonably certain that the Big
Bang theory is correct. The universe did have a starting point

Questions

3. In 1964, CMB radiation was discovered.

 a) State what is meant by CMB radiation.

 b) Explain why CMB radiation supports the Big Bang theory for the
origins of the universe.

Answer

a) CMB radiation is cosmic (from space) microwave background (all around us)
radiation.

b) This radiation is predicted from the big bang theory: Any radiation produced in
the big bang should now be red-shifted to microwave radiation, but should be
observable in all directions.

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