Semiconductors are the materials which have a conductivity between conductors (generally

metals) and non-conductors or insulators (such as ceramics). Semiconductors can be compounds

such as gallium arsenide or pure elements, such as germanium or silicon. Physics explains the
theories, properties and mathematical approach governing semiconductors.
Examples of Semiconductors:
Gallium arsenide, germanium, and silicon are some of the most commonly used semiconductors.
Silicon is used in electronic circuit fabrication and gallium arsenide is used in solar cells, laser
diodes, etc.

Holes and Electrons in Semiconductors

Holes and electrons are the types of charge carriers accountable for the flow of current in
semiconductors. Holes (valence electrons) are the positively charged electric charge carrier
whereas electrons are the negatively charged particles. Both electrons and holes are equal in
magnitude but opposite in polarity.

Mobility of Electrons and Holes

In a semiconductor, the mobility of electrons is higher than that of the holes. It is mainly because
of their different band structures and scattering mechanisms.
Electrons travel in the conduction band whereas holes travel in the valence band. When an electric
field is applied, holes cannot move as freely as electrons due to their restricted movent. The
elevation of electrons from their inner shells to higher shells results in the creation of holes in
semiconductors. Since the holes experience stronger atomic force by the nucleus than electrons,
holes have lower mobility.
The mobility of a particle in a semiconductor is more if;

 Effective mass of particles is lesser

 Time between scattering events is more
For intrinsic silicon at 300 K, the mobility of electrons is 1500 cm2 (V∙s)-1 and the mobility of holes
is 475 cm2 (V∙s)-1.
The bond model of electrons in silicon of valency 4 is shown below. Here, when one of the free
electrons (blue dots) leaves the lattice position, it creates a hole (grey dots). This hole thus created
takes the opposite charge of the electron and can be imagined as positive charge carriers moving
in the lattice.
Band Theory of Semiconductors
The introduction of band theory happened during the quantum revolution in science. Walter Heitler
and Fritz London discovered the energy bands.
We know that the electrons in an atom are present in different energy levels. When we try to
assemble a lattice of a solid with N atoms, then each level of an atom must split up into N levels
in the solid. This splitting up of sharp and tightly packed energy levels forms Energy Bands. The
gap between adjacent bands representing a range of energies that possess no electron is called
a Band Gap.
Energy Band Gaps in Materials

Conduction Band and Valence Band in Semiconductors

Valence Band:
The energy band involving the energy levels of valence electrons is known as the valence band. It
is the highest occupied energy band. When compared with insulators, the bandgap in
semiconductors is smaller. It allows the electrons in the valence band to jump into the conduction
band on receiving any external energy.
Conduction Band:
It is the lowest unoccupied band that includes the energy levels of positive (holes) or negative (free
electrons) charge carriers. It has conducting electrons resulting in the flow of current. The
conduction band possess high energy level and are generally empty. The conduction band in
semiconductors accepts the electrons from the valence band.

What is Fermi Level in Semiconductors?

Fermi level (denoted by EF) is present between the valence and conduction bands. It is the highest
occupied molecular orbital at absolute zero. The charge carriers in this state have their own
quantum states and generally do not interact with each other. When the temperature rises above
absolute zero, these charge carriers will begin to occupy states above Fermi level.
In a p-type semiconductor, there is an increase in the density of unfilled states. Thus,
accommodating more electrons at the lower energy levels. However, in an n-type semiconductor,
the density of states increases, therefore, accommodating more electrons at higher energy levels.

Properties of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can conduct electricity under preferable conditions or circumstances. This unique
property makes it an excellent material to conduct electricity in a controlled manner as required.
Unlike conductors, the charge carriers in semiconductors arise only because of external energy
(thermal agitation). It causes a certain number of valence electrons to cross the energy gap and
jump into the conduction band, leaving an equal amount of unoccupied energy states, i.e. holes.
Conduction due to electrons and holes are equally important.

 Resistivity: 10-5 to 106 Ωm

 Conductivity: 105 to 10-6 mho/m
 Temperature coefficient of resistance: Negative
 Current Flow: Due to electrons and holes

Why does the Resistivity of Semiconductors go down with Temperature?

The difference in resistivity between conductors and semiconductors is due to their difference in
charge carrier density.
The resistivity of semiconductors decreases with temperature because the number of charge
carriers increases rapidly with increase in temperature, making the fractional change i.e. the
temperature coefficient negative.

Some Important Properties of Semiconductors are:

1. Semiconductor acts like an insulator at Zero Kelvin. On increasing the temperature, it

works as a conductor.
2. Due to their exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors can be modified by doping
to make semiconductor devices suitable for energy conversion, switches, and amplifiers.
3. Lesser power losses.
4. Semiconductors are smaller in size and possess less weight.
5. Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than insulators.
6. The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases with the increase in temperature and
vice-versa.

Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can be classified as:
  Intrinsic Semiconductor
 Extrinsic Semiconductor

Classification of Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor
An intrinsic type of semiconductor material is made to be very pure chemically. It is made up of
only a single type of element.

Conduction Mechanism in Case of Intrinsic Semiconductors (a) In absence of electric field (b)
In presence of electric Field
Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are the most common type of intrinsic semiconductor elements.
They have four valence electrons (tetravalent). They are bound to the atom by covalent bond at
absolute zero temperature.
When the temperature rises, due to collisions, few electrons are unbounded and become free to
move through the lattice, thus creating an absence in its original position (hole). These free
electrons and holes contribute to the conduction of electricity in the semiconductor. The negative
and positive charge carriers are equal in number.
The thermal energy is capable of ionizing a few atoms in the lattice, and hence their conductivity
is less.

The Lattice of Pure Silicon Semiconductor at Different Temperatures

 At absolute zero Kelvin temperature: At this temperature, the covalent bonds are very
strong and there are no free electrons and the semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator.
 Above absolute temperature: With the increase in temperature few valence electrons
jump into the conduction band and hence it behaves like a poor conductor.

Energy Band Diagram of Intrinsic Semiconductor

The energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor is shown below:

(a) Intrinsic Semiconductor at T = 0 Kelvin, behaves like an insulator (b) At t>0, four
thermally generated electron pairs

In intrinsic semiconductors, current flows due to the motion of free electrons as well as holes. The
total current is the sum of the electron current Ie due to thermally generated electrons and the hole
current Ih
Total Current (I) = Ie + Ih
For an intrinsic semiconductor, at finite temperature, the probability of electrons to exist in
conduction band decreases exponentially with increasing bandgap (Eg)
n = n0e-Eg/2.Kb.T
Where,

 Eg = Energy bandgap
 Kb = Boltzmann’s constants

Extrinsic Semiconductor
The conductivity of semiconductors can be greatly improved by introducing a small number of
suitable replacement atoms called IMPURITIES. The process of adding impurity atoms to the pure
semiconductor is called DOPING. Usually, only 1 atom in 107 is replaced by a dopant atom in the
doped semiconductor. An extrinsic semiconductor can be further classified into:

 N-type Semiconductor
 P-type Semiconductor

Classification of Extrinsic Semiconductor

N-Type Semiconductor

 Mainly due to electrons

 Entirely neutral
 I = Ih and nh >> ne
 Majority – Electrons and Minority – Holes
When a pure semiconductor (Silicon or Germanium) is doped by pentavalent impurity (P, As, Sb,
Bi) then, four electrons out of five valence electrons bonds with the four electrons of Ge or Si.
The fifth electron of the dopant is set free. Thus, the impurity atom donates a free electron for
conduction in the lattice and is called “Donar“.
Since the number of free electron increases by the addition of an impurity, the negative charge
carriers increase. Hence, it is called n-type semiconductor.
Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the donor atom becomes an immobile positive ion. As conduction
is due to a large number of free electrons, the electrons in the n-type semiconductor are the
MAJORITY CARRIERS and holes are the MINORITY CARRIERS.

P-Type Semiconductor

 Mainly due to holes

 Entirely neutral
 I = Ih and nh >> ne
 Majority – Holes and Minority – Electrons
When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity (B, Al, In, Ga ) then, the three
valence electrons of the impurity bonds with three of the four valence electrons of the
semiconductor.
This leaves an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity. These impurity atoms which are ready
to accept bonded electrons are called “Acceptors“.
With the increase in the number of impurities, holes (the positive charge carriers) are increased.
Hence, it is called p-type semiconductor.
Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the acceptors become an immobile negative ion. As conduction
is due to a large number of holes, the holes in the p-type semiconductor are MAJORITY
CARRIERS and electrons are MINORITY CARRIERS.

Difference Between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

Pure semiconductor Impure semiconductor

Density of electrons is equal to the density Density of electrons is not equal to the density of holes
of holes

Electrical conductivity is low Electrical conductivity is high

Dependence on temperature only Dependence on temperature as well as on the amount

of impurity
 No impurities Trivalent impurity, pentavalent impurity

Applications of Semiconductors
Let us now understand the uses of semiconductors in daily life. Semiconductors are used in almost
all electronic devices. Without them, our life would be much different.
Their reliability, compactness, low cost and controlled conduction of electricity make them ideal
to be used for various purposes in a wide range of components and devices. transistors, diodes,
photosensors, microcontrollers, integrated chips and much more are made up of semiconductors.

Uses of Semiconductors in Everyday life

 Temperature sensors are made with semiconductor devices.

 They are used in 3D printing machines
 Used in microchips and self-driving cars
 Used in calculators, solar plates, computers and other electronic devices.
 Transistor and MOSFET used as a switch in Electrical Circuits are manufactured using the
semiconductors.

Industrial Uses of Semiconductors

The physical and chemical properties of semiconductors make them capable of designing
technological wonders like microchips, transistors, LEDs, solar cells, etc.
The microprocessor used for controlling the operation of space vehicles, trains, robots, etc is made
up of transistors and other controlling devices which are manufactured by semiconductor
materials.

Importance of Semiconductors
Here we have discussed some advantages of semiconductors which makes them highly useful
everywhere.

 They are highly portable due to the smaller size

 They require less input power
 Semiconductor devices are shockproof
 They have a longer lifespan
 They are noise-free while operating
 P-N junction semiconductor diode
A p-n junction diode is two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device, which allows the
electric current in only one direction while blocks the electric current in opposite or reverse
direction. If the diode is forward biased, it allows the electric current flow. On the other hand, if
the diode is reverse biased, it blocks the electric current flow. P-N junction semiconductor diode
is also called as p-n junction semiconductor device.

In n-type semiconductors, free electrons are the majority charge carriers whereas in p-type
semiconductors, holes are the majority charge carriers. When the n-type semiconductor is joined
with the p-type semiconductor, a p-n junction is formed. The p-n junction, which is formed when
the p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined, is called as p-n junction diode.

The p-n junction diode is made from the semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, and
gallium arsenide. For designing the diodes, silicon is more preferred over germanium. The p-n
junction diodes made from silicon semiconductors works at higher temperature when compared
with the p-n junction diodes made from germanium semiconductors.

The basic symbol of p-n junction diode under forward bias and reverse bias is shown in the below
figure

In the above figure, arrowhead of a diode indicates the conventional direction of electric current
when the diode is forward biased (from positive terminal to the negative terminal). The holes which
moves from positive terminal (anode) to the negative terminal (cathode) is the conventional
direction of current.

The free electrons moving from negative terminal (cathode) to the positive terminal (anode)
actually carry the electric current. However, due to the convention we have to assume that the
current direction is from positive terminal to the negative terminal.

Biasing of p-n junction semiconductor diode

The process of applying the external voltage to a p-n junction semiconductor diode is called
biasing. External voltage to the p-n junction diode is applied in any of the two methods: forward
biasing or reverse biasing.
If the p-n junction diode is forward biased, it allows the electric current flow. Under forward biased
condition, the p-type semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of battery whereas; the
n-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of battery.

If the p-n junction diode is reverse biased, it blocks the electric current flow. Under reverse biased
condition, the p-type semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of battery whereas; the
n-type semiconductor is connected to the positive terminal of battery.

Terminals of p-n junction diode

Generally, terminal refers to a point or place at which any object begins or ends. For example, bus
terminal or terminus is a place at which all the buses begins or ends. Similarly, in a p-n junction
diode, terminal refers a point at which charge carriers begins or ends.

P-n junction diode consists of two terminals: positive and negative. At positive terminal, all the
free electrons will ends and all the holes will begins whereas at negative terminal all the free
electrons will begins and all the holes will ends.

 Terminals of diode under forward bias

In forward biased p-n junction diode (p-type connected to positive terminal and n-type connected
to negative terminal), anode terminal is a positive terminal whereas cathode terminal is negative
terminal.

Anode terminal is a positively charged electrode or conductor, which supplies holes to the p-n
junction. In other words, anode or anode terminal or positive terminal is the source of positive
charge carriers (holes), the positive charge carriers (holes) begins their journey at anode terminal
and travel through the diode and ends at cathode terminal.

Cathode is the negatively charged electrode or conductor, which supplies free electrons to the p-
n junction. In other words, cathode terminal or negative terminal is the source of free electrons,
the negative charge carriers (free electrons) begins their journey at cathode terminal and travel
through the diode and ends at anode terminal.

The free electrons are attracted towards the anode terminal or positive terminal whereas the holes
are attracted towards the cathode terminal or negative terminal.

 Terminals of diode under reverse bias

If the diode is reverse biased (p-type connected to negative terminal and n-type connected to
positive terminal), the anode terminal becomes a negative terminal whereas the cathode terminal
becomes a positive terminal.Anode terminal or negative terminal supplies free electrons to the p-
n junction. In other words, anode terminal is the source of free electrons, the free electrons
begins their journey at negative or anode terminal and fills the large number of holes in the p-
type semiconductor. The holes in the p-type semiconductor get attracted towards the negative
terminal. The free electrons from the negative terminal cannot move towards the positive
terminal because the wide depletion region at the p-n junction resists or opposes the flow of free
electrons.

Cathode terminal or positive terminal supplies holes to the p-n junction. In other words, cathode
terminal is the source of holes, the holes begins their journey at positive or cathode terminal and
occupies the electrons position in the n-type semiconductor. The free electrons in the n-type
semiconductor gets attracted towards the positive terminal. The holes from the positive terminal
cannot move towards the negative terminal because the wide depletion region at the p-n junction
opposes the flow of holes.

Silicon and germanium semiconductor diodes

 For designing the diodes, silicon is more preferred over germanium.

 The p-n junction diodes made from silicon semiconductors works at high temperature than
the germanium semiconductor diodes.
  Forward bias voltage for silicon semiconductor diode is approximately 0.7 volts whereas
for germanium semiconductor diode is approximately 0.3 volts.
 Silicon semiconductor diodes do not allow the electric current flow, if the voltage applied
on the silicon diode is less than 0.7 volts.
 Silicon semiconductor diodes start allowing the current flow, if the voltage applied on the
diode reaches 0.7 volts.
 Germanium semiconductor diodes do not allow the electric current flow, if the voltage
applied on the germanium diode is less than 0.3 volts.
 Germanium semiconductor diodes start allowing the current flow, if the voltage applied on
the germanium diode reaches 0.3 volts.
 The cost of silicon semiconductors is low when compared with the germanium
semiconductors.

Advantages of p-n junction diode

P-n junction diode is the simplest form of all the semiconductor devices. However, diodes plays a
major role in many electronic devices.

 A p-n junction diode can be used to convert the alternating current (AC) to the direct current
(DC). These diodes are used in power supply devices.

 If the diode is forward biased, it allows the current flow. On the other hand, if it is reverse
biased, it blocks the current flow. In other words, the p-n junction diode becomes on when
it is forward biased whereas the p-n junction diode becomes off when it is reversed biased
(I.e. it acts as switch). Thus, the p-n junction diode is used as electronic switch in digital
logic circuits.

Forward biased p-n junction diode

The process by which, a p-n junction diode allows the electric current in the presence
of applied voltage is called forward biased p-n junction diode. In forward biased p-n junction
diode, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type semiconductor material and
the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor material.

Unbiased diode and forward biased diode

Under no voltage or unbiased condition, the p-n junction diode does not allow the electric current.
If the external forward voltage applied on the p-n junction diode is increased from zero to 0.1 volts,
the depletion region slightly decreases. Hence, very small electric current flows in the p-n junction
diode. However, this small electric current in the p-n junction diode is considered as negligible.
Hence, they not used for any practical applications.
If the voltage applied on the p-n junction diode is further increased, then even more number of free
electrons and holes are generated in the p-n junction diode. This large number of free electrons
and holes further reduces the depletion region (positive and negative ions). Hence, the electric
current in the p-n junction diode increases. Thus, the depletion region of a p-n junction diode
decreases with increase in voltage. In other words, the electric current in the p-n junction diode
increases with the increase in voltage.

Electron and hole current

 Electron current

If the p-n junction diode is forward biased with approximately 0.7 volts for silicon diode or 0.3
volts for germanium diode, the p-n junction diode starts allowing the electric current. Under this
condition, the negative terminal of the battery supplies large number of free electrons to the n-type
semiconductor and attracts or accepts large number of holes from the p-type semiconductor. In
other words, the large number of free electrons begins their journey at the negative terminal
whereas the large number of holes finishes their journey at the negative terminal.

The free electrons, which begin their journey from the negative terminal, produce a large
negative electric field. The direction of this negative electric field is apposite to the direction of
positive electric field of depletion region (positive ions) near the p-n junction.

Due to the large number of free electrons at n-type semiconductor, they get repelled from each
other and try to move from higher concentration region (n-type semiconductor) to a lower
concentration region (p-type semiconductor). However, before crossing the depletion region, free
electrons finds the positive ions and fills the holes. The free electrons, which fills the holes in
positive ions becomes valence electrons. Thus, the free electrons are disappeared.

The positive ions, which gain the electrons, become neutral atoms. Thus, the depletion region
(positive electric field) at n-type semiconductor near the p-n junction decreases until it disappears.

The remaining free electrons will cross the depletion region and then enters into the p-
semiconductor. The free electrons, which cross the depletion region finds the large number of holes
or vacancies in the p-type semiconductor and fills them with electrons. The free electrons which
occupy the holes or vacancies will becomes valence electrons and then these electrons get attracted
towards the positive terminal of battery or terminates at the positive terminal of battery. Thus, the
negative charge carriers (free electrons) that are crossing the depletion region carry the electric
current from one point to another point in the p-n junction diode.

 Hole current
The positive terminal of the battery supplies large number of holes to the p-type semiconductor
and attracts or accepts large number of free electrons from the n-type semiconductor. In other
words, the large number of holes begins their journey at the positive terminal whereas the large
number of free electrons finishes their journey at the positive terminal.

The holes, which begin their journey from the positive terminal, produce a large positive electric
field at p-type semiconductor. The direction this positive electric field is opposite to the direction
of negative electric field of depletion region (negative ions) near the p-n junction.

Due to the large number of positive charge carriers (holes) at p-type semiconductor, they get
repelled from each other and try to move from higher concentration region (p-type semiconductor)
to a lower concentration region (n-type semiconductor). However, before crossing the depletion
region, some of the holes finds the negative ions and replaces the electrons position with holes.
Thus, the holes are disappeared.

The negative ions, which lose the electrons, become neutral atoms. Thus, the depletion region or
negative ions (negative electric field) at p-type semiconductor near the p-n junction decreases until
it disappears.

The remaining holes will cross the depletion region and attracted to the negative terminal of battery
or terminate at the negative terminal of battery. Thus, the positive charge carriers (holes) that are
crossing the depletion region carry the electric current from one point to another point in the p-n
junction diode.

Reverse biased p-n junction diode

The process by which, a p-n junction diode blocks the electric current in the presence of
applied voltage is called reverse biased p-n junction diode.

In reverse biased p-n junction diode, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type
semiconductor material and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type
semiconductor material.

When the external voltage is applied to the p-n junction diode in such a way that, negative terminal
is connected to the p-type semiconductor and positive terminal is connected to the n-type
semiconductor, holes from the p-side are attracted towards the negative terminal whereas free
electrons from the n-side are attracted towards the positive terminal.
In reverse biased p-n junction diode, the free electrons begin their journey at the negative terminal
whereas holes begin their journey at the positive terminal. Free electrons, which begin their
journey at the negative terminal, find large number of holes at the p-type semiconductor and fill
them with electrons. The atom, which gains an extra electron, becomes a charged atom or negative
ion or motionless charge. These negative ions at p-n junction (p-side) oppose the flow of free
electrons from n-side.

On the other hand, holes or positive charges, which begin their journey at the positive terminal,
find large of free electrons at the n-type semiconductor and replace the electrons position with
holes. The atom, which loses an electron, becomes a charged atom or positive ion. These positive
ions at p-n junction (n-side) oppose the flow of positive charge carriers (holes) from p-side.

If the reverse biased voltage applied on the p-n junction diode is further increased, then even more
number of free electrons and holes are pulled away from the p-n junction. This increases the width
of depletion region. Hence, the width of the depletion region increases with increase in voltage.
The wide depletion region of the p-n junction diode completely blocks the majority charge carriers.
Hence, majority charge carriers cannot carry the electric current.

However, p-n junction diode allows the minority charge carriers. The positive terminal of the
battery pushes the holes (minority carriers) towards the p-type semiconductor. In the similar way,
negative terminal of the battery pushes the free electrons (minority carriers) towards the n-type
semiconductor.

The positive charge carriers (holes) which cross the p-n junction are attracted towards the negative
terminal of the battery. On the other hand, the negative charge carriers (free electrons) which cross
the p-n junction are attracted towards the positive terminal of the battery. Thus, the minority charge
carriers carry the electric current in reverse biased p-n junction diode.
The electric current carried by the minority charge carriers is very small. Hence, minority carrier
current is considered as negligible.

V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode

The V-I characteristics or voltage-current characteristics of the p-n junction diode is shown in the
below figure. The horizontal line in the below figure represents the amount of voltage applied
across the p-n junction diode whereas the vertical line represents the amount of current flows in
the p-n junction diode.

Forward V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode

If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type semiconductor and the negative
terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor, the diode is said to be in forward
bias. In forward biased p-n junction diode, VF represents the forward voltage whereas IF represents
the forward current.

 Forward V-I characteristics of silicon diode

If the external voltage applied on the silicon diode is less than 0.7 volts, the silicon diode allows
only a small electric current. However, this small electric current is considered as negligible.

When the external voltage applied on the silicon diode reaches 0.7 volts, the p-n junction diode
starts allowing large electric current through it. At this point, a small increase in voltage increases
the electric current rapidly. The forward voltage at which the silicon diode starts allowing large
electric current is called cut-in voltage. The cut-in voltage for silicon diode is approximately 0.7
volts.
  Forward V-I characteristics of germanium diode

If the external voltage applied on the germanium diode is less than 0.3 volts, the germanium diode
allows only a small electric current. However, this small electric current is considered as
negligible.

When the external voltage applied on the germanium diode reaches 0.3 volts, the germanium diode
starts allowing large electric current through it. At this point, a small increase in voltage increases
the electric current rapidly. The forward voltage at which the germanium diode starts allowing
large electric current is called cut-in voltage. The cut-in voltage for germanium diode is
approximately 0.3 volts.

Reverse V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode

If the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type semiconductor and the positive
terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor, the diode is said to be in reverse
bias. In reverse biased p-n junction diode, VR represents the reverse voltage whereas IR represents
the reverse current.

If the external reverse voltage applied on the p-n junction diode is increased, the free electrons from
the n-type semiconductor and the holes from the p-type semiconductor are moved away from the p-
n junction. This increases the width of depletion region.

The wide depletion region of reverse biased p-n junction diode completely blocks the majority
charge carrier current. However, it allows the minority charge carrier current. The free electrons
(minority carriers) in the p-type semiconductor and the holes (minority carriers) in the n-type
semiconductor carry the electric current. The electric current, which is carried by the minority
charge carriers in the p-n junction diode, is called reverse current.

In n-type and p-type semiconductors, very small number of minority charge carriers is present.
Hence, a small voltage applied on the diode pushes all the minority carriers towards the junction.
Thus, further increase in the external voltage does not increase the electric current. This electric
current is called reverse saturation current. In other words, the voltage or point at which the electric
current reaches its maximum level and further increase in voltage does not increase the electric
current is called reverse saturation current.

The reverse saturation current is depends on the temperature. If temperature increases the
generation of minority charge carriers increases. Hence, the reverse current increases with the
increase in temperature. However, the reverse saturation current is independent of the external
reverse voltage. Hence, the reverse saturation current remains constant with the increase in
voltage. However, if the voltage applied on the diode is increased continuously, the p-n junction
diode reaches to a state where junction breakdown occurs and reverse current increases rapidly.

In germanium diodes, a small increase in temperature generates large number of minority charge
carriers. The number of minority charge carriers generated in the germanium diodes is greater than
the silicon diodes. Hence, the reverse saturation current in the germanium diodes is greater than
the silicon diodes.
What is a BJT?
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (also known as a BJT or BJT Transistor) is a three-terminal
semiconductor device consisting of two p-n junctions which are able to amplify or magnify a
signal. It is a current controlled device. The three terminals of the BJT are the base, the collector
and the emitter. A BJT is a type of transistor that uses both electrons and holes as charge carriers.
A signal of small amplitude if applied to the base is available in the amplified form at the collector
of the transistor. This is the amplification provided by the BJT. Note that it does require an external
source of DC power supply to carry out the amplification process.

There are two types of bipolar junction transistors – NPN transistors and PNP transistors. A
diagram of these two types of bipolar junction transistors is given below.

From the above figure, we can see that every BJT has three parts named emitter, base and collector.
JE and JC represent the junction of emitter and junction of collector respectively. Now initially it is
sufficient for us to know that emitter based junction is forward biased and collector-base junctions
are reverse biased. The next topic will describe the two types of these transistors.

NPN Bipolar Junction Transistor

In an n-p-n bipolar transistor (or npn transistor) one p-type semiconductor resides between two
n-type semiconductors the diagram below an n-p-n transistor is shown

Now IE, IC is emitter current and collect current respectively and VEB and VCB are emitter-base
voltage and collector-base voltage respectively. According to the convention if for the emitter,
base and collector current IE, IB and IC current goes into the transistor the sign of the current is
taken as positive and if current goes out from the transistor then the sign is taken as negative.
PNP Bipolar Junction Transistor
Similarly for p-n-p bipolar junction transistor (or pnp transistor), an n-type semiconductor is
sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors. The diagram of a p-n-p transistor is shown below

For p-n-p transistors, current enters into the transistor through the emitter terminal. Like any
bipolar junction transistor, the emitter-base junction is forward biased and the collector-base
junction is reverse biased.

Working Principle of BJT

The figure shows an n-p-n transistor biased in the active region (See transistor biasing), the BE
junction is forward biased whereas the CB junction is reversed biased. The width of the depletion
region of the BE junction is small as compared to that of the CB junction.
The forward bias at the BE junction reduces the barrier potential and causes the electrons to flow
from the emitter to the base. As the base is thin and lightly doped it consists of very few holes so
some of the electrons from the emitter (about 2%) recombine with the holes present in the base
region and flow out of the base terminal.

This constitutes the base current, it flows due to recombination of electrons and holes (Note that
the direction of conventional current flow is opposite to that of the flow of electrons). The
remaining large number of electrons will cross the reverse-biased collector junction to constitute
the collector current. Thus by KCL,

The base current is very small as compared to emitter and collector current.

Here, the majority of charge carriers are electrons. The operation of a p-n-p transistor is same as
of the n-p-n, the only difference is that the majority charge carriers are holes instead of electrons.
Only a small part current flows due to majority carriers and most of the current flows due to
minority charge carriers in a BJT. Hence, they are called as minority carrier devices.
Equivalent Circuit of BJT
A p-n junction is represented by a diode. As a transistor has two p-n junctions, it is equivalent to
two diodes connected back to back. This is called as the two diode analogy of the BJT.
Bipolar Junction Transistors Characteristics
The three parts of a BJT are collector, emitter and base. Before knowing about the bipolar
junction transistor characteristics, we have to know about the modes of operation for this type
of transistors. The modes are
1. Common Base (CB) mode
2. Common Emitter (CE) mode
3. Common Collector (CC) mode

Now coming to the characteristics of BJT there are different characteristics for different modes of
operation. Characteristics is nothing but the graphical forms of relationships among different
current and voltage variables of the transistor. The characteristics for p-n-p transistors are given
for different modes and different parameters.

Common Base Characteristics

Input Characteristics
For p-n-p transistor, the input current is the emitter current (IE) and the input voltage is the collector
base voltage (VCB).
As the emitter-base junction is forward biased, therefore the graph of IE Vs VEB is similar to the
forward characteristics of a p-n diode. IE increases for fixed VEB when VCB increases.
Output Characteristics
The output characteristics show the relation between the output voltage and output current IC is
the output current and collector-base voltage and the emitter current IE is the input current and
works as the parameters. The figure below shows the output characteristics for a p-n-p transistor
in CB mode.
As we know for p-n-p transistors IE and VEB are positive and IC, IB, VCB are negative. These are
three regions in the curve, active region saturation region and the cut off region. The active region
is the region where the transistor operates normally.
Here the emitter junction is reverse biased. Now the saturation region is the region where both the
emitter-collector junctions are forward biased. And finally, the cut off region is the region where
both emitter and the collector junctions are reverse biased.

Common Emitter Characteristics

Input characteristics
IB (Base Current) is the input current, VBE (Base – Emitter Voltage) is the input voltage for CE
(Common Emitter) mode. So, the input characteristics for CE mode will be the relation between
IB and VBE with VCE as a parameter. The characteristics are shown below

The typical CE input characteristics are similar to that of a forward-biased of p-n diode. But as
VCB increases the base width decreases.
Output Characteristics
Output characteristics for CE mode is the curve or graph between collector current (IC) and
collector-emitter voltage (VCE) when the base current IB is the parameter. The characteristics is
shown below in the figure.
Like the output characteristics of common – base transistor CE mode has also three regions named
(i) Active region, (ii) cut-off regions, (iii) saturation region. The active region has collector region
reverse biased and the emitter junction forward biased.

For cut-off region, the emitter junction is slightly reverse biased and the collector current is not
totally cut-off. And finally for the saturation region both the collector and the emitter junction are
forward biased.

Applications of BJT
BJT’s are used in a discrete circuit designed due to availability of many types, and obviously
because of its high transconductance and output resistance which is better than MOSFET. BJT’s
are suitable for the high-frequency application also.
That’s why they are used in radio frequency for wireless systems. Another application of BJT can
be stated as a small-signal amplifier, metal proximity photocell, etc.

Bipolar Junction Transistor Amplifier

To understand the concept of Bipolar Junction Transistor Amplifier, we should look through
the diagram of a p-n-p transistor first.
Now as the input voltage is changed a little, say ΔVi of the emitter-base voltage changes the barrier
height and the emitter current by ΔIE. This change in emitter current develops a voltage drop ΔVO
across the load resistance RL, where,

ΔVO gives the output voltage of the amplifier. There is a negative sign because of the collector
current gives a voltage drop across RL with polarity opposite to the reference polarity. The voltage
gain AV for the amplifier is given the ratio between the output voltages ΔV O to the input voltage
ΔVi, so,

is called the current gain ratio of the transistor. From the figure diagram shown above, we can see
that an increase in the emitter voltage reduces the forward bias at the emitter junction thus
decreases the collector current.
It indicates that the output voltage and the input voltage are in phase. Now, finally the power gain
Ap of the transistor is the ratio between the output power and the input power