o PAPER TWO

PLANT REPRODUCTION

gametes

specialized reproductive cells called spores

Sexual reproduction
The flower is that part of the plant adapted for the purpose of reproduction

in a single flower

Morpholosy of a monocoty
The inflorescence of a rvheat plant is a spike

The two ovaries, three stamen and two swelling bodies

The functions of the various floral pans of the monotyledonous flou-er largely coincide
with those of a dicotyledonous flower

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due to
1. brightly coloured petals
2. attracting smell
3. nector
while flowers provided the insects with nector

ARTIFICIAL CROSS POLLINATION

ARTIFICIAL CROSS-POLLINATION is the purposeful pollination of a florver of a particular

cultivar artificiall,v ii'ith the pollen from a flower of another cultivar.

Reasons for artifi cial cross-pollination

another flower

contamination b-v foreign pollen grains

way

to the stigma of the stigma

FERTILIZATION
Fertilization is the union of the haploid gametes of the male and female form a diploid zygote.
Germination of pollen grain

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a

Exae
I.r:tne

Iolleli tr.rbe

Ilale garnetar.s

Veeetauve nurleLis

The pollen grain is transferred by some agents to the stigma of the receptive flower
The hard outer wall of the polien grain soflens and the gratn splits open
The softer inner wall (intine) grows through the stigma down the style in the form of a
wire-shaped pollen tube
The contents of the pollen tube moves downwards in the tube
the pollen grain contains two nuclei
a. vegetative nucleus- determines growth direction of the pollen tube
b. generative nucleus-divides to form two male gametes
The pollen tube grows through the cervix(integument) into the gern sac.
Vegetative nucleus disappears
The tip of the pollen splits open to release tu,o male gametes into the gerrn sac.

Germinating pollen grain

Functions of the different nuclei
a. Vegetative nucleus- controls grorx'th direction of pollen tube
b. Generative nuclei- divided into two to form male gametes

fruit

for the germinating embryo

Auxiliary cells- destroyed when the pollen tube grows into the genn sac
Antipodal cells- assist for a while but eventually disintegrate

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a. Pt occss uf fcrlilisa(ion

E
v,

m 1,,{ ale gametes

Vegetalive aucltus

Intrgrmrcrrt

Au:ilio{r s3ll5
Ovun (rgg cell)
Endosperrn cdl
O','uk
G:nn e tc
Anlpod,:t calls
Uml!.Lcus

Figure 4.8. Fertilisation

Double fertilization

Development of fruit

petals etc)

a. Simple fiuits fruit which develop from a single ovary (e.g, orange, peaches. beans etc.)
b. Multiple fruits - fiuits which develop from a single flower with numerous ovaries that all
develop into small fruits (e.g. strawberry and rasberries)
c. Compound fruits - fruits which develop from the ovaries of separate flowers (e.g.
pineapples and figs)
d. Accessor), fruits- fruits which do not develop from the ovaty itself, but from other
developed structures (e.g. nuts)
Fruits-settine
Fruit-settins - refer to the initial marked swelling of the ovary and pedicel after fall.
Requirements of fruits-setting
a. Pollination
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b. Ferlilization
c. Parthenoarpy
- Vegetation parthenoca{py (no pollination for fruit setting)
- Simulative parthenocarpy (pollination, but no fertilization)
Ablactation
Ablactation is the dropping of already set fiuitless within the first ten days of their formation
Factors that influence ablactation
a. Biological factors
- Flower produce very little pollen
- Malformation of flowers
b. Soil factors
- Shortage of certain nutrients (e.g. nitrogen)
- Shortage of water during flowering period
- Too much soil moisture (water-logged soil
- Mineral deficiencies
c. Climate conditions
- Low temperature
- Frost
- Rain during pollination
- Very strong wind
d. Spravinq of trees

Factors influencing the grow,th rate of plants

a. Physical factors

b. Chemical factors

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Two tvpes of asexual reproduction

a. Natural asexual reproduction

b. Artificial asexual reproduction

Natural asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction in plants takes place naturally

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Tlpes of natural asexual reproduction

'l=LrJ
n nC {' t

-t r,t bef Au j

EL)lh

lart yea:r: com rwultan rtcm

rontaiaing corm

coBl\{

Figlre 4 23 Corms

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Pigurc 4.25. Ptantlet on a leaf of a Begonia pot-plant

ii. Split grafting

iii. h{achine graf(ing

(0) r,r
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I

,1.20. Frgure 4.21. Different grafting cuts

Figlre Split gratting

a. Rhizomes (rhizome
b. Bulbs (onions
c. Corns
' d. Tubers (potatoes
e. Runners (strawberry
f. Planet formation
e. Slips (grapes
h. Suckers (bananas

Twes of artificial asexual reproduction

a. Cutting
b. Division
c. Grafting
d. Budding
e. Radiations

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PLANT IMPROVEMENT

All crops grown today originated from wild plants. Modern crops results of being improved

Ways of plant improvement

o Selection
o Hybrid seeds
o Certified seeds
o Genetically modified plants

a. Selection
This is a process of impror ing cultivation by choosin-s the best plants u'hich is
collected from seeds

b. Hybrid seeds
These are plants that result from the controlled cross-pollination and are usuaill'better than
both the parent culti-'-ars

Advantages of hybrid seeds

Disadvantages of hvbrid seeds

c. Certified seeds
This is a system of helping farmers to buy good quality seeds

d. Genetically modified plants

that allow scientist to move genetic material between organism with the aim of
changing their characteristics

receipt organism and change its characier

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PROCESS OF DE\'ELOPING GM PLANT/TECHNIGUES USED TO GENETICALLY

MODIFIED PLANT

crown gall diseases in wound

chromosomes of the plant . It can onll'be used in dicotyledonous plant e.g tobacco
tomato,potato,cotton

electric current is passed through the solution u luch makes cells petmeable and ailow
desirable gene to enter the cells and incorporated into the plant DNA

the recipient plant

the embryo, the gene spread inside the plant cell and incorporated into the plant s DNA
and grow into a whole plant using tissue culture technigues
-Micro-injection
-Gene gun i biolistic
-Agro-bacterium tumefaciens
-Electroporation
-Recombination DNA
-Gene silencing
-Gene splicing
-Lipofection
-Calcium phosphate precipitation

embryo

AIMS OF GEIYETICALLY MODIFIED ANIMALS

USES OF GEI{ETIC ALLY MODIFIED PLA}ITS

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RISK MODIFIED ORGANISM/OR PUBLIC CONCERN ABOUT GMO

weeds that cannot be controlled

SOIL MICRO-ORGANISMS

through microscope

fermentation of beer or wine

The maior qroups of micro-organisms in the soil

There are five major groups of micro-organisms in the soil

a. Bacteria
b. Actinomyeetes
c. Fungi
d. Algae
e. Protozoa

The importance and effects of micro-organisms

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Requirements of soil micro-organisms

CARBORN CONVERSION

Carbon conversion is the changing and utilization of carbon in the atmosphere into a form which
itcan be used by plant to manufacture their own food

r The carbon cYcle:

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Factors influencing decav

NITRO GEN C OI'.{VERSION

Nitrogen conversion is the transformation of nitrogen gas from the atmosphere and into a form in
which it can be used by plants to manufacture their own food

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' The nitrogen cycle

Sources ofnitrogen

Ammonification - is the process in which ammonium is released from organic matter by the
activities of soil organisms

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Factors that influence ammonification

NITRIFICATION

Is the process in which ammonium is converted to nitrates by micro-organisms

infl uencing nitrifi cation FactoI!

DENITRIFICATION

Is the process in which nitrates are reduced with the liberation of nitrous oxide and nitrogen gas

Factors infl uencing denitrilication

Nitrogen assimulation
Is the absorption and fixing of nitrogen compounds by soil micro-organisms

Factors influencing nitrogen assimulation

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Non-syrnbiotic fixation
Is a process in which micro-organisms assimulate nitrogen gas in the soil u'ithout help from
other organisms

Sr.mbiosis or mutualism

ls a situation in which two organism's line together supporting each other in some way or the
other

Parasite

Is the situation where one organisms benefit from the host and cause serious harm

PLANT PROTECTION

The following factors cause decrease in production

N&
Diseases

microscope

Methods of transmission of plants vital disease

There are three main tvpes of plant diseases

a. Fungal diseases
They can be seen without microscope
b. Bacterial diseases * they can only be seen u,ith a microscope
c. Viral diseases- they are much smaller than bacterial diseases and can only be seen with a
powerful electron microscope

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Controllins pests and diseases

There are three basic ways of controlling pests and diseases

a. Organic or biological methods

b. Chemical methods
c. Cultural methods
d. Integrated methods

Organic methods of controlling pests and diseases

Chemical control of pest and diseases

Farmers must take serious precaution, when using chemicals, because.

How to use pesticides safelv

a. Before spraying
Read the label carefully

b. While spraying

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 c. After spraving

CULTURAL METHOD
This is to plant two or different crops

INTERGRATED N{ETHODS
In this control methods different methods can be used together depending on the farmer's
situation

PESTS

Plant pests are animals that feed on plants. There are three main types of pests in plants areas

a. Nematodes (roundworms) - are worns that differ greatly in size, from microscopic (very
small) to half a meter in length.
b. Molluses (slugs and snails)- they have soft, unsegment bodies divided into tu,o main
plants: shell and head-foot
c. Archnids (mites)- they are pin prick-sized parasites of plants
d. Insects - are arthropods with six legs and wings

Pests cause two main damages in plants which are chewing and smoking
Controlling pests and diseases
There are three basic ways to control pests and diseases
a. Organic or biological methods
b. Chemical methods
c. Integrated control

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WEEDS
Weeds are plants that grow where they are not wanted. Weeds are to be controlled because they
have a number of negative effects like (disadvantage)

Characteristics of weeds

Controlling weeds

There are different kinds of methods of controlled weeds

a. Mechanical weed control
b. Cultivating
c. Hand pulling
d. Herbicides(non-selective and selective herbicides
OPTIMAL RESOURCES UTILIZATION

Agricultural resources
Natural agricultural resources are
a. Soil
b. Vegetation
c. Terrain
d. Climate
e. Water
Imnortance and functions of soil

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Importance and functions of veqetation

Importance and functions of terrain

t. Time of exposure to solar radiation

b. Slope angle

c. Altitude - is the height above sea -level

altitudes

Importance and functions of climate

a. Rainfall - the effectiveness of the rainfall is determined by the time of the year it takes
place
b. Humidity - the lower the relative humidity, the greater the rate of evaporation and
transpiration
c. Light - the duration of the light period determines the photoslnthesis acti\-ity of crops
d. Temperature - plants need optimum temperature to grow and produce
e. Wind - strong wind causes damage to plants and increase transpiration
r1
Importance and functions of u,ater I'\\)

Soil survev and mapping

Components of soil survev

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Aim of soil survey

To classify, locate on a map and describe the nature of soil in the fie1d

Aim of soil mappins

To differentiate betrn,een different soil charactenstics and area when they occur
Example
a. Land for agriculrural and non-agricultural use
b. Soils suitable for different crops
c. Soils hazardous to erosion
d. Soils for classification
Methods of soil survev (stases)

General principles of regional and farm planning

a. Physical planning - consist of the dissociation of resources such as soil. terrain. climate,
vegetation and u'ater
b. Biological planning - consist of investigation which crops or animals u'ould ensure
optimal utilization of the farm
-different tlpes of veld are separated

Natural pastures

a. Scrub

b. Forest types

c. Savanna

a. Kalahari thronveld and bushveld

b. Sour bushveld

tlB 71.
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c. Mixed bushveld
d. Sweet bushveld
e. Eastem mixed bushveld
f. Valley bushveld

d. Grassland

a. Climate climax grassland

b. Fire climax grassland
e. Semi-desert

a. Karoo
b. Semi-desert
The ecological approach to veld manaqement

Ecology is the study of the relationship betu,een living organisms and the interrelation between
them and their environment.

The plant soil water equilibrium

provide water to the plants

better the plant growth

Plant succession and change in veld composition

vegetation

development

Limitations and deviations with normal plant succession cvcle

a. Climate - insufficient rainfall or extreme temperature may terminate (stop) succession at

certain stages
b. Fire - fire may terminate succession at intermediate stages
c. Grazing- certain areas which could have developed into forest are today still in the
grassland stage

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d. Soil condition - prevents vegetation from developing to its china potential. (e.g. shallow
soil, highly leached soil and u,ater logged soil)

Factors influencing plant succession

a. Climate - rainfall and temperarure greatly influence the rate t u,hich succession takes
place
b. Soil type - improved soil conditions determine hou, far and how fast plant succession
will develop
c. Management - with competent (e.g controlling selective grazing and the burning of
vegetation, plant succession can be advanced (der eloped) into climax vegetation.

Principles of veld manaeement

a. The management unit - for any grazing management. the farm has to be divides.into
camps(areas) with a homogenous vegetation
b. Types of management

c. Land animal ration - determination of how much stock could be grazed on the farm
throughout the year

CONTROL. CONSERVATION AND UTILIZATION OF WATER

State's function in x'ater schemes

a. Control of the distribution of water among consumers

b. Control of water pollution
c. Control of subterranean \\:ater
d. Control of catchment areas
e. Other schemes such as private dams

WATER QUALITY

Criteria (factors) that influence water qualitv

) "sodium absorptionratio (SAR)

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Irrisation methods

Tvoes of irrisation methods

a. Flood irrigation
b. Spray (sprinkle) irrigation
c. Drip inigation
d. Micro-jet irrigation
e. Scheduled irrigation

Factors to be considered in flood irrigation

Flood irrieation

Tvpes of flood irrisation

a. Bed irrigation
b. Furrow irrigation

Disadvantages of flood irrigation

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Sprav irrigation

Tvpes of spray irrigation

a. Small rotating heads

b. Centre-pivot systems
c. Sprinkler guns
d. Drag-line system
e. Movable spray lines
f. Mechanized spray irrigation system

Advantages of sprav irrigation

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Disadvantages

Drip irrisation

o It is the frequent and slou,application of dripping water through small outlets(emitters)

Advantases of drip irrigation

Disadvantages

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Micro-irrieation

It is the application of water by micro-jets or spray

Advantages of micro-irrigation

Disadvantages

Scheduled irrigation

It is the application of water when plants require it

Factors of scheduled irrigation

Devices (instruments) used in scheduled irrisation

a. Evaporation pan- to estimate water loss by transpiration

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 b. Tensiometer- to measure soil water tension

Sealed yaa
Cap assembly

Reservoir

Slopper

Air free
gauge

Ceramic tip

Fig 4.1A: A knsiometer

How evaporation pan is used

How tensiometer are used

Drainage

It is the removal of water from the soil by artificial means

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roLl< ,,
or 3 u f 141e',
Stona
! Pip* Twes of
drainaee

a. Open drains
b. Rock (stones) drains
c. Pipe drains

Materials used in pipe drainage

Installation of drainage

Steps of drainage svstem

a. Planning and setting out

b. Excavation and preparation
c. Layout of pipes
, d. Backfilling

SOIL CULTTVATION.AIID CROP ROTATION

Soil cultivation

Aims of soil cultivation

r > To loosen the soil for better root penetration ::

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 Important cultivation methods

a. Ploughing
b. Ripping
c. Ha:rowing

Cron rotation

Crop rotation is a system where different crops are grown one after the other on the same land

Figure 4.20 shaws croP rotation-

I,

Figure 4.2A: CroP rotation

Advantases of crop rotation

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Principles of crop rotation

?*1d

Mono-culture

Mono-culture is a system u'here same crop is cultivated (or grown) on the land

Advantages (reasons) of mono-culture

SOIL CONSERVATION

Soil erosion is the removal of the layers of the soil by agents of erosion such as wind, water etc

Factors that give rise to soil erosion

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Agricultural pollution

a. Pollution of food thoueh injudicious pesticides

Pesticides are common pollutants of food
Pesticides not decomposed in soil and plant may be harmful directly or indirectll
Pesticides are resisted by legislation
Regulation for the safe application of pesticides are dras'n up by authorizes

b. Pollution of water through in-iudicious asricultural practices

Effective sanitary measures can prevent water pollution on the farm
Runoff water from kraals and chicken results in high concentration of organic substances
in rivers
High concentration are then oxidized to carbon dioxide with the release of ammonia
Oxygen is then used up, therefore fish and other aquatic organisms

c. Pollution of the environment though iniudicious agricultural practice

CONTROLLED AGRICU LTURAL PRODUCTION

Greenhouse

Greenhouses are structures covered with transparent material in which the growing
conditions(climate) for plant growth can be controlled
Greenhouses can regulate:
a. Temperature
b. Light requirements
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 . c. Air supply
d. Soil moisture
Advantages of greenhouses

Disadvantages

Cultivation of crops in non-soil medium

In greenhouses, soil is often exchanged for non-soil medium to grow plants

Functions of non-soil medium

Hydroponics
Hydroponic is the science of growing plants in a mechanism other than soil, by supplying the
roots with a complete nutrients solution

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Advantages

Disadvantages

requirements

Growins medium
Sand, gravel or insert soil material\
" Vermiculite
b.
c. Pearlite
d. Peat mess
e. Sawdust
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f. Straw
o Polystyrene
b'

AQUACT]LTURE
Aquaculture is the controlled production of living organisms that live in u,ater algae.
finfish and reptile like crocodiles, tortoises and frogs

The most common type of aquaculture is fish farming in farm dams.

Types of fish farms
Fresh water species are the most suitable for aquaculture. The main species are
sholl'n in Figure 4.33 a to d.

Figure 4.33a: Rainbovt brown trout Salmo gairdneri Figure 4 ,:3b: Platkopharder Mugil cephalus

Figure 4.33c: Africon cstfish Slartas gariepinus figure 4.3si: Tilopic srp. Oreochromis mossarnb,:.-,

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a. Intensive or extensive fish farms

in extensive systems, fish are reared at low densities in large ponds and are generally not
fed or maintained
ln intensive systems all nutrients are provided in the form of feed and water quality is
managed and controlle

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