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roshansinghofficial007CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF HARYANA
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
UNIX AND LINUX PROGRAMMING LAB
BT CS 627
Submitted by
Roshan Singh
Roll No- 211587 (B.Tech. 6th Sem.)
Submitted to
Dr. Nitin Goyal
Assistant Professor
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, CUH
Table of Content
S.No. Aim Page no Signature
1. amiliarize with Unix/Linux
F
with logging/logout and simple
commands.
2. amiliarize with vim editor and
F
linux GUIs.
3. Using Bash shell develop
simple shell programs.
4. evelop advaced shell
D
programs using awk and grep.
5. Compile and debug various C
programs using different
options
6. Learning of installation and
upgradation of Linux operating
system
7. Install Linux on a PC having
some other previously installed
operating. All OSs should be
usable.
8. As supervisor create and
maintain user accounts, learn
package installation, taking
backups, creation of scripts for
file and user management,
creation of startup and
shutdown scripts using at, cron
etc.
Lab - 1
Aim :Familiarize with Unix/Linux with logging/logoutand simple
commands.
Tools/Liabilities :Virtual Machine , Ubuntu
H/W Used :Normal(Standard) PC
Inputs :Logins and Passwords
Post-Conditions :Login Successful
Logging & Logout:
Logging in, with command “sudo su” & “su”
Logging out, with command “who” command - can knowabout the user who already logged in,
command “exit” - to exit the terminal
Simple Commands :
Date: Date commands prints the systems date andtime
Syntax:date[option] [+%Format]
Date format can be
%D Date - MM/DD/YY
%H Hour - 00 to 23
%I Hour - 00 to 11
%M Minute - 00 to 59
%s Second - 00 to 59
%T Time - HH:MM:SS
%y Year’s last 2 digits
%w Day of the week
%r Time in AM/PM
To see history of previously executed commands
Command used to check the history is “history”
Clear
to clear the last commands used, commands used is “clear”
Expr
this command is used to perform the arithmetic operations (operation +
addition, - subtraction, * multiplication, % remainder, / division is used) on
integers.
Make Directory
Syntax : mkdir <directory-name>
Creating a new directory -[root@localhost~]# mkdir<directory_name>
This command will create a new subdirectory with name
<directory_name> of current directory
Creating more than one directory
[root@localhost~]# mkdir x y z, this will create3 directories having name
x y zrespectively
Remove Directory
This command is used to remove a directory. Directoryshould be empty before
deletion.
Syntax: rmdir <directo ry_name>
Present Working
This command will display full path name for presentworking directory.
Syntax: pwd
Calendar
This command is used to print the calendar for the current year
Lab - 2
Aim:Familiarize with “vim” editor and Linux GUIs.
Tools/Liabilities :Bash shell, vi editor
H/W Used :Normal (Standard) PC
Inputs :Modes of operation of vim, File name and commands
Post- Conditions:
Some open source editor available i.e. ED, EX, VI
ED and EX are the line editor. Where as VI is the text editor or screen editor. It
shows as much of the file as it can fit on screen. It is the first full screen editor.
Which allows the user to view and an edit the entire document at a time.
Creating and editing file becomes easier using vi editor.
Modes Of Operation:
1. Command mode:In this mode all the keys pressed by user are interpreted to
the editor commands that is for moving cursor for left right top bottom etc. in
this the key pressed are not displayed on the screen.
2. Insert Mode: this mode permits insertion of new text editing existing text.
Insertion mode is also know as i/p mode
3. Execution mode: It permits to give command at the command line. Bottom
line of screen is called command line.
I)Starting VI or To invoke VI:
To create a file
e.g. $ vi roshan.txt
to invoke the vi type vi and file name that we want to create. When we type
the vi and the file name and press enter key then vi clears the screen and
display a window in which we can enter and edit text.
II)To Add text to a File:
‘I’ command :to enter in insert mode ‘I’ key is pressed.To add the text to a file
the following steps are required:
i. Press the “I” key.
ii. Type the text. The text we have typed goes into a place in memory as
buffer.
iii. Press Esc key after finishing text to leave the insert mode and return to
command mode.
III) To Save the File to the Disk: to save the file and quit for the VI holds the shift
key and press z twice (shift + zz). Another to save file is to use: w and: q for saving
and quitting. This command that begins with colons is given in Ex- command
mode. We can combine two commands to save and quit.
IV) To Edit a File: the edit and existing file you can add, change and delete text,
before you can perform these task you must load the file from the disk to buffer and
then move to the part of the file you want to edit.
To Edit a File:
Loading the file : vi file name
Move: The cursor to the point on the screen, tobegin the correction, Keys are
used
H: Moves the cursor one character to the left
L: Moves the cursor one character to the right
J: This key move the cursor down on line.
K: moves the cursor up line.
V)Editing Text to Existing Text:
Following commands to edit the text in Existing File:
O: to go to the next line
a : insert after a space
esc : to exit out of any mode
shift + : is used to come to the end of file
r : replace
d : delete the line
u : undo
x : remove one character
/ : forward search
? : backward search
VI)Quitting From VI :
to save the change and quit from vi then type vipress shift + zz in command
mode and: wq in Ex - mode
Not to save changes and quit VI then type : q!in Ex-mode and press the enter
key
Backward Search
wq - This command is used to save and exit
Forward Search
Backward search
Less myFile :this command is used to display the file in real mode.
GUI ( Graphical User Interface ):
1. Desktop Environments
Linux distributions offer various desktop environments,each with its own look, feel,
and features.
Some popular desktop environments include GNOME,KDE Plasma, Xfce, LXQt,
Cinnamon, and MATE.
GNOME is known for its modern design and simplicity,while KDE Plasma offers
extensive customization options and a more traditional desktop layout.
Xfce and LXQt are lightweight desktop environments suitable for older hardware
or users who prefer a simpler interface.
Cinnamon and MATE provide more traditional desktop experiences similar to older
versions of Windows
2. Common Components :
Linux GUIs typically include components such asa file manager, application
launcher, taskbar or panel, system tray, and settings manager.
File managers like Nautilus (GNOME), Dolphin (KDE), Thunar (Xfce), and Nemo
(Cinnamon) allow users to browse files and folders, manage files, and perform
basic file operations.
Application launchers provide quick access to installedapplications and often
include search functionality to find and launch programs eminently.
Taskbars or panels display open applications, systemnotifications, and quick access
to frequently used tools and settings.
System trays house icons for system and application notifications, volume
control, network status, and other system utilities.
3. Customization:
Many Linux desktop environments allow extensivecustomization to tailor the user
experience to individual preferences.
Users can customize desktop themes, icons, fonts,window decorations, and
desktop backgrounds.
Some desktop environments offer built-in tools for customization, while others may
rely on third-party applications or manual configuration.
4. Applications:
Linux GUIs support a wide range of applicationsfor productivity, multimedia,
internet browsing, gaming, development, and system administration.
Lab - 3
AIM :Using bash shell develop a simple shell program
TITLE : Unix / Linux programming
TOOLS / LIABILITIES : Bash shell, vi editor
H / D USED : Standard PC
INPUT : shell script
1) TO PERFORM ARITHEMETIC OPERATION.
echo “enter 2 numbers:
” read a
read b
echo -ne “Addition is: ”
expr $a + $b
echo -ne “Difference is:
” expr $a - $b
echo -ne “Multiplication is: ”
expr $a \* $b
echo -ne “Division is: ”
expr $a / $b
echo -ne “Reminder is: ”
expr $a % $b
Output :
2)TO PRINT A MULTIPLICATION TABLE
echo “Enter the number - ” read
n
i = 1
while [ $i -le 10 ]
do
res = `expr $i \* $n`
echo “$n * $i = $res”
((++i))
done
Output :
3)TO CHECK WHETHER NUMBER IS PALINDROME OR NOT
#!/bin/bash
echo "Enter a number:"
read num
reverse=""
temp=$num
while [ $num -gt 0 ]
do
remainder=$(( $num % 10 ))
num=$(( $num / 10 ))
reverse="${reverse}${remainder}"
done
if [ $temp -eq $reverse ]
then
echo "The number $temp is a palindrome."
else
echo "The number $temp is not a palindrome."
fi
Output :
4)TO CHECK WHEATHER A NUMBER IS PRIME OR NOT.
#!/bin/bash
echo "Enter a number:"
read num
if [ $num -le 1 ]; then
echo "$num is not a prime
number." exit
fi
is_prime=true
for (( i=2; i<=num/2; i++ ))
do
if [ $((num%i)) -eq 0 ]; then
is_prime=false
break
fi
done
if [ $is_prime = true ]; then
echo "$num is a prime number."
else
echo "$num is not a prime number."
fi
Output :
5)TO FIND THE FACTORIAL OF A NUMBER.
#!/bin/bash
echo "Enter a number:"
read num
factorial=1
if [ $num -lt 0 ]; then
echo "Factorial is not defined for negative numbers."
exit
fi
for (( i=1; i<=$num; i++
)) do
factorial=$((factorial *
i)) done
echo "Factorial of $num is: $factorial"
Output :
Lab - 4
AIM :Develop advanced shell program using awk and grep
TITLE :Work instruction Sheet Unix and Linux programming
TOOLS / SOFTWARE USED :ZSH shell, vi editor, WindowsH/W
USED :Standard PC
INPUT :shell script
POST CONDITION :Able to design shell program using awk and grep
gr ep Command
grep stands for Global Regular Expression Print is a useful command to search for
matching patterns in a file. grep is short for “global regular expression print”.
system admin needs to scrape through log files or a developer trying to find certain
occurrences in the code file, then grep is a powerful command to use.
The Basic Syntax of the grep command:
The syntax of the grep command is as follows:
grep [OPTION...] PATTERNS [FILE...]
grep searches for PATTERNS in each FILE. Grep finds each line that matches that
provided PATTERN. It is a good practice to close the PATTERN in quotes when grep is
used in a shell command.
the following option that can be used with grep:
-i, --ignore-case:Ignores case distinctions in patterns and input data.
-v, --invert-match:Select the non-matching lines of the provided input pattern
-n, --line-number:Prefix each line of the matching output with the line number
in the input file.
-w:Find the exact matching word from the input file or string.
-c:Count the number of occurrences of the provided pattern.
create a flle and put data:To create a file inthe command line, we use the touch
command.
To ignore the upper and lower case :Ex ; grep-i “keyword” filename
o search everything except given keyword:Ex; grep -v “keyword”filename
To print how many times given keyword is present in flle:ex; grep -c
“keyword” filename
To search for exact match of the given keyword in a flle:ex; grep -w
“keyword” filename
● To flnd in which line the given keyword is in a flle:ex; grep -n
“keyword”filename
To print the matching line which start with the given keyword in a flle:
ex; grep “^keyword” filename
To print the matching line which end with the given keyword in a flle:
ex ; grep “keyword” filename
We can use egrep command for the multiple keywords search:ex;
egrep “key1|key2|key3” filename
awk command
awk is a scripting language, and it is helpful when working in the command line. It’s
also a widely used command for text processing.
When using awk, we are able to select data - one or more pieces of individual text -
based on a pattern we provide.
The Basic Syntax of the awk command:
The awk command is followed by a set of single quotation marks and a set of
curly braces, with the name of the file we want to search through mentioned
last.
awk ‘{action}’ file_name
create a flle and put data:using touch commandand cat>>file_name to put
data into the file
print all the content of the flle using awk:Toprint all the content of a file, the
action we specify inside the curly brace is print $0
To print speciflc columns using awk:When using awk, we can specify certain
columns we want print. Ex ; awk ‘{print $1}’ file_name
If we would like each line to have a line-number count, we would use the NR
built-in variable:Ex ; awk ‘{print NR, $0}’ file_name.
To print the last fleld, we can also use $NF which represent thelastfleld in
the record:Ex ; awk ‘{print $NF}’ file_name.
Print speciflc lines of a column:you can also specify the line we want printed
from our chosen column, print the first column. Then the output of that
command is piped, using the pipe symbol |, to the head command, where its
-num argument selects the first num lines of the column. Ex : awk ‘{print $1}’
file_name | head -num.
Print out lines with a speciflc pattern in awk:we can print a line that starts
with a specific letter, we use the up arrow symbol (^) first, which indicates the
beginning of a line, and then the letter we want a line to start with. Ex : awk
‘/^0/’ file_name
If we want to print out the lines the end in a 0- the $ symbol is used after a
character to signify how a line will end.
Ex ; awk ‘/0$/’ file_name
If we want to print out the lines with particular keywords:
Ex ; awk ‘/keyword/’ filename
To count the lines in a flle:Ex ; awk ‘END {print NR}’ file_name
Lab - 5
IM :Compile and debug various C programs using differentoptions
A
TITLE :C Programming: Compilation and Debugging
TOOLS / LIABILITIES :GCC Compiler, Text Editor (e.g.,Vi, Nano)
H / D USED : Standard PC
Checking GCC Version:
To check the version of GCC installed on your system, execute the following
command in the terminal:
gcc --version
Making a file for writing C programs:
Create a new file with a ".c" extension using a text editor of your choice. For example,
using Vi editor:
$ vi filename.c
Lab5.c is visible on desktop screen:
Checking for other C codes::
1.Programs to Print a Number Given by a User in C:
Input:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int number;
// Prompt the user to enter a number
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &number);
// Print the number entered by the user
printf("You entered: %d\n", number);
return 0;
}
Output:
}
2. C Program to Add Two Numbers:
include <stdio.h>
#
int main() {
int num1, num2, sum;
printf("Enter the first number: ");
scanf("%d", &num1);
printf("Enter the second number: ");
scanf("%d", &num2);
// Calculate the sum
sum = num1 + num2;
// Print the result
printf("The sum of %d and %d is %d\n", num1, num2, sum);
}
3.To Check Whether a Number is Prime or Not:
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int num, i, flag = 0;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
for (i = 2; i <= num / 2; ++i) {
if (num % i == 0) {
flag = 1;
break; } }
if (flag == 0)
printf("%d is a prime number.\n", num);
else
printf("%d is not a prime number.\n", num);
return 0;
}
4.To Find Factorial of a Number:
##include <stdio.h>
// Function to calculate the factorial of a number
unsigned long long factorial(int n) {
unsigned long long fact = 1;
for (int i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
fact *= i; }
return fact;
}
int main() {
int num;
// Prompt the user to enter a number
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
if (num < 0) {
printf("Factorial is not defined for negative numbers.\n");
} else {
// Calculate factorial and print the result
unsigned long long fact = factorial(num);
printf("Factorial of %d is %llu\n", num, fact);
}
return 0;
}
;
}
LAB 6
Objective:
his lab experiment empowers you to gain practical expertise in installing
T
and upgrading a Linux operating system. You'll delve into various installation
methods, partitioning strategies, package selection nuances, and essential
post-installation configuration steps.
Theoretical Underpinnings:
inux Installation Methods:Linux offers a multitude of installation
L
approaches, catering to diverse environments and requirements. You can
leverage a bootable DVD, USB drive, or even network protocols like NFS, FTP,
or HTTP for the installation process.
Booting from Installation Media:Initiate the installation by booting
from a bootable DVD, USB drive, or a network boot server, as per your chosen
method.
Installation Method Selection: Opt for the installation method that
aligns most effectively with your specific setup and needs.
Partitioning the Hard Drive: This step involves carving out spaceon
your hard drive to accommodate Linux. This might entail resizing existing
partitions or creating entirely new ones to suit your desired layout.
Package Selection:Meticulously choose the softwarecomponents
to be installed during the process. This selection can range from a
minimalist installation for efficiency to a full-fledged desktop environment
encompassing a broader spectrum of applications.
Installation:The installer meticulously copies thenecessary files to
your hard drive, configures the bootloader to enable system startup, and
executes other essential tasks to complete the installation.
Post-Installation Configuration:Following installation,you might
need to perform additional configuration steps to tailor the system to your
preferences. This could involve creating user accounts, establishing
network connectivity, and more.
Linux Upgradation:Upgrading a Linux system entailsupdating it to a
more recent version. This process frequently allows you to avoid the need
for a complete reinstallation. Here's a breakdown of the typical upgrade
process:
Package List Update:As a preliminary step, it's crucial to update the
list of available packages and their corresponding versions from the
r epositories. This ensures you're working with the most up-to-date
information.
Package Upgrade:Proceed to upgrade all currently installed packages
to their latest iterations accessible in the repositories.
Distribution Upgrade (if applicable):For significant version
upgrades, a distribution upgrade is often recommended. This process
meticulously addresses potential changes in dependencies between
package versions and might also involve the removal of obsolete packages
to streamline the system.
Installation Tasks:
ownload:Navigate to the official website of yourpreferred Linux
D
distribution and download the ISO image file.
Bootable Media Creation:Employ a utility or toolto meticulously create
a bootable USB drive or DVD using the downloaded ISO image.
USB Booting: Toinitiatetheinstallationprocess,restartyourcomputer
and ensure it boots from the USB drive. You might need to press a specific
key (like F12, F10, or F2) during startup to modify the boot order if
necessary.
Language Selection:Upon the appearance of the welcome screen,
meticulously select your preferred language. Click on the "Install
Ubuntu" option to proceed.
eyboard Layout:Choosethe keyboard layout that aligns with your
K
physical keyboard and click on "Continue."
pdates and Other Software:Determine whether you want to download
U
updates concurrently with the installation and if you wish to install
third-party software for graphics processing units (GPUs), Wi-Fi hardware,
Flash, MP3 playback, and other multimedia capabilities. Click on "Continue"
after making your selections.
I nstallation Type:The installer will prompt you to choose the desired
installation type. If you intend to install Ubuntu alongside your existing
operating system, select "Install Ubuntu alongside them." If you're
prepared to erase your entire disk and dedicate it solely to Ubuntu, choose
"Erase disk and install Ubuntu." Exercise extreme caution with this option,
as it will permanently erase all data on the selected disk.
ocation Specification:If you have an active internet connection, the
L
installer will attempt to automatically detect your location. Verify its
accuracy and click on "Continue" to proceed.
ogin Information:Provide your name, the desired name for your
L
computer, create a username, establish a strong password, and choose
whether you want to log in automatically or require a password for
enhanced security. Click on "Continue" once you've entered this
information.
I nstallation Process:The installation process will now commence. The
duration can vary depending on your system's specifications.
omputer Restart:Upon successful installation completion, you'll be
C
prompted to restart your computer. Ensure the USB drive is removed,
Upgradation Tasks.
ow that you've installed your Linux system, let's explore the process of
N
keeping it up-to-date with the latest security patches and features.
1.Update Package List
aintaining an updated package list is crucial for a secure and efficient
M
system. This ensures you have access to the most recent information about
available packages and their versions. Open a terminal window (often
accessible through the Applications menu or a keyboard shortcut) and
execute the following command:
sudo apt update
2.Upgrade Packages (Optional)
I f you only require upgrading individual packages or resolving minor
issues, you can use the following command to upgrade all installed
packages to their latest available versions:
sudo apt upgrade
his command analyzes the current package list and downloads and
T
installs any updates for existing packages.
3.Distribution Upgrade (Recommended for Major Version Changes)
or significant version upgrades of your Linux distribution, a distribution
F
upgrade is generally recommended. This process meticulously addresses
potential changes in dependencies between package versions and might
also involve the removal of obsolete packages to streamline the system. To
initiate a distribution upgrade, execute the following command:
sudo apt dist-upgrade
hesystemwilldisplayalistofpackagesthatwillbeupgraded,removed,
T
or newly installed. It's essential to carefully review this information
beforeproceeding.Onceyou'resatisfied,typeY(yes)andpressEnterto
confirm the upgrade process.
Additional Considerations:
ackups:Before performing any significant upgrades,it's strongly
B
recommended to create a backup of your important data. This ensures you
can recover critical information in case of unexpected issues.
Network Connectivity:Ensure you have a stable internetconnection
throughout the upgrade process to download essential updates and
packages.
System Resources: Upgrading can consume system resources, so it's
advisable to close any unnecessary applications before initiating the
process.
y following these steps and considerations, you can effectively maintain
B
your Linux system up-to-date and benefit from the latest security
enhancements, bug fixes, and performance improvements.
Lab Experiment 7:
AIM: Install Linux on a PC having some other previously installed
operating system. All OSs should be usable
Objective:
The objective of this experiment is to install a Linux distribution on a PC that already has
another operating system installed, ensuring that all operating systems remain usable.
Theory:
a. Installation of Linux
Linux can be installed in various ways, including from a DVD, a USB stick, or over a
network using NFS, FTP, or HTTP. The installation process involves several steps:
1.Boot from Installation Media: This could be a bootable DVD, USB stick, or
network boot server.
2.Select Installation Method: Choose the method that best suits your
environment and needs.
3.Partitioning: Partition your hard drive to create space for Linux. This could
involve resizing existing partitions or creating new ones.
4.Package Selection: Choose the software to be installed. This could range
from a minimal installation to a full desktop environment.
5.Installation: The installer copies files to the hard drive, configures the
bootloader, and performs other necessary tasks.
6.Install Boot Loader:As part of the Linux installation, a boot loader (such as
GRUB) will be installed. This allows the user to choose which operating system
to boot into at startup.
7.TesttheInstallation:Aftertheinstallationiscomplete,restartthePC.The
boot loader should present the option to boot into either the original
operating system or the newly installed Linux distribution
Installation Tasks
1.Download:the ISO image of your preferred Linux distribution from its official
website.
2.Create:a bootable USB stick or DVD with the downloaded ISO image.
3.Boot from USB: Restart your computer and boot from the USB drive. You
might need to press a key (often F12, F10, or F2) during startup to change the
boot order.
4.Choose Language: When the Ubuntu welcome window appears, select
your preferred language.
Click on “Install Ubuntu”. You will be presented with two options: “Try Ubuntu”
and “Install Ubuntu”. Choose “Install Ubuntu”.
5.Keyboard Layout: Choose your keyboard layout and click on “Continue”.
6.Updates and Other Software: Choose whether you want to download updates
while installing Ubuntu and whether you want to install third-party software for
graphics and Wi- Fi hardware, Flash, MP3, and other media. Then click on
“Continue”.
7.Installation Type: You’ll be asked what type of installation you want. If you want
to install Ubuntu alongside your existing operating system, choose “Install
Ubuntu alongside them”. If you want to erase your entire disk and install Ubuntu,
choose “Erase disk and install Ubuntu”. Be careful with this option as it will erase
all data on the disk!
8.Choose Your Location: If you are connected to the internet, your location will
be detected automatically. Check if it’s correct and click on “Continue”.
9.Enter Your Login Information: Enter your name, your computer’s name, pick a
username, enter a password, and choose whether you want to log in
automatically or require a password. Click on “Continue”.
10.Installation: The installation process will now start. It can take a while, so
you might want to grab a cup of coffee.
10.Restart Your Computer: Once the installation is complete, you’ll be
prompted to restart your computer. Make sure to remove the USB drive, then
click on “Restart Now”.
10. GRUB Boot loader: Now, after each restart you’ll see a new bootloader
(GNU GRUB - version 2.0). Here, you can select the operating system that you
want to boot on each boot.
Lab Assignment 8
Aim:As supervisor create and maintain user accounts, learn
ackages installations, taking backups, creation of scripts for file and
p
user management, creation of startup and shutdown using at, crontab
etc.
Managing users:
o create and maintain user accounts in Linux, you can use the
T
command line called ”useradd”.
Here are the steps to create a new user account.
Add the new user to a specific group by running the following
command:
o view the existing list of user on your Linux system, you can run the
T
following command:
ere is an example of creating a new user ” cadets ” and adding it to
H
the “sudo” group and then deleting the user:
Managing Groups:
roups establish relationships in which they share a common set of
G
permissions. All the groups are listed in/etc/group file.
T
● o view/etc/group
● cat /etc/group
Group Management Tools:
here are several group management tools available in Linux. Here are
T
a few examples with their respective outputs.
1. groupadd:This command is used to create new group in Linux.
2. groupdel:This command is used to delete an existing group in
Linux.
acking And Restoring Files:Your Linux system’s hard disk contains
B
everything needed to keep the system running as well as to keep
other files that you need to like documents and databases.
Back up utilities for Linux:
1. C TAR: Backup and recovery software from UniTrends Software
Corporation.
2. Arkeia: Backup and recovery software from Knox software.
3. BRU: Backup and recovery from TOLIS group
4. LONE-TAR: Tape backup package from Lone Tar technology.
Tar command:
he tar command is commonly used for creating backups of files and
T
directories in Linux. Here is an example output.
syncis another tool for backing up files in Linux. To create a backup
R
of a directory using rsync, you can use the following command.
Crontab File:
he crontab file contains a list of commands that are scheduled to run
T
at specific times.
o view the current user’s crontab file, you can use the following
T
command “crontab-1”.
How to Perform Automated backups:
Step 1:Create a backup script.
Step 2:Make the backup script executable.
Step 3:Schedule the Backup using cron.
Step 4:Save and close the cron configuration file.
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