CSE 213

Computer Architecture

Lecture 1: History of Computer

Military Institute of Science

and Technology
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Moore’s Law
13
 Computer
Architecture
A bit of History

14
15
16
17
ENIAC
19
Institute for Advanced Studies(IAS)

20
+
IAS Memory Formats
■ Both data and instructions are
■ The memory of the IAS stored there
consists of 1000 storage
locations (called words) of ■ Numbers are represented in
binary form and each instruction
40 bits each
is a binary code
+ Registers
+
Structure
of
IAS
Computer
+
Commercial Computers
UNIVAC
■ 1947 – Eckert and Mauchly formed the Eckert-Mauchly
Computer Corporation to manufacture computers commercially

■ UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer)

■ First successful commercial computer
■ Was intended for both scientific and commercial applications
■ Commissioned by the US Bureau of Census for 1950 calculations

■ The Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation became part of the

UNIVAC division of the Sperry-Rand Corporation

■ UNIVAC II – delivered in the late 1950’s

■ Had greater memory capacity and higher performance

■ Backward compatible
+
History of Computers
Second Generation: Transistors
■ Smaller

■ Cheaper

■ Dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube

■ Is a solid state device made from silicon

■ Was invented at Bell Labs in 1947

■ It was not until the late 1950’s that fully transistorized

computers were commercially available
+
Second Generation Computers

■ Introduced:
■ Appearance of the Digital
■ More complex arithmetic
Equipment Corporation (DEC)
and logic units and control
units in 1957
■ The use of high-level
■ PDP-1 was DEC’s first
programming languages
computer
■ Provision of system software
which provided the ability ■ This began the mini-computer
to:
phenomenon that would
■ load programs become so prominent in the
■ move data to peripherals third generation
and libraries
■ perform common
computations
History of Computers
Third Generation: Integrated Circuits

■ 1958 – the invention of the integrated circuit

■ Discrete component
■ Single, self-contained transistor
■ Manufactured separately, packaged in their own containers, and
soldered or wired together onto masonite-like circuit boards
■ Manufacturing process was expensive and cumbersome

■ The two most important members of the third generation

were the IBM System/360 and the DEC PDP-8
+
Microelectronics
+ ■ A computer consists of gates,
Integrated memory cells, and
interconnections among these
Circuits elements

■ The gates and memory cells

■ Data storage – provided by are constructed of simple
memory cells digital electronic components
■ Data processing – provided by
gates ■ Exploits the fact that such
components as transistors,
resistors, and conductors can be
■ Data movement – the paths fabricated from a semiconductor
among components are used such as silicon
to move data from memory to
memory and from memory ■ Many transistors can be
through gates to memory produced at the same time on a
single wafer of silicon
■ Control – the paths among
components can carry control ■ Transistors can be connected
signals with a processor metallization to
form circuits
+ LSI
Large
Scale
Later Integration

Generations
VLSI
Very Large
Scale
Integration

Semiconductor Memory ULSI

Microprocessors Ultra Large
Scale
Integration
+
Wafer,
Chip,
and
Gate
Relationship
 Computer Generations

+
Computer Generations
Computer Architecture
Vs
Computer Organization

33
 Computer Architecture
Computer Organization
• Attributes of a • Instruction set, number of
system visible to the bits used to represent
programmer various data types, I/O
• Have a direct mechanisms, techniques
impact on the for addressing memory
logical execution of
a program
Computer Architectural
Architecture attributes include:

Organizational Computer
attributes include: Organization
• Hardware details
transparent to the
programmer, control • The operational units and
signals, interfaces between their interconnections that
the computer and realize the architectural
peripherals, memory specifications
technology used
 Computer
Architecture
Basic Components

35
36
 Function
■ A computer can perform four
basic functions:
a. Data movement
b. Data storage
c. Data processing
d. Control
Operation
Operations (a)
Data movement
 Operation
Operations (b)
Data Storage
 Operation
Operations (c)
Data Processing
 Operation
Operations (d)
Control
 The
Computer
 Structure and Function
• Hierarchical system • Structure
– Set of interrelated – The way in which
subsystems components relate to
– Hierarchical nature of
each other
complex systems is • Function
essential to both their – The operation of
design and their individual components
description as part of the structure
– Designer need only deal
with a particular level of
the system at a time
– Concerned with structure
and function at each level
Structure
 ✦ CPU – controls the operation of
There are four the computer and performs its data
processing functions
main structural
components ✦ Main Memory – stores data
of the computer: ✦ I/O – moves data between the
computer and its external
environment
✦ System Interconnection – some
mechanism that provides for
communication among CPU, main
memory, and I/O
 • Control Unit
CPU – Controls the operation of the
CPU and hence the computer
Major structural – Arithmetic and Logic Unit
components: (ALU)
– Performs the computer’s data
processing function

– Registers
– Provide storage internal to the
CPU

– CPU Interconnection
– Some mechanism that provides
for communication among the
control unit, ALU, and registers
 Computer
Architecture
Below your program

47
48
49
50
51
52
More on Evolution

53
+ Semiconductor Memory
+
Microprocessors
■ The density of elements on processor chips continued to rise
■ More and more elements were placed on each chip so that fewer
and fewer chips were needed to construct a single computer
processor

■ 1971 Intel developed 4004

■ First chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single
chip
■ Birth of microprocessor

■ 1972 Intel developed 8008

■ First 8-bit microprocessor

■ 1974 Intel developed 8080

■ First general purpose microprocessor
■ Faster, has a richer instruction set, has a large addressing
capability
Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

a. 1970s Processors

b. 1980s Processors
Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

c. 1990s Processors

d. Recent Processors
+
Microprocessor Speed
Techniques built into contemporary processors include:
+
Performance
Balance
■ Adjust the organization and
architecture to compensate
for the mismatch among the
capabilities of the various
components
■ Architectural examples
include:
+
Improvements in Chip
Organization and Architecture
■ Increase hardware speed of processor
■ Fundamentally due to shrinking logic gate size
■ More gates, packed more tightly, increasing clock rate
■ Propagation time for signals reduced

■ Increase size and speed of caches

■ Dedicating part of processor chip
■ Cache access times drop significantly

■ Change processor organization and architecture

■ Increase effective speed of instruction execution
■ Parallelism
+
Problems with Clock Speed and
Login Density
■ Power
■ Power density increases with density of logic and clock speed
■ Dissipating heat

■ RC delay
■ Speed at which electrons flow on a chip between transistors is
limited by resistance and capacitance of metal wires
connecting them
■ Delay increases as RC product increases
■ Wire interconnects thinner, increasing resistance
■ Wires closer together, increasing capacitance

■ Memory latency
■ Memory speeds lag processor speeds
+ Processor
Trends
Multicore
+
Many Integrated Core (MIC)
Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)
MIC GPU
■ Leap in performance as well as ■ Core designed to perform
the challenges in developing parallel operations on graphics
software to exploit such a data
large number of cores
■ Traditionally found on a plug-in
■ The multicore and MIC graphics card, it is used to
strategy involves a encode and render 2D and 3D
homogeneous collection of graphics as well as process
general purpose processors video
on a single chip
■ Used as vector processors for a
variety of applications that
require repetitive computations
+ Overview
ARM
Results of decades of design effort on
■
complex instruction set computers Intel
(CISCs)

■ Excellent example of CISC design

■ Incorporates the sophisticated design

principles once found only on
mainframes and supercomputers

■ An alternative approach to processor

design is the reduced instruction set
x86 Architecture
computer (RISC)

■ The ARM architecture is used in a wide

variety of embedded systems and is
one of the most powerful and best
designed RISC based systems on the
market

■ In terms of market share Intel is CISC

ranked as the number one maker of
microprocessors for non-embedded
systems RISC
 ■ 8080
■ First general purpose microprocessor
■ 8-bit machine with an 8-bit data path to
memory
■ Used in the first personal computer (Altair)

■ 8086
■ 16-bit machine
■ Used an instruction cache, or queue
■ First appearance of the x86 architecture

x86 Evolution ■ 8088

■ used in IBM’s first personal computer
+
■ 80286
■ Enabled addressing a 16-MByte memory
instead of just 1 MByte

■ 80386
■ Intel’s first 32-bit machine
■ First Intel processor to support multitasking

■ 80486
■ More sophisticated cache technology and
instruction pipelining
■ Built-in math coprocessor
x86 Evolution - Pentium

+
x86 Evolution (continued)

■ Core
■ First Intel x86 microprocessor
with a dual core, referring to
the implementation of two
processors on a single chip

■ Core 2
■ Extends the architecture to 64
bits
■ Recent Core offerings have up
to 10 processors per chip
 Embedded system: Embedded

“A combination of computer
hardware and software, and
perhaps additional mechanical or
other parts, designed to perform a Systems
dedicated function. In many cases,
embedded systems are part of a
+
larger system or product, as in the
case of an antilock braking system
in a car.”
Examples of Embedded Systems and Their
Markets
+
Embedded Systems
Requirements and Constraints
+
Possible Organization of an Embedded System
+
Acorn RISC Machine (ARM)

■ Family of RISC-based ■ Widely used in PDAs and

microprocessors and other handheld devices
microcontrollers
■ Chips are the processors in
■ Designs microprocessor and iPod and iPhone devices
multicore architectures and
licenses them to ■ Most widely used embedded
manufacturers processor architecture

■ Chips are high-speed ■ Most widely used processor

processors that are known for architecture of any kind
their small die size and low
power requirements
 +
A
R
M
Ev
olu
tio
n

DSP = digital signal processor SoC = system on a chip

 ARM Design Categories
■ ARM processors are designed to meet the needs of three
system categories:

▪ Secure applications
▪ Smart cards, SIM cards, and
payment terminals

▪ Application platforms
▪ Embedded real-time
systems ▪ Devices running open
▪ Systems for storage, operating systems including
automotive body and Linux, Palm OS, Symbian OS,
power-train, industrial, and and Windows CE in wireless,
networking applications consumer entertainment and
digital imaging applications