Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
REGION IV-A (CALABARZON)
Division of Quezon
Quezon National High School
Lucena City
Research II
Quarter 4 – Module 1 & 2:
Collection and Presentation of Data
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Department of Education
REGION IV-A (CALABARZON)
Division of Quezon
Quezon National High School
Lucena City
Research II
QUARTER 4
Content Standard:
The learner demonstrates understanding of the ways of collecting, organizing,
presenting data in preparation for the research proposal writing, and use of statistical
tools in the conduct of scientific research.
Performance Standards:
The learner should be able to:
➢ design a data collection system in his/her data logbook.
➢ write and present a comprehensive research proposal.
Module 1 & 2: COLLECTION AND PRESENTATION OF DATA
Learning Competencies:
✓ apply the different methods of data collection and presentation (SSP-RS8-
CPD-IV-s-20)
Lesson Topic: WHAT IS DATA COLLECTION?
You've learned that statistics are useful because they help us to interpret what has
happened in the past so that we can predict and prepare for what will happen in the future.
Gathering data, documenting it, and then presenting it in a way that others can understand
and use it is an important part of working with statistics. This is referred to as data handling.
Data is initially collected from a given source, whether they are experiments, surveys, or
observation, and is presented in one of four methods:
1. Textual Method - The reader acquires information through reading the gathered data.
2. Tabular Method - Provides a more precise, systematic and orderly presentation of
data in rows or columns.
3. Semi-tabular Method - Uses both textual and tabular methods.
4. Graphical Method - The utilization of graphs is most effective method of visually
presenting statistical results or findings.
DATA HANDLING
Data handling is gathering and recording information, and then presenting it in a way
that can be understood easily and used by other people.
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The data handling cycle
The process of data handling is summarized in the diagram below.
Figure 1. Process Of Data Handling. Source: https://intl.siyavula.com/read/maths/jss1/data-collection-and-
presentation/17-data-collection-and-presentation
Lesson Topic: METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION
Data collection
- is defined as the “process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in
an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer queries, stated research
questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes.”
1. First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what type of data
you need to answer your research question:
A. Qualitative vs. quantitative: Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
B. Primary vs. secondary: Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data
that has already been collected by someone else?
C. Descriptive vs. experimental: Will you take measurements of something as it is,
or will you perform an experiment?
2. Second, decide how you will analyze the data.
A. For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test
relationships between variables.
B. For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret
patterns and meanings in the data.
The information you collect to answer your research question is referred to as data.
The data collection methods you employ are determined by the type of information you need.
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I. QUALITATIVE/QUANTITATIVE. The type of information you want to acquire will
determine whether you collect qualitative or quantitative data.
i. Collect qualitative data to answer questions about thoughts, perceptions, and
meanings, or to research something that can't be explained numerically.
ii. Collect quantitative data if you want to build a more mechanistic
understanding of a subject or if your study requires hypothesis testing.
II. PRIMARY/SECONDARY. Primary data is any original information that you collect for
the purposes of answering your research question (e.g. through surveys, observations
and experiments). Secondary data is information that has already been collected by
other researchers (e.g. in a government census or previous scientific studies).
If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary
data. But if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or
identify patterns on a large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.
III. DESCRIPTIVE/EXPERIMENTAL. In descriptive research, you collect data about your
study subject without intervening. The validity of your research will depend on your
sampling method.
In experimental research, you systematically intervene in a process and measure
the outcome. The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design.
To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable,
precisely measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables. If
it’s practically and ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering
questions about cause and effect.
METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA:
Research Primary/ Qualitative/ Definition
Method Secondary? Quantitative?
Experiment Primary Quantitative ✓ Use to test cause-and-effect
relationships.
Survey/ Primary Quantitative ✓ Use to understand general
Questionnaires characteristics of a population.
✓ Responses can be analyzed with
quantitative methods by assigning
numerical values to Likert-type scales
✓ Results are generally easier (than
qualitative techniques) to analyze
✓ Pretest/Posttest can be compared
and analyzed
Interviews Primary Qualitative ✓ Use to gain more in-depth
understanding of a topic.
✓ Interviews can be conducted in
person or over the telephone
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✓ Interviews can be done formally
(structured), semi-structured, or
informally
✓ Questions should be focused, clear,
and encourage open-ended
responses
✓ Interviews are mainly qualitative in
nature
Focus Group Primary Qualitative ✓ Use to gain more in-depth
understanding of a topic.
✓ A facilitated group interview with
individuals that have something in
common
✓ Gathers information about combined
perspectives and opinions
✓ Responses are often coded into
categories and analyzed thematically
Observation Primary Either ✓ Use to understand how something
occurs in its natural setting.
✓ Allows for the study of the dynamics of
a situation, frequency counts of target
behaviors, or other behaviors as
indicated by needs of the evaluation
✓ Good source for providing additional
information about a particular group,
can use video to provide
documentation
✓ Can produce qualitative (e.g.,
narrative data) and quantitative data
(e.g., frequency counts, mean length
of interactions, and instructional time)
Literature Secondary Either ✓ Use to situate your research in an
Review existing body of work, or to evaluate
trends within a research topic.
Ethnographies, Either Either ✓ Use to gain an in-depth understanding
Oral History, and of a specific group or context, or when
Case Studies you don’t have the resources for a
large study.
✓ Involves studying a single
phenomenon
✓ Examines people in their natural
settings
✓ Uses a combination of techniques
such as observation, interviews, and
surveys
✓ Ethnography is a more holistic
approach to evaluation
✓ Researcher can become a
confounding variable
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Data Collection Methods
A. Quantitative data collection methods
1. Closed-ended Surveys and Online Quizzes
- Closed-ended surveys and online quizzes are based on questions that give respondents
predefined answer options to opt for. There are two main types of closed-ended surveys –
those based on categorical and those based on interval/ratio questions.
- Categorical survey questions can be further classified into dichotomous (‘yes/no’), multiple-
choice questions, or checkbox questions and can be answered with a simple “yes” or “no” or
a specific piece of predefined information.
B. Qualitative Data Collection Methods
2. Open-Ended Surveys and Questionnaires
Opposite to closed-ended are open-ended surveys and questionnaires. The main difference
between the two is the fact that closed-ended surveys offer predefined answer options the
respondent must choose from, whereas open-ended surveys allow the respondents much
more freedom and flexibility when providing their answers.
3. 1-on-1 Interviews
- One-on-one (or face-to-face) interviews are one of the most common types of data
collection methods in qualitative research.
- Here, the interviewer collects data directly from the interviewee. Due to it being a very
personal approach, this data collection technique is perfect when you need to gather
highly-personalized data.
- Depending on your specific needs, the interview can be informal, unstructured,
conversational, and even spontaneous (as if you were talking to your friend) – in which case
it’s more difficult and time-consuming to process the obtained data – or it can be semi-
structured and standardized to a certain extent (if you, for example, ask the same series of
open-ended questions).
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4. Focus groups
- The focus groups data collection method is essentially an interview method, but instead of
being done 1-on-1, here we have a group discussion.
- Ideally, a focus group should have 3-10 people, plus a moderator. Of course, depending on
the research goal and what the data obtained is to be used for, there should be some common
denominators for all the members of the focus group.
5. Direct observation
- is one of the most passive qualitative data collection methods.
- the data collector takes a participatory stance, observing the setting in which the
subjects of their observation are while taking down notes, video/audio recordings,
photos, and so on.
- Due to its participatory nature, direct observation can lead to bias in research, as the
participation may influence the attitudes and opinions of the researcher, making it
challenging for them to remain objective.
- Plus, the fact that the researcher is a participant too can affect the naturalness of the
actions and behaviors of subjects who know they’re being observed.
6. Case Study Method:
According to Biesanz and Biesenz “the case study is a form of qualitative analysis involving
the very careful and complete observation of a person, a situation or an institution.” In the
words of Goode and Hatt, “Case study is a way of organizing social data so as to preserve the
unitary character of the social object being studied.” P.V. young defines case study as a
method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit, be that a person, a family, an
institution, cultural group or even entire community.”
Lesson Topic: CLASSIFICATION OF DATA
THE TWO MAIN FLAVORS OF DATA: QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE
At the highest level, two kinds of data exist: quantitative and qualitative.
1. Quantitative data deals with numbers and things you can measure objectively:
dimensions such as height, width, and length. Temperature and humidity. Prices. Area
and volume.
2. Qualitative data deals with characteristics and descriptors that can't be easily
measured, but can be observed subjectively—such as smells, tastes, textures,
attractiveness, and color.
Broadly speaking, when you measure something and give it a number value, you create
quantitative data. When you classify or judge something, you create qualitative data. So far,
so good. But this is just the highest level of data: there are also different types of quantitative
and qualitative data.
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QUANTITATIVE FLAVORS: CONTINUOUS DATA AND DISCRETE DATA
There are two types of quantitative data, which is also referred to as numeric data:
a. continuous and
b. discrete.
As a general rule, counts are discrete and measurements are continuous.
1. Discrete data - is a count that can't be made more precise. Typically it involves
integers. For instance, the number of children (or adults, or pets) in your family is
discrete data, because you are counting whole, indivisible entities: you can't have 2.5
kids, or 1.3 pets.
2. Continuous data, on the other hand, could be divided and reduced to finer and finer
levels. For example, you can measure the height of your kids at progressively more
precise scales—meters, centimeters, millimeters, and beyond—so height is
continuous data.
Example: If I tally the number of individual Jujubes in a box, that number is a piece of
discrete data.
QUALITATIVE FLAVORS: BINOMIAL DATA, NOMINAL DATA, AND ORDINAL DATA
When you classify or categorize something, you create Qualitative or attribute data.
There are three main kinds of qualitative data.
1. Binary data place things in one of two mutually exclusive categories: right/wrong,
true/false, or accept/reject.
Occasionally, I'll get a box of Jujubes that contains a couple of individual pieces that are either too hard
or too dry. If I went through the box and classified each piece as "Good" or "Bad," that would be binary
data. I could use this kind of data to develop a statistical model to predict how frequently I can expect
to get a bad Jujube.
2. Nominal Data. When collecting unordered or nominal data, we assign individual items
to named categories that do not have an implicit or natural value or rank. If I went
through a box of Jujubes and recorded the color of each in my worksheet, that would
be nominal data.
3. Ordinal Data. We also can have ordered or ordinal data, in which items are assigned
to categories that do have some kind of implicit or natural order, such as "Short,
Medium, or Tall." Another example is a survey question that asks us to rate an item
on a 1 to 10 scale, with 10 being the best. This implies that 10 is better than 9, which
is better than 8, and so on.
The uses for ordered data is a matter of some debate among statisticians. Everyone agrees its
appropriate for creating bar charts, but beyond that the answer to the question "What should I
do with my ordinal data?" is "It depends.”
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Lesson Topic: LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT SCALES
Stanley Stevens – psychologist researcher who brushed up on this concept.
1. Nominal Data
✓ used for labeling variables without any quantitative value
✓ simply called “Labels”
✓ categories (no ordering or direction)
✓ attributes are only named (ex. Marital status, type of car, religion, gender)
“dichotomous” – subtype of nominal scale with only two categories
Example: female and male
2. Ordinal Data
- Ordered categories
- Typically measures of non-numeric concepts like satisfaction, happiness or
discomfort
Ex. Ranking, service quality rating
3. Interval
- Differences between measurements but NO TRUE ZERO.
- Distance is meaningful
Ex. Temperature, Standardized Exam Score
4. Ratio – they have ABSOLUTE ZERO which allows for a wide range of both descriptive
and inferential statistics to be applied.
Ex. Height, age, weight and length
Lesson Topic: WAYS OF DATA PRESENTATION
Research is only valuable if you can share the data effectively. In this lesson, we'll learn how
to organize data and construct various charts and graphs to represent research data.
When gathering data, whether qualitative or quantitative, we can use several tools, such as:
surveys, focus groups, interviews, and questionnaires. To help organize data, we can use charts and
graphs to help visualize what's going on, such as bar graphs, frequency charts, picture graphs, and line
graphs.
1. A GRAPH
- is a pictorial representation of information recorded in a data table where the independent
variable with units are located on the X or horizontal axis and the dependent variable with units
are located on the Y or vertical axis.
- is used to show relationships between two or more different factors. Always use a descriptive
title for the graph (how the independent variable affects the dependent variable). It may be the
same as the title of the data table.
A. Bar Graph
- used to present and compare data.
There are two main types of bar graphs: horizontal and vertical.
- They are easy to understand, because they consist of rectangular bars that differ in height or
length according to their value or frequency.
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- These types of graphs serve the same purpose as line graphs: they represent time series data.
However, bar graphs display a change in magnitude, and not in direction like line graphs.
A bar graph shows a quantitative comparison using a series of columns to display data. Usually, the
independent variable is all text; it is not a measurement and therefore, will not have a unit. Look at the
following data table and graph.
A horizontal bar graph A vertical bar graphs
- consists of an x-axis, and a vertical bar - are best used for the comparison of
graph consists of a y-axis. The numbers time series data and frequency
on the axes are known as the scales. distribution.
Each bar is represents a numeric or - vertical bar graphs do not provide
categorical variable. much space for text labels.
- are particularly useful when category
labels are long;
Horizontal and vertical bar graphs may exist in several forms. Double and group bar graphs, whether
vertical or horizontal, are used to compare data about the same location or things. These graphs make
it possible to compare several features at once. However, they can become puzzling if they contain too
many sets of data. While double and group bar graphs are very popular, other types of less popular bar
graphs include age pyramid graphs, stacked bar graphs, and dot graphs.
B. Line Graph
✓ the most popular types of graphs,
because they are simple to create
and easy to understand.
✓ They organize and present data
in a clear manner and show
relationships between the data.
✓ They are used for personal,
educational, and professional
reasons.
Particularly popular in the fields of science and statistics, they can also forecast the results of data that
is not yet gathered. While line graphs and bar graphs share the same purpose, line graphs display a
change in direction, while bar graphs display a change in magnitude.
Line graphs - used to display the comparison between two variables which are plotted on the horizontal
x- and vertical y-axes of a grid.
The x-axis - usually represents measures of time, while the
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The y-axis - usually represents percentage or measures of quantity.
Therefore, line graphs are commonly used as time series graphs that show differences in direction. For
instance, you can learn about the production of cars in the year 1960 by plotting the time variable (in this
case, the months of the year) along the x-axis and the number of cars built in each month along the y-axis.
After plotting, you draw a continuous line connecting the points on the grid. The result is a visual
representation of the peaks and dips of car production throughout the months of 1960. You can similarly
plot the number of cars produced in the years of 1961 and 1962 on the same graph. Thus, you can easily
compare multiple relationships.
C. Pictograph
✓ also called pictograms, are
diagrams that show and compare
data by using picture symbols.
✓ Each of these symbols
corresponds to a specific quantity
and is repeated a number of
times.
✓ The media often uses pictographs
to compare trends; in a magazine,
you may see a pictograph
comparing the number of nurses
in the different counties of Texas.
In this case, tiny human figures may represent the nurses, with each figure symbolizing 50 nurses, for
instance. Schools use them, as well, in order to train students in mathematics and other subjects in an
enjoyable way. Elementary level students often encounter pictographs in their textbooks. These types of
graphs are also popularly used by charity organizations to track fund drives. The best example of this is
the picture of the thermometer displayed by these organizations.
While pictographs are easy to understand, they can be misleading because they provide a general
representation. Therefore, they are not commonly used by statisticians and scientists who work with
very precise measurements. It is virtually impossible to accurately display the difference between $0.56,
$0.61, $11.99 and $12.32 through picture symbols on the same pictograph, for example. Pictographs
would be unreliable for this purpose. Sometimes the media takes advantage of the potential unreliability
of pictographs and intentionally use them to exaggerate or downplay specific data, in order to influence
public opinion on an issue.
2. PIE CHARTS
Pie charts are easy to make, easy to
read, and very popular.
✓ They are used to represent
categorical data or values of
variables.
✓ They are basically circles that
are divided into segments or
categories which reflect the
proportion of the variables in
relation to the whole
Percentages are used to compare the segments, with the whole being equal to 100%.
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To make a pie chart, draw a circle with a protractor. Then, convert the measures of the variables into
percentages, and divide the circle accordingly. It is best to order the segments clockwise from biggest
to smallest, so that the pie chart looks neat and the variable are easy to compare. It is also
recommended to write percentage and category labels next to each segment, so that users are not
required to refer to the legend each time they want to identify a segment.
Pie charts are popular types of graphs, but they do have disadvantages that limit their use. For this
reason, scientists are not fans of pie charts. First of all, pie charts with too many segments look very
messy and are difficult to understand; therefore it is best to use pie charts when there are less than five
categories to be compared. Further, if the values of the categories are very close, the pie chart would
be difficult to decipher because the segments would be too close in size. Variations of pie charts include
the polar area diagrams and cosmographs.
3. FLOW CHARTS
✓ are types of graphs that display a schematic
process.
✓ Contemporary flow charts are modeled
after the logic behind early computer games.
Businesses often use them to visually depict
all the stages of a project.
Therefore, individuals working on a project refer to a flow
chart to see the breakdown of the process and understand
the whole picture.
✓ A flowchart can effectively be used as a
training tool for employees who are being
introduced to a new project.
✓ It also helps in locating and correcting errors in a project. Even though flow chart use is usually
linked to the field of business, a flowchart can be used for any purpose that involves a cross-
functional process.
✓ It can even be used to show driving directions from one location to another.
A flowchart consists of start points, end points, inputs, outputs, and routes which are commonly represented by
basic symbols that are labeled. Ovals represent start and end points. Rectangles represent the steps of a process,
and diamonds represent decisions. Diamonds have two routes stemming from them; one is a true or yes route and
the other is a false or no route. Circles stand for operations; arrow-shaped figures stand for transportation, while
triangles represent storage, and squares stand for inspection. Arrows linking symbols signify the sequence of a
process. While most flowcharts use shapes as symbols, others use graphics instead.
4. TABLE
✓ is one type of graphic organizer used
frequently in science.
✓ It is used especially during l aboratory
experiments when qualitative and/or
quantitative data are collected.
✓ Data tables are not randomly
constructed;
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✓ they have at least two columns or rows and specific data entered into each column and/or row.
In order to design a data table, you must know what the independent and dependent variables
are.
ACTIVITY NO. 1
Organizing & Interpreting Data
Learning Task No. 1 I. Study the following data below and answer the following questions:
Concentration of Ions in Sea Water and in Body Fluids (Millimoles/Liter)
Concentration (millimoles/liter)
Fluid
Na+ K+ Ca2+ Mg2+ Cl -
Sea water 459 9.8 10.1 52.5 538.0
Cockroach 161 7.9 4.0 5.6 4.0
Chicken 154 6.0 5.6 2.3 122.0
Humans 145 5.1 2.5 1.2 103.0
Questions:
1. What is the concentration of Cl- in cockroach? ________________
2. What is the total concentration of Na+? ______________________
3. What is concentration of Na+ in the human body fluids? _____________________
4. What fluid has the highest concentration? ______________________
5. What fluid has the lowest concentration? _____________________
6. What type of organizing data was shown in the picture? ______________________
Number of Livestock in Central Mindanao, 1991
(Source : BAS)
Livestock
Livestock (%) (%)
Hog 8
Hog Duck 15
Duck Carabao 6
Carabao Goat 6
Goat
Cattle 3
Chicken 62
Cattle
Questions:
7. Which animal represents the biggest piece of the pie? ________________________
8. Which animal represents the smallest piece of the pie? _______________________
9. What percentage of livestock in Central Mindanao in 1991 was the carabao?
___________________________________________________________________
10. How about the cattle? _________________________________________________
11. Which animal has the same percentage of livestock?
___________________________________________________________________
12. What is the title of the chart? ____________________________________________
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II. GRAPH. The following are the grades obtained by Aaron in different subjects in an exam.
Represent this information on a bar graph.
Math Science English Filipino ESP MAPEH ICT Research
90 92 91 93 95 94 90 93
III. Pictograph.
1. The numbers of students studying in each of five classes of a secondary school are given
below. Draw a pictograph to represent the numerical data:
Class I Class II Class III Class IV Class V
50 60 40 80 70
2. At a parking place the following number of scooters were parked on different days. Draw a
pictograph to represent the information:
Monday (30) Tuesday (25) Thursday (15)
Friday (20) Saturday (40) Wednesday (35)
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V. CHART. Given the following information, find the percentage of students in each grade
level and draw a pie chart to show the percentage of students in Quezon International School:
a total of 6000 students in school: 1523 are Grade 7, 1234 are Grade 8, 1200 are Grade 9,
1113 are Grade 10 and the rest are Senior High School.
Learning Task No. 2. LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT. Classify the following whether they are
nominal, ordinal, ratio, or interval.
1. Marital Status 6. Temperature
2. Height of Plant 7. Age
3. Weight of fertilizer 8. Religion
4. Likert Scale 9. Population in QNHS
5. Scores in Post Test 10. Time
Learning Task No. 3. Identify what research method describes in the following statements.
Write only the letter of the correct answer.
A. Experiment
B. Survey/ Questionnaires
C. Interviews
D. Focus Group
E. Observation
F. Literature Review
G. Ethnographies, Oral History, and Case Studies
________ 1. Use to situate your research in an existing body of work, or to evaluate trends
within a research topic.
________ 2. Use to test cause-and-effect relationships.
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________ 3. Use to understand how something occurs in its natural setting.
________ 4. Involves studying a single phenomenon. Examines people in their natural
settings.
________ 5. It is one of the most common types of data collection methods in qualitative
research.
________ 6. Use to understand general characteristics of a population.
________ 7. A facilitated group interview with individuals that have something in common.
________ 8. Responses can be analyzed with quantitative methods by assigning numerical
values to Likert-type scales.
________ 9. Allows for the study of the dynamics of a situation, frequency counts of target
behaviors, or other behaviors as indicated by needs of the evaluation.
________ 10. Gathers information about combined perspectives and opinions.
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