TOPIC 1

Projectile motion
1.1 Overview
1.1.1 Module 5: Advanced Mechanics
Projectile motion
Inquiry question: How can models that are used to explain projectile motion be used to analyse and make
predictions?
Students:
• analyse the motion of projectiles by resolving the motion into horizontal and vertical components, making
the following assumptions:
⬩ a constant vertical acceleration due to gravity
⬩ zero air resistance
• apply the modelling of projectile motion to quantitatively derive the relationships between the following
variables:
⬩ initial velocity ⬩ launch angle ⬩ maximum height
⬩ time of flight ⬩ final velocity ⬩ launch height
⬩ horizontal range of the projectile (ACSPH099)
• conduct a practical investigation to collect primary data in order to validate the relationships derived above
• solve problems, create models and make quantitative predictions by applying the equations of motion
relationships for uniformly accelerated and constant rectilinear motion.

FIGURE 1.1 This multiple exposure image of a trick jump performed by an FMX rider clearly shows
the parabolic shape of the trajectory of rider and bike. This pathway results from the combined effects
of ramp angle, initial velocity and the downward acceleration of gravity.

TOPIC 1 Projectile motion 1

1.2 Falling under gravity
1.2.1 Falling through air
In your earlier studies, you have encountered the concept of weight, which describes the attractive force that
the Earth exerts on objects within the effect of its gravitational field. The weight of an object is calculated by
using the equation
w = mg
where m is the object’s mass and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Whenever we raise an object from the surface of the Earth and release it, the object falls towards the centre
of the Earth. Whether the object is a rock, a feather, a glass of milk or a pencil, every dropped object will move
downwards unless something gets between it and the Earth’s surface. However, as you may have noticed, not
everything falls downwards at the same rate. For example, a feather and a hammer dropped from the same
height will hit the ground at different times — the hammer will strike the ground first, then the feather. Making
a variety of such observations throughout our lives, we might come to the same conclusion that the ancient
Greeks did — that heavy objects fall faster than light objects.
The Italian scientist Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) also noticed that big, heavy objects usually reached the
ground faster than small, light ones. However, he had the idea that this behaviour had nothing to do with the
masses of the objects themselves but was actually due to the combined effect of their weight (which pulls
them downwards) and some sort of resisting force (which pulls them upwards) acting on them as they fell. If
the resistant force acting on an object was comparable to its weight, the object fell more slowly. If the resistant
force was comparatively small, then it fell more quickly.
This resistant force that acts to oppose an object’s motion through the air is known as air resistance or
drag (Fdrag ).
The net force acting on an object falling freely under the influence of gravity is FIGURE 1.2 The
equal to the vector sum of its weight and the drag acting upon it: forces acting on a
Fnet = w + Fdrag vertically falling object.
As Fnet = ma, we may also write: Drag
m a = w + Fdrag
Therefore,
w + Fdrag
a=
m
From this, we can see that the rate at which an object accelerates as it falls
towards the ground does not depend entirely upon the object’s mass or weight. Weight

1.2.2 Air resistance — what a drag!

Drag is caused by the collision of a falling object with the particles in the air; this has the effect of slowing
the object’s descent. The greater the number of particles that the object collides with, the greater the size of
the drag it experiences.
The drag force exerted on an object is directly proportional to the following:
• the object’s cross-section perpendicular to its direction of motion. An object with a large cross-section will
collide with more air particles than one with a small cross-section, so it would experience a greater drag.
• the density of the air through which the object moves. Close to the Earth’s surface, the air has a density of
about 1.2 kg m−3 , which is much denser than at, say, an altitude of 10 km, where the air density is around
0.4 kg m−3 . This means that an object falling at the 10 km mark will collide with fewer particles and so
will experience less drag than an object falling nearer the ground.
• the square of the object’s speed. An object travelling at a speed of 10 m s−1 will encounter four times the
magnitude of drag than if it were to travel at 5 m s−1 .

2 Jacaranda Physics 12
 Drag is also affected by the object’s shape, the smoothness of its surface and the amount of turbulence that
these factors cause in the air as the object falls.

FIGURE 1.3 An object with a larger cross-section collides FIGURE 1.4 Formation skydivers
with more air particles than one with a smaller cross-section. spread their limbs out to increase their
surface area perpendicular to their
direction of fall. This increases their
drag, which decreases their descent
speed, extending the time that they are
in the air.

Air
particles

1.2 SAMPLE PROBLEM 1

At what speed will a 70 kg skydiver be travelling two seconds after stepping out of the plane if we assume
a uniform drag force of 20 N acts on him during this time?
SOLUTION:
Given: u = 0; t = 2 s; m = 70 kg; g = −9.8 m s−2 ; Fdrag = 20 N
We need to find v.
First, we need to find the net acceleration acting on the skydiver.
Remember, he has two forces acting on him: weight w, acting downwards, and Fdrag , acting
upwards. This allows us to determine the net force acting on the skydiver:
Fnet = w + Fdrag
Now, as w = mg, the weight of the skydiver will be:
w = (70 kg) (−9.8 m s−2 )
= −686 N
So,
Fnet = (−686 N) + 20 N
= −666 N
As Fnet = ma, we can now find the skydiver’s acceleration during the 2 s interval:
F
a = net
m

TOPIC 1 Projectile motion 3

 −666 N
= = −9.5 m s−2
70 kg
We can now find the skydiver’s speed at the end of the 2 s interval.
Given: t = 2 s; u = 0 m s−1 ; a = −9.5 m s−2 ; v = ?
v=u+a t
v = (0 m s−1 ) + (−9.5 m s−2 )(2 s)
= −19 m s−1
The skydiver will be travelling at 19 m s−1 downwards at the end of the 2 s interval.

WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY 1.1

If you have watched a parachute filling with air as a skydiver deploys it, you would have noticed that the
parachute does not form a flat surface as it catches the air; rather, it forms a specific three-dimensional shape
according to the way that the parachute has been designed. While many parachutes form dome-like shapes as
they catch the air, others form shapes that are more like sausages. As a result of their different geometries,
parachutes containing the same surface area of fabric will differ in the volume of air that they ‘capture’ during
descent. Explore the different shapes of parachutes that can be made from a piece of parachute fabric with a
surface area of 900 cm2 , determining the effective volume of each when it is dropped with a 10 g payload. Use
three of these shapes to determine what relationship (if any) exists between the volume of the parachute and the
drag force that it exerts.

1.2.3 Falling in a vacuum

In 1971, Apollo 15 astronaut David Scott dropped a ham- FIGURE 1.5 Astronaut David Scott drops a
mer and a feather from the same height while standing on hammer and a feather on the surface of the
the surface of the Moon (yes, scientists really did pack a Moon.
hammer and a feather on the spacecraft just so they could
test this). The hammer and the feather fell at the same rate
and hit the ground at the same time.
As discussed in the previous section, drag is caused by
collisions of air particles with a falling object. The Moon’s
gravity is too low to hold a thick atmosphere around it
like the Earth can, so the hammer and the feather both fell
without encountering enough particles to cause any meas-
urable drag. As Fdrag was equal to zero, the only force
acting on the two objects was the attractive force of the
Moon’s gravity acting towards the centre of the Moon; that
is, Fnet = w.
For both the hammer and the feather,
ma = mg
Cancelling mass m on both sides, we get:
a=g
In other words, the masses of the two objects had no influence at all on the rate at which the objects fell.
They both fell at about 1.6 m s−2 (the acceleration due to gravity on the Moon) and hit the dust (literally) at
the same time.
What this little experiment on the Moon proved was that Galileo’s theory was correct. In a vacuum, all
objects will fall at the same rate, regardless of mass and size.

4 Jacaranda Physics 12
1.2 SAMPLE PROBLEM 2

(a) How fast will a ball be travelling when it strikes the ground if it is dropped from a height of
100 m? (Ignore air resistance.)
(b) At what speed would the same ball be travelling if it was dropped from the same height on the
Moon’s surface where gravity is one-sixth that on Earth?
SOLUTION:
(a) u = 0 m s−1 ; s = −100 m; a = g = −9.8 m s−2 ; v = ?
v2 = u2 + 2 a s
v2 = (0)2 + 2(−9.8 m s−2 )(−100 m)
⇒ v = √1960 = ±44.3 m s−1
Because the ball is falling, it will be travelling downwards when it strikes the ground, so v must
be a negative quantity.
Therefore, if there is no air resistance, the ball is travelling at −44.3 m s−1 when it strikes the
ground.
g
(b) u = 0 m s−1 ; s = −100 m; a = − 1.6 m s−2 ; v = ?
6
v2 = u2 + 2as
v2 = (0)2 + 2(−1.6 m s−2 )(−100 m)
⇒ v = √320 = ±17.9 m s−1
The ball would strike the Moon’s surface with a velocity of −17.9 m s−1 .

1.2 SAMPLE PROBLEM 3

A helicopter delivering supplies to a flood-stricken farm hovers 100 m FIGURE 1.6

above the ground. A package of supplies is dropped from rest, just
outside the door of the helicopter. Air resistance can be ignored.
(a) Calculate how long it takes the package to reach the ground. 0.0
–1.2
(b) Calculate how far from its original position the package has –4.9
fallen after 0.50 s, 1.0 s, 1.5 s, 2.0 s etc. until the package has hit –11
the ground. (You may like to use a spreadsheet here.) Draw a
scale diagram of the package’s position at half-second intervals. –20

SOLUTION: –31
Vertical displacement (m)

(a) u = 0 m s−1 ; s = −100 m; a = g = −9.8 m s−2 ; t = ?

1
s = ut + at2 –44
2
1
(−100 m) = (0 ms−1 )t + (−9.8 ms−2 )t2
2
–60
100
t=√ = ±4.52 s, rounded to ± 4.5 s
4.9
–78
The negative square root can be ignored here as we are interested
only in motion that has occurred after the package was released at
t = 0 (i.e. positive times).
Hence, the package takes 4.5 s to reach the ground.
–99

Ground

TOPIC 1 Projectile motion 5

 (b) t = 0.50 s; u = 0 m s−1 ; a = g = −9.8 m s−2 ; s = ?
1
s = ut + at2
2
1
= (0)(0.5s) + (9.8 m s−2 )(0.5 s)2
2
= 1.23 m, rounded to 1.2 m

Repeat this for t = 1 s, 1.5 s, 2 s etc. to gain the results listed in Table 1.1.
The scale diagram is shown in Figure 1.6.
TABLE 1.1 Vertical distance travelled over time

Time (s) 0.50 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5

Vertical distance (m) 1.2 4.9 11 20 31 44 60 78 99

1.2.4 Terminal velocity

In the absence of an atmosphere, an object dropped from any height will continue to accelerate until it hits the
ground. This is certainly the case with objects dropped on the Moon, but on Earth the effects of air resistance
cannot be shrugged off nearly so easily. When an object falls, remember that it is subject to two forces —
weight and drag. The weight stays the same throughout the drop, but drag gets larger as the velocity increases.
When the object is first dropped and its initial speed is zero, the drag is equal to zero. As the object accelerates
under the effect of gravity, it speeds up, so the drag force increases too, reducing the actual rate at which the
object accelerates downwards. Eventually, if the object falls for long enough, it will reach a velocity where
the downward force of its weight is exactly equal to the upward force of drag. As the net force acting on the
object is now zero, the object stops accelerating and will continue to fall at a constant velocity. The velocity at
which this occurs is called terminal velocity. Once an object has reached its terminal velocity, it will maintain
that velocity for the rest of its descent.
Different objects tend to have different terminal velocities. A human falling without a parachute has a
terminal velocity of about 200 km h−1 , while a cat has a terminal velocity of about 120 km h−1 . Very small
creatures, such as insects, have very low terminal velocities — about 8 km h−1 . This is why a bug will survive
a fall of 100 m and walk away, but a human will not.

WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY 1.2

The magnitude of the drag force acting on an object as it falls through a fluid is summarised in the equation
1
F drag = CD ρ v2 A
2
where CD is the drag coefficient for the object, ρ is the density of the fluid, v is the speed at which the object is
falling and A is the cross-sectional area of the object perpendicular to its motion.
The drag coefficient is very difficult to calculate, even for regularly shaped objects, and most values are
determined experimentally. Design a method by which the drag force acting on a steel ball bearing falling through
a dense fluid such as honey may be measured and its drag coefficient determined. Then use this method to
determine whether polished ball bearings of different radii have different drag coefficients.

6 Jacaranda Physics 12
 1.2 Exercise 1
1 A student has two identical pieces of paper, one of which she scrunches up into a little ball. Holding both the
scrunched-up piece of paper and the un-scrunched piece of paper at the same height, she lets them go.
Explain why, despite having identical compositions and masses, the two pieces of paper land at different
times.
2 Explain why an object falls faster at an altitude of 10 km than it does at sea level.
3 When skydivers wish to make a very fast descent, they will jump feet first with their bodies very straight and
parallel to their direction of motion and their arms held close to them. Why does this work?
4 Why does a feather fall more slowly than a brick released at the same time from the same height?
5 Calculate the final speed of a hammer dropped from a height of 5 m in the absence of air resistance.
6 From what height does a flowerpot fall if it is travelling at a speed of 6.2 m s−1 when it strikes the ground?
Ignore air resistance.
7 A ball is thrown downwards at 2 m s−1 and it travels 5.0 m before striking the ground. At what speed was it
travelling when it hit the ground if we ignore air resistance?
8 A camera is dropped by a tourist from a lookout and falls vertically to the ground. The thud of the camera
hitting the hard ground below is heard by the tourist 3.0 seconds later. Air resistance and the time taken for
the sound to reach the tourist can be ignored.
(a) How far did the camera fall?
(b) What was the velocity of the camera when it hit the ground below?

1.3 Projectile motion

1.3.1 Trajectory
Any object that is launched into the air is a projectile. A basketball thrown towards a goal, a trapeze artist
soaring through the air, and a package dropped from a helicopter are all examples of projectiles.
The trajectory of a projectile is the path that it follows during its flight. Except for those projectiles whose
motion is initially straight up or down, or those that have their own power source (like a guided missile),
projectiles generally follow a parabolic path. Deviations from this path can be caused either by air resistance,
by spinning of the object or by wind. These effects are often small and can be ignored in many cases. A major
exception, however, is the use of spin in many ball sports, but this effect will not be dealt with in this book.

FIGURE 1.7 A stroboscopic photograph of a ball FIGURE 1.8 A frame of reference for the vertical
undergoing projectile motion. A stroboscope is a and horizontal component motions of a projectile.
light that produces quick flashes at regular
(usually small) time periods. If used with a camera,
instead of a regular flashgun, a stroboscopic
photograph is produced, which shows multiple Horizontal
images of a moving object. motion

Vertical
y-axis

motion

x-axis

TOPIC 1 Projectile motion 7

 To understand and analyse this motion we must note an observation first made by Galileo: the
motion of a projectile can be regarded as two separate and independent motions superimposed upon each
other. The first is a vertical motion, which is subject to acceleration due to gravity, and the second is a hori-
zontal motion, which experiences no acceleration. These two motions can be placed within a two-dimensional
frame of reference, using the y-axis for the vertical motion and the x-axis for the horizontal motion.
Because the two motions are perpendicular, and therefore independent, we can treat them separately and
analyse them separately.

1.3.2 What goes up must come down

Most projectiles are set in motion with velocity. The simplest case is that of a ball thrown directly upwards.
The only force acting on the ball is that of gravity (ignoring air resistance). The ball accelerates downwards
while moving upwards. Initially, this results in the ball slowing down. Eventually, it comes to a halt, then
begins to move downwards, speeding up as it goes. Notice that, when air resistance is ignored, the motion
of the ball is identical whether it is going up or coming down. The ball will return with the same speed with
which it was projected. Throughout the motion illustrated in Figure 1.9 (and for which graphs are shown in
Figure1.10), the acceleration of the ball is a constant 9.8 m s−2 downwards. A common error made by physics
students is to suggest that the acceleration of the ball is zero at the top of its flight. If this were true, would the
ball ever come down?

FIGURE 1.9 The motion of FIGURE 1.10 Graphs of

a ball projected vertically motion for a ball thrown
upwards. (a) going up straight upwards.
(b) going down. (a)
(a) going up (b) going down s (m)

t (s)
(b)
v (m s−1)

v v t (s)

(c)
a (m s−2)

t (s)

−9.8

AS A MATTER OF FACT
The axiom ‘what goes up must come down’ applies equally to bullets as it does to balls. Unfortunately, this
means that people sometimes get killed when they shoot guns straight up into the air. If the bullet left the gun at
a speed of 60 m s−1 , it will return to Earth at roughly the same speed. This speed is well and truly fast enough to
kill a person who is hit by the returning bullet.

8 Jacaranda Physics 12
1.3 SAMPLE PROBLEM 1

A dancer jumps vertically upwards with an initial velocity of 4.0 m s−1 . Assume the dancer’s centre of
mass was initially 1.0 m above the ground, and ignore air resistance.
(a) How long did the dancer take to reach her maximum height?
(b) What was the maximum displacement of the dancer’s centre of mass?
(c) What is the acceleration of the dancer at the top of her jump?
(d) Calculate the velocity of the dancer’s centre of mass when it returns to its original height above
the ground.
SOLUTION:
There are several ways of arriving at the same answer. As has been done in this example, it is always good
practice to minimise the use of answers from previous parts of a question. This makes your answers more
reliable, preventing a mistake made earlier on from distorting the accuracy of your later calculations.
For this problem, assign up as positive and down as negative.
(a) u = 4.0 m s−1 ; a = g = −9.8 m s−2 ; v = 0 m s−1 (as the dancer comes to a halt at the highest point
of the jump); t = ?
v = u + at
(0) = (4.0 m s−1 ) + (−9.8 m s−2 ) t
4.0
⇒t=
9.8
= 0.41 s
The dancer takes 0.41 s to reach her highest point.
(b) u = 4.0 m s−1 ; a = g = −9.8 m s−2 ; v = 0 m s−1 (as the dancer comes to a halt at the highest point
of the jump); s = ?

v2 = u2 + 2as
(0)2 = (4.0 m s−1 )2 + 2 (−9.8 m s−2 ) s
16
⇒s=
19.6
s = 0.82 m
The maximum displacement of the dancer’s centre of mass is 0.82 m.
(c) At the top of the jump, the only force acting on the dancer is the force of gravity (the same as at
all other points of the jump). Therefore, the acceleration of the dancer is acceleration due to
gravity: 9.8 m s−2 downwards.
(d) For this calculation, only the downwards motion needs to be investigated.
u = 0 m s−1 (as the dancer comes to a halt at the highest point of the jump);
a = g = −9.8 m s−2 ; s = −0.82 m (as the motion is downwards); v = ?
v2 = u2 + 2as
v2 = (0)2 + 2 (−9.8 m s−2 ) (−0.82 m)
v = −4.0 m s−1
(Note: Here, the negative square root is used, as the dancer is moving downwards. Remember, the
positive and negative signs show direction only.)
The velocity of the dancer’s centre of mass when it returns to its original height is 4.0 m s−1
downwards.

TOPIC 1 Projectile motion 9

1.3.3 Horizontally launched projectiles
If a ball is launched horizontally from the end of a table, it does not simply drop vertically downwards as soon
as it clears the table edge. Instead, it follows a semi-parabolic trajectory. The curved flight path of the ball
is due to the fact that it is undergoing motion in two dimensions at the same time — horizontal motion and
vertical motion. These two motions can be described in terms of two independent vectors: vx , the horizontal
component of the ball’s velocity, and vy , the vertical component of the ball’s velocity.
The only force acting on the ball once it has been released is gravity (ignoring air resistance). As the force
of gravity is the same regardless of the motion of the ball, the ball will still accelerate downwards at the same
rate as if it were dropped. As the ball falls, the magnitude of vy increases.
By considering the vertical velocity profile of
the ball to be identical to that of an object that FIGURE 1.11 A horizontally projected object will fall at
is simply dropped vertically, the value of the the same rate as it would if it were dropped.
t0
vertical velocity vy can be calculated:
t1

vy = uy + gt
t2
where uy is the initial vertical velocity, g is the
downwards acceleration due to gravity and t is
equal to the time of flight.
As the initial vertical velocity will be equal to
t3
zero,
vy = (0) + gt
⇒ vy = gt

The vertical displacement, y, of the ball as it

drops during the time t can also be found: t4
1
y = uy t + gt2 Dropped Horizontally
2 projected
1
⇒ y = (0) t + gt2
2
1
⇒ y = gt2
2
The horizontal component of the ball’s motion, vx , remains unchanged for the duration of the ball’s flight
because there is no accelerating force acting horizontally on the ball. The horizontal displacement of the ball,
x, from its starting point is then simply:
x = vx t

It is the constant horizontal velocity and changing vertical velocity that gives projectiles their characteristic
parabolic motion. Notice that the vertical distance travelled by the ball in each time period increases, but that
the horizontal distance is constant.

10 Jacaranda Physics 12
 FIGURE 1.12 Position of a horizontally projected ball at constant
time intervals.
vx
vx
vx
vy
vy The horizontal velocity remains the
vx same (i.e. there is no acceleration).

vy
vx

vy
vx
The vertical
velocity increases
vy (i.e. object
accelerates).

1.3.4 Keep them separated

In modelling projectile motion, the vertical and horizontal components of the motion are treated separately.
1. The total time taken for the projectile motion is determined by the vertical part of the motion as the
projectile cannot continue to move horizontally once it has hit the ground, the target or whatever else it
might collide with.
2. This total time can then be used to calculate the horizontal displacement, or range, over which the
projectile travels.

1.3 SAMPLE PROBLEM 2

Imagine the helicopter described in Section 1.2 Sample Problem 3 is not stationary, but is flying at a
slow and steady speed of 20 m s−1 and is 100 m above the ground when the package is dropped.
(a) Calculate how long it takes for the package to hit the ground.
(b) What is the range of the package?
(c) Calculate the vertical distance the package has fallen after 0.50 s, 1.0 s, 1.5 s, 2.0 s, etc. until the
package has reached the ground. (You may like to use a spreadsheet here.) Then calculate the
corresponding horizontal distance, and hence draw a scale diagram of the package’s position at
half-second intervals. Remember, the horizontal and vertical components of the package’s motion
must be considered separately.
(d) Determine the velocity at which the package strikes the ground.

SOLUTION:
(a) In this part of the question, the vertical component is important.
Vertical component: uy = 0 m s−1 ; y = −100 m; ay = g = −9.8 m s−2 ; t = ?
1
y = uy t + ay t2
2
1
−100 m = (0) t + (−9.8 m s−2 ) t2
2
−100
⇒ = t2
−4.9
t = 4.52 s, rounded to 4.5 s

(Note: The positive square root is taken as we are concerned only with what happens after t = 0.)

TOPIC 1 Projectile motion 11

 (b) The range of the package is the horizontal distance over which it travels until it lands on the
ground. It is the horizontal component of velocity that must be considered here.
Horizontal component: ux = vx = 20 m s−1 (The initial velocity of the package is the same as
the velocity of the helicopter in which it has been travelling.)
ax = 0 m s−2 (No forces act horizontally so there is no horizontal acceleration.)
t = 4.5 s (from part (a) of this example); x = ?
1
x = ux t + ax t2
2
1
= (20 m s−1 ) (4.5 s) + (0) (4.5 s)2
2
= 90 m
(c) The calculations for t = 0.5 s are shown here in Table 1.2:

TABLE 1.2 Vertical and horizontal components of the package’s motion.

Vertical component Horizontal component

−1 −2
uy = 0 m s ; t = 0.5 s; ay = g = −9.8 m s ; ux = 20 m s−1 ; t = 0.5 s, x = ?
y=? x = ux t
1
y = uy t + ay t2 = (20 m s−1 )(0.5 s)
2
1 = 10 m
= 0 + (−9.8 m s−2 )(0.5 s)2
2
= −1.225 (rounded to − 1.2 m)

Repeat the calculations shown in Table 1.2 for t = 1.0 s, 1.5 s, 2.0 s, etc. to gain the results
shown in Table 1.3. The scale diagram of the package’s position is shown in Figure 1.13.

TABLE 1.3 Vertical and horizontal displacement travelled over time.

Time (s) Vertical displacement (m) Horizontal displacement (m)

0.5 −1.2 10

1.0 −4.9 20

1.5 −11 30

2.0 −20 40

2.5 −31 50

3.0 −44 60

3.5 −60 70

4.0 −78 80

4.5 −99 90

(d) The velocity at which the package strikes the ground will be the vector sum of the vertical and
horizontal components of the package’s velocity (which occurs at t = 4.5 s as seen in part (a))

12 Jacaranda Physics 12
 FIGURE 1.13 Scale diagram of the package’s position.

0.0
–1.2
–4.9

–11

–20

–31
Vertical displacement (m)

–44

–60

–78

–99

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Horizontal displacement (m)

Vertical component: uy = 0; t = 4.5 s; ay = g = −9.8 m s−2

vy = uy + ay t
FIGURE 1.14 The vertical and
= (0) + (−9.8 m s−2 )(4.5 s) horizontal components of the
= −44.1 m s−1 velocity at which the package
Horizontal component: vx = ux = 20 m s−1 strikes the ground.
As can be seen in Figure 1.14:
vx = 20 m s–1

v = √(vx )2 + (vy )2 θ

= √(20 m s−1 )2 + (44.1 m s−1 )2

= 48.4 m s−1
vy = –44.1 m s–1
v=?
| 44.1 |
and 𝜃 = tan−1 | |
| 20 |
= 65.6° (rounded to 66°)
Therefore, the package strikes the ground with a velocity θ=?
of 48.4 m s−1 at an angle of 66° to the horizontal surface.

TOPIC 1 Projectile motion 13

 WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY 1.3
Different types of golf balls have different numbers of dimples on them, which are meant to provide longer flight
times and so allow them to travel further. Investigate the mathematical relationship between the number and
distribution of dimples on golf balls and their ranges. You will need to design a SAFE method of launching the
golf balls so that they consistently have the same initial velocity and launch angle.

1.3 Exercise 1
1 Why don’t target shooters aim directly at the bullseye in the middle of the target?
2 A ball is thrown directly upwards with a velocity of 45 km h−1 . Ignoring air resistance, determine:
(a) its peak height
(b) its time of flight
(c) its velocity after 0.5 s
(d) its velocity after 1.5 s.
3 A basketball player jumps directly upwards so that his centre of mass reaches a maximum displacement
of 50 cm.
(a) What is the velocity of the basketballer’s centre of mass when it returns to its original height
above the ground?
(b) For how long was the basketballer’s centre of mass above its original height?
4 What will be the horizontal and vertical velocity components of a bullet 0.8 s after it is fired horizontally with a
speed of 900 m s−1 ?
5 Determine the horizontal and vertical velocity components of a dart thrown horizontally with a speed of
5 m s−1 at a time 0.5 seconds after it leaves the thrower’s hand.
6 Calculate the velocity of a horizontally thrown ball after 1.2 s if it has an initial velocity of 7 m s−1 .
7 An air gun is fired horizontally at a target 81 m away and the bullet takes just 0.35 s to strike it.
(a) What was the initial velocity of the bullet?
(b) How far vertically did the bullet drop from the horizontal by the time it had struck the target?
(c) What is the range of the air gun if the target is removed and it is fired horizontally at the same
velocity as in (a)?
8 How long will a bullet fired horizontally at a velocity of 800 m s−1 take to reach a target located 300 m away?
9 A pellet is launched horizontally from a slingshot at a bottle placed on a fence. The pellet strikes the fence
30 cm below the bottle. If the pellet had an initial speed of 50 m s−1 , what horizontal distance separated the
shooter from the bottle?
10 A shot is thrown horizontally with a velocity of 7 m s−1 by a shotput competitor. If the shot left the athlete’s
hand at a height of 1.5 m above the ground, what was its range?
11 A ball is thrown horizontally at a speed of 40 m s−1 from the top of a cliff into the ocean below and takes
4.0 seconds to land in the water. Air resistance can be ignored.
(a) What is the height of the cliff above sea level if the thrower’s hand releases the ball from a height
of 2.0 metres above the ground?
(b) What horizontal distance did the ball cover?
(c) Calculate the vertical component of the velocity at which the ball hits the water.
(d) At what angle to the horizontal does the ball strike the water?

1.4 Projection at an angle

1.4.1 Resolving initial velocity components
Generally, projectiles are shot, thrown or driven at some angle to the horizontal.
In these cases, the initial velocity may be resolved into its horizontal and vertical components to help
simplify the analysis of the motion.

14 Jacaranda Physics 12
 Given a projectile launched with an initial velocity u at an angle 𝜃 to the FIGURE 1.15 The initial
horizontal, the values of the initial horizontal velocity, ux , and the initial velocity at some angle to the
vertical velocity, uy , can be determined by trigonometry: horizontal can be resolved
into vertical and horizontal
ux = u cos 𝜃 components, uy and ux .

uy = u sin 𝜃
u
uy = u sin θ
In this way, a bullet fired at an upward angle of 30° at a speed of θ
400 m s−1 will have an initial horizontal velocity of ux = u cos θ
−1
346 m s (ux = 400 cos 30°) and an initial vertical velocity of
200 m s−1 (uy = 400 sin 30°).
As with horizontally launched projectiles, the horizontal velocity component of the projectile launched at
an angle will remain the same throughout its journey, that is:
u x = vx
The vertical velocity component, however, will vary in the same manner as any other object that is thrown
straight up; it will slow down as it rises, come to rest momentarily at the top of its motion and then fall back
towards the Earth again with increasing speed. The position and velocity of any projectile at any moment in
time can, as usual, be determined by the equations of motion.

1.4.2 Symmetrical parabolic motion

For a projectile fired from ground level and returning to ground level at the end of its flight, the trajectory
of the projectile is considered to be symmetrical, with the axis of symmetry being the vertical line passing
through the position of maximum height.
For Figure 1.16, calculations have been performed for several points along the trajectory of a fired bullet
to show how the velocity varies throughout the motion. You can see how the velocity reduces to a minimum
at the peak, because at this point the vertical velocity is zero although the horizontal velocity remains. As the
projectile falls from its peak, its velocity increases again until, at the end of the trajectory, it has the same
value as the initial velocity and even the same angle to the horizontal, although now it is directed below the
horizontal.
The bullet reaches its maximum height halfway through the total time of flight; also at this point, the bullet
has travelled half of its range.

FIGURE 1.16 Velocity determined at many points along the trajectory of a bullet fired from an air gun.

vx = 30.3 m s–1
v = 32.7 m s–1
–1 vx = 30.3 m s–1
22° vy = 12.3 m s
vx = 30.3 m s –1 22° vy = 12.3 m s–1
v = 35 m s–1 v = 32.7 m s–1
uy = 35 sin 30°
30° = 17.5 m s–1 vx = 30.3 m s–1
30°
ux = 35 cos 30° vy = 17.5 m s–1
= 30.3 m s–1 v = 35 m s–1

In general, here are some tips for performing projectile motion calculations:
• It helps to draw a diagram.
• Always separate the motion into vertical and horizontal components.
• Remember to resolve the initial velocity into its components if necessary.

TOPIC 1 Projectile motion 15

• The time in flight is the link between the separate vertical and horizontal components of the motion.
• At the end of any calculation, check to see if the quantities you have calculated are reasonable.

1.4 SAMPLE PROBLEM 1

A stunt driver is trying to drive a car over a small river. The car will travel up a ramp (at an angle of 40°)
and leave the ramp travelling at 22 m s−1 . The river is 50 m wide. Will the car make it?

FIGURE 1.17

−1
s
m
22
y =
locit
ve 40° river 40°

50 m
SOLUTION:
FIGURE 1.18 The vertical
Assign up as positive and down as negative. and horizontal components
Before either part of the motion can be examined, it is important to of the stunt car’s initial
calculate the vertical and horizontal components of the initial velocity. velocity.
Therefore, the initial vertical velocity is 14 m s−1 and the initial
horizontal velocity is 17 m s−1 .
u = 22 m s−1
In order to calculate the range of the car (how far it will travel
uy = 22 sin 40°
horizontally), it is clear that the horizontal part of its motion must be = 14 m s−1
considered. However, the vertical part is also important. The vertical
motion is used to calculate the time in the air. Then, the horizontal 40°
motion is used to calculate the range. ux = 22 cos 40°
= 17 m s−1

TABLE 1.4 Calculating the horizontal and vertical components

Vertical component Horizontal component

(Use the first half of the motion — from take-off until ux = 17 m s−1 ; t = 2.8 s (being twice the time taken
the car has reached its highest point. This can be to reach maximum height as calculated for the
done because the trajectory is symmetrical.) vertical component), ax = 0, x = ?
uy = 14 m s−1 ; ay = g = −9.8 m s−2 ; 1
x = ux t + ax t2
vy = 0 (as the car comes to a vertical halt at its 2
1
highest point); t = ? = (17 m s−1 )(2.8 s) + (0)t2
2
vy = uy + ay t = 48 m
0 = 14 m s−1 + (−9.8 m s−2 )t
14
t= = 1.4 s
9.8
As this is only half the motion, the total time in the
air is 2.8 s. (It is possible to double the time in this
situation because we have ignored air
resistance.The two parts of the motion are
symmetrical.)

Therefore, the unlucky stunt driver will fall short of the second ramp and will land in the river. Maybe
the study of physics should be a prerequisite for all stunt drivers!

16 Jacaranda Physics 12
1.4.3 Asymmetric trajectories
Let’s now consider the case of a projectile that is launched at a point above the horizontal plane on which it
will land.

1.4 SAMPLE PROBLEM 2

The archer in Figure 1.19 releases his arrow from a point 1.5 m above the ground at an angle of 10°. If
the arrow has an initial velocity of 30 m s−1 , calculate:
(a) the maximum height of the arrow above the ground
(b) the range of the arrow
(c) the velocity with which the arrow strikes the ground.

FIGURE 1.19
B

ymax
30 m/s
10° 10° C
A

1.5 m

Range

SOLUTION:
(a) First, the horizontal and vertical components of the initial velocity need to be determined:
ux = u cos 𝜃 = (30 m s−1 ) cos 10° = 29 m s−1
uy = u sin 𝜃 = (30 m s−1 ) sin 10° = 5 m s−1
Now, it can be seen in the diagram that the arrow will reach its highest point at position B,
located a height (ymax + 1.5 m) above the ground. At this position, the vertical component of the
arrow’s velocity will equal zero.
uy = 5 m s−1 ; vy = 0; ay = g = −9.8 m s−2 ; ymax = ?
v2y = u2y + 2ay ymax

(0)2 = (5 m s −1)2 + 2(−9.8 m s−2 ) ymax

(5)2
⇒ ymax =
19.6
= 1.3 m
h = ymax + 1.5 m = 1.3 m + 1.5 m = 2.8 m

The arrow reaches a maximum height of 2.8 m above the ground.

(b) In order to determine the range, the arrow’s total time of flight must be determined. While the
time taken to reach B from A is equal to the time taken to go from B to C (the symmetrical section
of the trajectory), it is apparent that the flight time from B to D is much longer. As a result, two
separate sets of flight time calculations must be made: one for the flight time from A to B(tAB ) and
another set for the flight time from B to D (tBD ).

TOPIC 1 Projectile motion 17

 For section AB:
uy = 5 m s−1 ; vy = 0; ay = g = −9.8 m s−2 ; ymax = 1.3 m; tAB = ?
vy = uy + ay tAB
(0) = (5 m s−1 ) + (−9.8 m s−2 ) tAB
5
⇒ tAB =
9.8
= 0.51 s

For section BD:

uy = 0; ay = g = −9.8 m s−2 ; y = −2.8 m; tBD = ?

1
y = uy tBD + ay tBD 2
2
1
(−2.8 m) = (0)tBD + (−9.8 m s−2 )tBD 2
2
−2.8
⇒ tBD = √
−4.9
= ±0.57 s

In this instance, it is only the positive value that has meaning for us, so tBD = 0.57 s
The total time of flight from A to D, tAD can then be found:

tAD = tAB + tBD = (0.51 s) + (0.57 s) = 1.08 s

The range x is then calculated:

ux = 29 m s−1 ; t = 1.08 s; x = ?

x = ux t
= (29 m s−1 ) (1.08 s)
= 31.3 m
The range of the arrow is 31.3 m.
(c) Considering the flight of the arrow between B and D, in the vertical direction:
uy = 0; y = −2.8 m; ay = g = −9.8 m s−2 ; tBD = 0.57 s; vy = ?

vy = uy + ay tBD
vy = (0) + (−9.8 m s−2 ) (0.57)
vy = −5.6 m s−1
In the horizontal direction, the speed of the arrow remains the same throughout its flight, that
is, vx = ux = 29 m s−1 .
The velocity v with which the arrow strikes the ground at D will be the vector sum of the
horizontal and vertical components:

18 Jacaranda Physics 12
 v = √(29 m s−1 )2 + (−5.6 m s−1 )2 FIGURE 1.20
= 29.5 m s−1 ux = 29 m s–1
5.6 θ
⇒ 𝜃 = tan−1 = 11° Vy = –5.6 m s–1
( 29 )
V
θ
The arrow strikes the ground with a velocity of 29.5 m s−1 at an
angle of 11° to the horizontal.

1.4.4 Projectile motion in the real world

In all of our work on projectile motion we have ignored the effect of air resistance on the motion of the
projectile. The reason for this is that it is simply too difficult for us to account for, since it depends on
many factors such as the shape, surface area and texture of the projectile, as well as its velocity through
the air. In the real world, air resistance acts as a retarding force in both the vertical and horizontal direc-
tions. As a result, the path of the projectile is distorted away from a perfect parabola to the shape shown in
Figure 1.21.

FIGURE 1.21 Air resistance opposes the velocity of a projectile at any given
moment and distorts the trajectory away from a parabolic shape.
Path of a projectile
with air resistance
Fa.r.

Path of projectile
without air
resistance

Fa.r.

Fa.r.

PHYSICS IN FOCUS
Hanging in mid air
Sometimes dancers, basketballers and high jumpers seem to hang in mid air. It is as though the force of gravity
had temporarily stopped acting on them. Of course this is not so! It is only the person’s centre of mass that
moves in a parabolic path. The arrangement of the person’s body can change the position of the centre of mass,
causing the body to appear to be hanging in mid air even though the centre of mass is still following its original
path.

TOPIC 1 Projectile motion 19

 High jumpers can use this effect to increase the height of their jumps. By bending his body as he passes over
the bar, a high jumper can cause his centre of mass to be outside his body! This allows his body to pass over the
bar, while his centre of mass passes under it. The amount of energy available to raise the high jumper’s centre of
mass is limited, so he can raise his centre of mass only by a certain amount. This technique allows him to clear a
higher bar than other techniques for the same amount of energy.

FIGURE 1.22 A high jumper’s centre of mass passes under the bar, while
his body passes over the bar!

1.4 Exercise 1
1 What will be the range of a javelin that is thrown by an athlete at an angle of 20° with a velocity of 18 m s−1 if
the point of the javelin was 1.8 m from the ground when it was launched?
2 A football is kicked when it is lying motionless on the ground, giving it a velocity of 22 m s−1 at an angle
of 30°.
(a) How long will the football remain in the air, assuming that it is not intercepted?
(b) What will be the football’s range?
(c) How high above the ground will the football be 0.6 s after it is kicked?
3 The batter in a softball game hits the ball high into the air at an angle of 68°. If the ball has an initial velocity of
50 km h−1 , how far from the batter must the pitcher stand if they are to catch it on the full? Assume that the
ball will be caught at the height at which the bat hit it.
4 A golfer wishes to send the ball onto the green 350 m away but knows that it will need to have a trajectory of
at least 40° if it is to pass over a nearby section of rough. With what speed will the ball need to travel from the
tee to reach the green?
5 A tennis ball is struck 15° above horizontal at a velocity of 25 m s−1 . If the ball was 1.2 m above the court
surface when it was struck, calculate:
(a) the maximum height reached by this ball
(b) the range of the ball assuming that it is not hit by the player’s opponent.

20 Jacaranda Physics 12
 Complete this digital doc: Free throw shooter
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Complete this digital doc: Investigation: Modelling projectile motion
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Complete this digital doc: Investigation: Predicting the range of a projectile
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Complete this digital doc: Investigation: The drop zone
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1.5 Review
1.5.1 Summary
• In the absence of an atmosphere, all objects on the Earth would fall with the same acceleration regardless
of size or mass.
• Objects fall at different rates due to drag (air resistance). The drag force exerted by the air on a falling
object is proportional to the density of the air, the object’s cross-sectional area perpendicular to its
descent, and the square of its velocity.
• When the forces exerted by gravity and air resistance on a falling object are equal, it ceases to accelerate.
For the rest of its descent it falls at a constant velocity called the terminal velocity.
• A projectile is any object that is launched into the air.
• There are two forces acting on a projectile in flight: gravity acting downwards and air resistance acting in
the opposite direction to that of the motion. In modelling projectile motion, it is helpful to ignore the air
resistance.
• To analyse the motion of a projectile, the equations of motion with constant acceleration can be applied to
the horizontal and vertical components of the motion separately.
• The vertical motion of a projectile is uniformly accelerated motion and can be analysed using these
equations:
vy = u y + a y t
1
∆y = uy t + ay t2
2
v2y = u2y + 2ay ∆y.

• The horizontal motion of a projectile has constant velocity. As acceleration in the horizontal direction is
zero, the motion can be analysed using these equations:
vx = ux
vx 2 = ux 2
∆x = ux t.
• An object projected horizontally near Earth’s surface travels in a semi-parabolic path if air resistance is
negligible.
• Objects that are projected upwards at an angle follow a parabolic path that is (ideally) symmetrical. The
object reaches its maximum height halfway through its motion, and the vertical component of its velocity
at this time is equal to zero.

TOPIC 1 Projectile motion 21

1.5.2 Questions
(In the following problems, assume negligible air resistance and that g = −9.8 m s−2 unless otherwise stated.)
1. Explain why it is that the vertical and horizontal components of a projectile’s motion are independent of
each other. Identify any common variables.
2. Describe the trajectory of a projectile.
3. List any assumptions we are making in our treatment of projectile motion.
4. Describe Galileo’s contribution to our knowledge of projectile motion.
5. What is the mathematical significance of vertical and horizontal motions being perpendicular?
6. Describe the effect of air resistance on the trajectory of a projectile.
7. Explain why the horizontal component of velocity remains the same when a projectile’s motion is
modelled.
8. While many pieces of information relating to the vertical and horizontal parts of a particular projectile’s
motion are different, the time is always the same. Explain why this is so.
9. In each of the cases shown in Figure 1.23, calculate the magnitude of the vertical and horizontal
components of the velocity.

FIGURE 1.23
(a) (b) (c)
v = 20 m s–1 v = 11 m s–1 (e)
v=5m s–1 (d)
23°
v = 10 km h–1 60°
50° v = 33 m s–1

10. Peter hangs from the diving board by his fingers, with his feet 6 metres above the water. Ignoring air
resistance, calculate:
(a) the time between Peter letting go and his feet entering the water
(b) his velocity when his feet enter the water
(c) his distance above the water 0.1 seconds after letting go.
11. A student archer keeps aiming directly at the bullseye, which is 200 m away at the end of the target
range, but sees that his arrows always seem to land 1 m below the bullseye. If he is shooting horizontally
every time, with what velocity are his arrows leaving the bow?
12. A volleyball player sets the ball for a team mate. In doing so, she taps the ball up at 5.0 m s−1 at an angle
of 80.0° above the horizontal. If her fingers tapped the ball at a height of 1.9 m above the floor, calculate
the maximum height to which the ball rises above the floor.
13. An ‘extreme’ cyclist wants to perform a stunt in which he rides up a ramp, launching himself into the
air, then flies through a hoop and lands on another ramp. The angle of each ramp is 30.0° and the cyclist
is able to reach the launch height of 1.50 m with a launching speed of 30.0 km h−1 . Calculate:
(a) the maximum height above the ground that the lower edge of the hoop could be placed
(b) how far away the landing ramp should be placed.
14. A football is kicked with a velocity of 35.0 m s−1 at an angle of 60.0°. Calculate:
(a) the ‘hang time’ of the ball (time in the air)
(b) the length of the kick.
15. A basketball player stands 2.50 m from the ring. He faces the backboard, jumps up so that his hands are
level with the ring and launches the ball at 5.00 m s−1 at an angle of 50.0° above the horizontal.
Calculate whether he will score.

22 Jacaranda Physics 12
16. A coastal defence cannon fires a shell horizontally from the top of a 50.0 m high cliff, directed out to sea
as shown in Figure 1.24, with a velocity of 1060.0 m s−1 . Calculate the range of the shell’s trajectory.

FIGURE 1.24

1060.0 m s–1

50.0 m

17. A ball falls from the roof-top tennis court of an inner city building. This tennis court is 150 m above the
street below. Assume the ball has no initial velocity.
(a) How long would the ball take to hit the street?
(b) What would the vertical velocity of the ball be just prior to hitting the ground?
18. After taking a catch, Ricky Ponting throws the cricket ball up into the air in jubilation.
(a) The vertical velocity of the ball as it leaves his hands is 18 m s−1 . How long will the ball take to
return to its original position?
(b) What was the ball’s maximum vertical displacement?
19. A friend wants to get into the Guinness Book of Records by jumping over 11 people on his push bike.
He has set up two ramps as shown, and has allowed a space of 0.5 m for each person to lay down in. In
practice attempts, he has averaged a speed of 7.0 m s−1 at the end of the ramp. Will you lay down as the
eleventh person between the ramps? Support your response with appropriate calculations.

FIGURE 1.25
v

45°

you

20. A gymnast wants to jump a distance of 2.5 m, leaving the ground at an angle of 28°. With what speed
must the gymnast take off?
21. A horse rider wants to jump a 3.0 m wide stream. The horse can approach the stream with a speed of
7 m s−1 . At what angle must the horse take off? (Hint: You will need to use trigonometric identities from
mathematics, or model the situation using a spreadsheet to solve this problem.)
22. Experienced target shooters say that they do not so much aim at the target as ‘feel’ for the right spot
above the target. Michelle is an experienced target shooter who has scored a perfect bullseye on a target
300 m away. If the target was set at her eye level and the bullet left the rifle at a speed of 600 m s−1 , how
high above the bullseye was she actually aiming her rifle? (Hint: The trigonometric identity
1
sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 = sin 2𝜃 may come in handy.)
2
23. During a football game, a player kicks the ball from the ground so that it enters the air at an angle of 30°
with a speed of 20 m s−1 . As it is coming down, a player from the opposing team running in at a constant
speed of 6 m s−1 catches it when it is 1.2 m above the ground. If the opposing player was running in a
straight line towards the kicker when the ball was launched, what was the distance between the two
players at that time?

TOPIC 1 Projectile motion 23

 PRACTICAL INVESTIGATIONS
Investigation 1.1: Modelling projectile motion
This investigation aims to model projectile motion by studying the motion of a ball bearing projected onto an
inclined plane.
You will need the following equipment:
(a) 30 cm × 30 cm board
(b) retort stand and clamp
(c) carbon paper
(d) ball bearing
(e) graph paper
(f) 30 cm ruler (the ramp)
Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1.26.

FIGURE 1.26 The path of the projectile (ball bearing) is marked as it

rolls down the ramp on the carbon paper.

Clamp

Ball bearing
Retort Ruler
stand
Carbon paper

Books for support

30 cm × 30 cm board
Graph paper

Set up the inclined plane at an angle of approximately 20° and place the graph paper on it so that the ball will
enter onto the inclined plane at a major division on the paper. Clamp the ruler so that the ball bearing rolling from
it onto the inclined plane will be projected horizontally. Adjust the angle of the ruler so the path of the ball bearing
will fit on the graph paper.
Having adjusted the apparatus, place a piece of carbon paper on the graph paper and record the motion of the
ball bearing projected onto the inclined plane.
Remove the carbon paper and highlight the path for easier analysis.
We will assume that the horizontal velocity of the ball bearing’s motion remained constant. Therefore, as the
ball bearing takes equal times to travel horizontally between the major divisions on the graph paper, we can
arbitrarily call one of these major divisions a unit of time.
Beginning at the point where the ball entered the graph paper, label these major divisions 0, 1, 2, 3... time
intervals.
Record and tabulate the distance down the slope that the ball bearing travelled during each time interval.
Determine the average speed of the ball bearing down the slope during each time interval. Your answers
should be in cm per time unit.
Plot a graph of average speed down the slope versus time and determine a value for the acceleration of the
ball down the slope. Your answer will be in cm per (time unit)2 .

24 Jacaranda Physics 12
1. What do these graphs indicate about the motion of the ball down the plane?
2. What assumptions have been made in order to obtain these results?
3. How would the path of the ball bearing differ if:
(a) the inclined plane was raised to a steeper angle while keeping the ramp as it was?
(b) the angle of the ramp was raised and the inclined plane was kept as it was?
4. The ball moves faster across the bottom of the paper than across the top, which represents an increase in
kinetic energy. What is the source of this extra energy? Try to find out why the rolling mass of the ball
introduces a problem into this energy conversion.

Investigation 1.2: Predicting the range of a projectile

The aim of this investigation is to predict the range (that is, the horizontal distance travelled) of a projectile with a
known initial horizontal velocity, and then to test the prediction.
The method you use to release the projectile with a known velocity will depend on the equipment available.
One method is to use a pendulum bob as the projectile. Initially, the pendulum bob is attached to a retort stand
with a fine thread, and is held at an angle before being released. The initial height is measured before the
pendulum is released. As the pendulum reaches the bottom of its swing, the thread is cut by a carefully placed
razor blade. The change in height of the pendulum bob can be used to determine the amount of gravitational
potential energy that has been converted into kinetic energy of the pendulum bob. The kinetic energy, in
conjunction with its mass, can be used to calculate the velocity of the pendulum at the moment the thread is cut.
As the pendulum is moving horizontally at this point, this is the initial horizontal velocity of the pendulum bob.
One possible set-up for this investigation is shown in Figure 1.27.

FIGURE 1.27 A possible arrangement of equipment for Investigation 1.2.

Retort stand

Pendulum bob
on cotton thread

Clamp holding razor blade

Predicted path
of pendulum bob

Plastic cup
or target

An alternative method involves rolling a marble down a ramp and again taking note of the energy changes to
calculate the horizontal velocity at the bottom of the ramp. Both of these methods allow an estimate of the initial
horizontal velocity of the projectile.
You may have access to technology (such as light gates or motion sensors) that allows you to measure the
horizontal velocity of the projectile directly.
Once you know the initial horizontal velocity of the projectile and have measured the vertical distance it will fall,
calculate the range of the projectile.
Place a target where you think the projectile will land. The target should be about 5 cm in diameter to take into
account the estimated initial velocity, and the fact that air resistance and any spin of the projectile have been
ignored in the calculations. Release your projectile and see how accurate your prediction was!

TOPIC 1 Projectile motion 25

 Investigation 1.3: The drop zone
The aim of this investigation is to explore the relationship between the initial speed of a horizontally launched
object and its range.
You will need the following equipment:
(a) steel ball bearing
(b) curved track (or flexible plastic racing car track)
(c) metre ruler
(d) long plastic trough or tray filled with sand
(e) data logger with motion sensor.
Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1.28. Ensure that the motion sensor is mounted directly opposite the
launch end of the track.

FIGURE 1.28

Steel ball

Curved
track Motion
sensor

Desk y

Sand trough

Measure the height y between the launch end of the track and the floor.
Roll the ball down the track and note its landing position in the sand tray.
Measure the distance x between the launch end of the track and the landing position and read the launch
speed (ux ) from the data logger. Enter these values into a data table.
Adjust the height of the top end of the track to vary the value of ux and repeat for 3 more launch speeds.
1. Given your measurement of the vertical distance y, and assuming that a = −9.8 m s−2 and uy = 0, determine
the flight time t of the ball.
2. Using the flight time from the previous question and the values of ux , determine the theoretical range x that
the ball should have reached in each of the 4 trials.
3. Compare these theoretical values to the experimental values that you obtained in each case.
4. What explanations can you give for any discrepancies between the values?
5. State the relationship between the initial speed of a horizontally launched projectile and its range.

26 Jacaranda Physics 12