23

Hydraulic Machines–Turbines

23.1 INTRODUCTION AQ 1

Hydraulic machines can be broadly classified as turbines, pumps, and transmis-

sion appliances. Hydraulic (water) turbines are the machines that use the energy
of water (hydropower) and convert it into mechanical energy. Turbines are devices
that extract energy from a flowing fluid. A hydraulic turbine uses potential energy
and kinetic energy of water and converts it into usable mechanical energy. The
mechanical energy made available at the turbine shaft is used to run an electric
power generator, which is directly coupled to the turbine shaft. Most of the turbines
can be classified into two basic types—impulse turbines and reaction turbines. In
the case an of impulse turbine, the total head of the incoming fluid is converted
into a large velocity head at the exit of the supply nozzle. That is, the entire avail-
able energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy. Although there are var-
ious types of impulse turbine designs, perhaps the easiest to understand is the
Pelton wheel turbine. It is most efficient when operated with a large head and
lower flow rate. Reaction turbines, on the other hand, are best suited for higher
flow rate and lower head situations. Turbines are manufactured in a variety of con-
figurations—radial flow, mixed flow, and axial flow. Typical radial and mixed flow
hydraulic turbines are called Francis turbine. At very low heads, the most efficient
type of turbine is the axial flow or propeller turbine. The Kaplan turbine is an effi-
cient axial flow hydraulic turbine with adjustable blades. Both impulse and reac-
tion turbines can be analyzed using the momentum of momentum principle.

23.2 TYPES OR CLASSIFICATION OF TURBINES

Hydraulic turbines may be classified as follows:
According to hydraulic action (action of water on moving vanes) / according
to type of energy available at inlet
Impulse turbine: One of the two basic types of hydraulic turbines is impulse
turbine. Pelton wheel is a classical example of an impulse turbine. An impulse
turbine is one in which all the available energy of the flow is converted by a nozzle
into kinetic energy at atmospheric pressure before the fluid contacts the moving
blades.

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1015

Pelton wheel turbine is a tangential flow turbine. The water strikes the bucket
along the tangent of the runner. Generally, in case of the impulse turbine, water
is led to a single nozzle through the pipes called penstock, from a reservoir. The
whole pressure energy of water is converted into kinetic energy.
Losses occur in flow from the reservoir through the pressure pipe to the base
of the nozzle, which may be computed from the pipe friction data. Casing is pro-
vided only to prevent splashing of water and also to guide the water into tail race.
In general, impulse turbines are high- head and low- flow rate devices. This type
of turbine is also known as free jet turbine.
Reaction turbine: Here, the rotation of runner or rotor (rotating part of the tur-
bine) is partly due to impulse action and partly due to change in pressure over the
runner blades; hence it is called as reaction turbine. Therefore, the case of reaction
turbines is totally different from that of (Pelton wheel) impulse turbine. For a reac-
tion turbine, the penstock pipe feeds water to a row of fixed blades through casing.
These fixed blades convert a part of the pressure energy into kinetic energy before
water enters the runner. Therefore, water entering the runner of a reaction turbine
has both pressure energy and kinetic energy. Water leaving the turbine is still left
with pressure energy and kinetic energy. Since, the flow from the inlet to tail race
is under pressure, casing is absolutely necessary to enclose the turbine. In general,
reaction turbines are medium to low-head, high-flow rate devices. The reaction
turbines in use are Francis and Kaplan.
According to direction of flow of water through runner
Tangential flow: Here, the water strikes the runner in the direction of tangent to
the wheel. Pelton wheel is a tangential flow turbine.
Radial flow: Here, the water strikes in the radial direction. Accordingly, it is fur-
ther classified as follows:
i. Inward flow turbine: Here, the flow is inward from periphery to the center
(centripetal type). Example: old Francis turbine
ii. Outward flow turbine: Here, the flow is outward from the center to periph-
ery (centrifugal type). Example: Fourneyron turbine
Axial flow: Here, the flow of water is in the direction parallel to the axis of the
shaft. Example: Kaplan turbine and propeller turbine.
Mixed flow: Here, the water enters the runner in the radial direction and leaves in
the axial direction. Example: modern Francis turbine.
AQ 2 The direction of flow of water through runner is depicted in Fig 23.1
According to the position of turbine shaft
Horizontal shaft turbine: Here, the shaft is horizontal and the runner is vertical.
Example: Pelton wheel turbine.
Vertical shaft turbine: Here, the shaft is vertical and the runner is horizontal.
Example: All turbines, except Pelton wheel turbine.

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 1016 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Turbine

Tangential flow Axial flow Mixed: radial and axial

(Pelton wheel) (Kaplan turbine) (Modern Francis turbine)

Outward radial flow Inward radialflow

(Fourneyron turbine) (Old Francis turbine)
Fig. 23. 1 Flow of water through runner AQ 3

According to head
High head turbine: Here, the net head varies from 150 m to 2000 m or even
more, and also, these turbines require a small quantity of water. Example: Pelton
wheel turbine.
Medium head turbine: Here, the net head varies from 30 m to 150 m, and also
these turbines require moderate quantity of water. Example: Francis turbine.
Low head turbine: Here, the net head is less than 30 m and also these turbines
require large quantity of water. Example: Kaplan turbine.
According to specific speed
The specific speed of a turbine is defined as the speed of a geometrically simi-
lar turbine that would develop unit power when working under a unit head
(1 m head). It is prescribed by the relation,

N P
Ns = (23.1)
H 5/ 4

Here, P = power in kW; H = head in meters; N = speed in rpm.

Low specific speed turbine: Here, the specific speed is less than 50 (varying
from 10 to 35 for single jet and up to 50 for double jet.) Example: Pelton wheel
turbine.
Medium specific speed turbine: Here, the specific speed varies from 50 to 250.
Example: Francis turbine.
High specific speed turbine: Here, the specific speed is more than 250. Example:
Kaplan turbine.

23.2.1 Differences Between an Impulse Turbine and

Reaction Turbine
Table 23.1 indicates the difference between an impulse turbine and a reaction
turbine.

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1017

Table 23.1 Differences between an impulse turbine and a reaction turbine

Impulse turbine Reaction turbine

The entire available energy of the water is Only a portion of the fluid energy is con
converted into kinetic energy verted into kinetic energy before the
fluid enters the turbine runner
The work is done only by the change in The work is done partly by the change in
the kinetic energy of the jet the velocity head, but almost entirely by
the change in pressure head
Flow regulation is possible without loss It is not possible to regulate the flow
without loss
Unit is installed above the tail race Unit is entirely submerged in water below
the tail race
Casing has no hydraulic function to perform, Casing is absolutely necessary, because the
because the jet is unconfined and is pressure at inlet to the turbine is much
at atmospheric pressure. Thus, cas- higher than the pressure at outlet. Unit
ing serves only to prevent splashing of has to be sealed from atmospheric
water pressure
It is not essential that the wheel should run Water completely fills the vane passage
full and air has free access to the buckets

23.3 LAYOUT OF A HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT

AQ 4 Figure. 23.2a and b shows a layout of hydroelectric power plants. Any hydroelec-
tric power plant requires continuous supply of water. The available water has to
be stored in a reservoir (behind the dam, as shown in Fig. 23.2) before it can be
used to generate electric power. This necessitates the construction of a dam for
impounding water and creating head or fall. The power house containing the tur-
bines (which transforms the energy of water into mechanical energy) and electri-
cal generators (which transforms the mechanical energy of turbines into electrical
energy) may be located at the dam or at a considerable distance below it on the
down stream. The level of water in the storage reservoir is called the head race.
Water from the reservoir is carried to the power house through pipes of large diam-
eters called penstocks. These pipes are made of steel or reinforced concrete. The
water leaving the runner blades flow through a channel leading to the downstream
called the tail race. In some installations, smaller reservoirs known as forebays are
also provided. A forebay is essentially a storage reservoir at the head of penstocks.
By providing forebay one can store water temporarily when it is not required by
the turbine and supply the water to the turbine when it is required. Hydroelectric
power plants can be classified as follows:
a. On the basis of head
1. High head (h > 250 m)
2. Medium head (50 < h < 250 m)
3. Low head (h < 50 m)

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 1018 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

(a)
Head race
T.G.L hf hLn
AQ 5
Reservoir T.G.L
Dam H.G.L
Trash rack Penstock
Pelton turbine
Net head, H
or Effective Vanes
H.G.L
Nozzle
Gross head Hg
Jet h
Tail race

(b)
Head race
hf
Dam Generato
Penstock
Reservoir Reaction
turbine H
Hg
Draft tube
Tail race V 2/2g

Z1 Z2
Datum

Fig. 23.2 (a, b) Layouts of hydroelectric plants

b. On the basis of their function

1. Run-of river plant
2. Storage plant
3. Pumped storage plant
4. Tidal power plant
The layout of a hydroelectric power project would vary widely depending on the
head and topography. Run-of river plant would be a low-head development with
power house as a part of the dam. Axial flow (Kaplan) turbine is used for energy
conversion in low-head plants. Medium head plant is associated with reservoir
storage type construction, where large quantity of water is stored for power gen-
eration. The power house is built at the foot of a dam or at lower reach. Depending
on the head, either axial flow or mixed flow (Francis) turbine is used in this type
of installation. High head plants are associated with mountainous regions, where a

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1019

small or medium reservoir is built at a high level and water is conveyed to a power
house at a lower level by means of penstocks. Here, invariably, Pelton wheel
turbines are used.

23.4 DEFINITIONS OF HEADS

Gross head (Hg): is nothing but the difference between the head race level and
tail race level when no water is flowing. therefore, it is called as static head or total
head. It is represented by Hg.
Net head or effective head (H): is defined as the head available at the inlet of
the turbine. It is also called as effective head and is represented by H. When water
is flowing from reservoir to turbine, considering the loss due to friction alone
(because minor losses are smaller in magnitude), the net head is given by,

H = H g − hf (23.2a)

(i.e., by subtracting from the gross head, all the losses of head that may occur as
water flows from head race to the entrance of the turbine).
For reaction turbine, the net head is equal to the difference between (a) the
pressure head at the entrance to the turbine plus the velocity head in the penstock
at the entrance plus datum head at the entrance and (b) the velocity head in the
draft tube at the exit plus datum head at the tail water.

H = {total energy at exit from penstock} − {total energy at exit from the draft tube}

That is,
⎛ p V2 ⎞ ⎛ p V2 ⎞
H=⎜ + + Z⎟ =⎜ + + Z⎟ (23.2b)
⎝ g 2g ⎠ penstock ⎝ g 2 g ⎠ draft tube

23.4.1 Head Loss Due to Friction

Let, hf be the head loss due to friction
4 fLV 2
= (23.3)
2 gD

Here, L = length of the penstock; D = diameter of the penstock; V = velocity of

flow in penstock.

23.4.2 Head Loss in the Nozzle

Let, Cv = coefficient of velocity in the nozzle; V and p are the velocity and pressure
at the base of the nozzle, respectively; D = diameter of the penstock; v and d are
the velocity and diameter of the jet, respectively; then, net head is given by

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 1020 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

P V2 Q
H= = ; here, V =
g 2g p (23.4)
× D2
4

And also,
Q
v=
p (23.5)
× d2
4

But

v = Cv 2 gH (23.6)

Therefore,
Head loss in the nozzle is given by

v2
hLn = H − = H − Cv2 H = H (1 − CV2 ) (23.7)
2g

23.5 POWER PRODUCED BY AN IMPULSE TURBINE

The power supplied by a water jet depends upon the net or effective head and the
rate of flow. Power produced is given by,

p = g QH = ( r g )QH kW (23.8)

Here, Q = is the jet discharge in cumecs; H = net or effective head in meters

Notes
1. The power supplied by the jet is often called as water power (W.P).
The power delivered by the bucket wheel is given by

m(VW 1 ± Vw 2 )u = rQa (Vw1 ± Vw 2 )u (23.9)

here, Qa = actual flow rate to the turbine bucket or runner

2. The power developed at the turbine buckets is often called the bucket or
actual power (B.P)
3. The turbine is governed to operate at constant speed, N and the generators
are designed with the proper number of the pairs of poles, p to produce the
desired frequency, f at the selected speed, N. The synchronous speed of the
alternator is given by,
60 f
N= (23.10)
p

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1021

23.6 EFFICIENCIES OF A TURBINE

The various energy/head losses that may occur in a hydroelectric power plant with
impulse turbine unit are shown in Fig. 23.3. Accordingly, the following four effi-
ciencies of a turbine are of practical importance.
Hydraulic efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of power delivered to the runner
to the power supplied at inlet (i.e., water power). The power at the inlet is more
and this water power goes on decreasing due to various losses. Hence, the power
delivered to the runner is always less than the power available at the inlet. Thus,
the hydraulic efficiency is written as

power delivered to the runner of the turbine R.P

hh = =
waters power W.P

Here, R.P = runner power, which is given by

( rg )Q
R.P =
g
{Vw1 ± Vw 2 } u (23.11)

Water power is given by

W.P = rgQH (23.12)

Therefore, hydraulic efficiency is given by

hh =
{Vw1 ± Vw 2 } u = H r (23.13)
gH H

1
here, Hr = runner head or Euler head = {Vw1 ± Vw 2 } u. This is nothing, but the
g .
energy transfer per unit weight of water.

Gross power Net power Power developed Power obtained

from reservoir from reservoir by wheel from shaft
Reservoir Penstock Nozzle end Turbine
wheel
Head loss in Head loss
Penstock, hf in nozzle
Mechanical losses:
Bearing and friction
Hydraulic losses:
1. Blade friction Shaft
2. Eddy formation
3. Energy of leaving water Generator losses
4. Leakage loss
Generator
Fig. 23.3 Losses of energy in Pelton wheel turbine

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 1022 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Mechanical efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the power available at the shaft
of the turbine to the power delivered to the runner. That is,

power available at the turbine shaft S.P

hm = =
power delivered to the runnerr of the turbine R.P
S.P
= (23.14)
gQH r

Notes
1. For Pelton wheel turbine mechanical efficiency varies from 0.97 to 0.99,
depending on the size and capacity of the unit
2. The power developed by a runner is decreased by mechanical losses. Due
to mechanical losses, the power available at the turbine shaft is less than the
power developed by the turbine runner
Volumetric efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the volume of the water actually
striking the runner to the volume of water supplied to the turbine. That is,
volume of water actually striking the runner
hv =
volume of water sup plied to the turbine
Q−q
= (23.15)
Q

Here, Q = total discharge supplied by the water jet; q = leakage loss

Note It is assumed that the total quantity of water contained in the jet strikes the
buckets. But there is always some quantity of water that slips and goes to the tail
race without doing any useful work. Thus, for Pelton wheel, the volumetric effi-
ciency varies from 0.97 to 0.99.
Overall efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of power available at the turbine shaft
to the power available from the water jet. That is,
power available at the turbine shaft
overall efficiency, ho =
power avaiable from the waterr jet
shaft power S.P S.P
= = = (23.16)
water power W.P gQH

here, H is the net head in meters, Q = total discharge in cumecs supplied by the jet
Note The overall efficiency for Pelton wheel turbine varies from 0.85 to 0.9.
Further,
S.P R.P S.P R.P
ho = × = ×
W.P R.P R.P W.P

Therefore,
ho = hm × hh (23.17)

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1023

23.7 COMPONENT PARTS OF PELTON WHEEL

The Pelton wheel turbine is the most commonly used free-jet impulse turbine. It
was designed by Lester A. Pelton in 1880, for high head and small discharge. The
main components of a Pelton wheel are described below:
Nozzle with flow regulating mechanism: For the generating electricity, at a con-
stant frequency, it is very much essential that the design of the system operates at
maximum efficiency and with constant angular velocity. The power produced by
a turbine is proportional to QH. Here, Q
is the volume flow rate (discharge) and Penstock
H is the effective head. Since, H cannot
be varied easily, it is obvious, and when Nozzle
there is a variation in power require-
ment, the volume flow rate is varied. As
shown in Fig. 23.4, the amount of water
striking the buckets or vanes of the run-
ner is controlled by providing a spear in Wheel Spear rod Spear Jet of
water
the nozzle.
By moving in or out, spear changes Fig. 23.4 Nozzle with guide mechanism
the opening in the nozzle. When the
spear is pushed out, the amount of water striking the vanes is reduced. On the other
hand, if the spear is pushed in, the amount of water striking the vanes is increased.
The spear in small unit is usually operated by hand, and automatically, depending
upon the size of the unit, by the governor.
Casing: Here, in the case of Pelton wheel, casing has no hydraulic function to per-
form, since the outflow from the runner buckets is in the form of splash, providing
the casing prevents splashing of water, guides the water to flow to the tail race, and
provides safety against accidents. As shown in Fig. 23.5, it is made of cast iron or
fabricated steel.
Casing

Vanes
Penstock
Runner
Shaft

Nozzle

Pitch circle of
Sphere Jet of
runner bucket
water

Fig. 23.5 Pelton wheel turbine

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 1024 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Runner and buckets: The runner consists of a circular disc with a number of
buckets evenly spaced around its periphery. The shape of the bucket is of a double
hemispherical cup or bowl. Each bucket is divided vertically into two symmetrical
parts by a splitter. The jet of water issuing from the nozzle strikes the splitter. As
shown in Fig. 23.6, the splitter divides the striking jet into two equal parts and the
jet flows out sideways round the smooth inner surface of the bucket and leaves
it with a relative velocity almost opposite in direction to the original jet (the jet
gets deflected through 160° or 170°). A notch is made near the outer edge of the
outer rim of each bucket, so that path of the jet is not obstructed by the incoming
buckets.
Hydraulic brake: The nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear out. As
a result, the amount of water striking the runner reduces to zero. However, runner
keeps on revolving for a considerable time, even after the nozzle has been closed,
because of inertia. To stop the runner in a short time, a hydraulic brake is provided.
Hydraulic brake is a small nozzle, which directs the jet of water (called breaking
jet) on the back of the vanes.
Table 23.2 gives some typical Pelton wheel turbine installations in India.

Splitter
Diameter of
the jet, d

Cut out

Width of
1.2d bucket, B = 5d

2.4d to 2.8d
0.8d to 1.2d
Fig. 23.6 Bucket of Pelton wheel

Table 23.2 Pelton wheel turbine installations in India

Project Location Source of water
Mandi hydroelectric scheme Joginder Nagar Uhl river
(Himachal Pradesh)
Koyana hydroelectric project Koyana, Maharashtra Koyana river
Pykara hydroelectric scheme Pyakara, Tamilnadu Pyakara river
Mahathma Gandhi hydroelec- Sharavathi, Karnataka Sharavathi river
tric works
Pallivasal power station Pallivasal, Kerala Mudirpuzle river

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1025

2.8 VELOCITY TRIANGLE AND WORK DONE FOR

PELTON WHEEL
It is more convenient to use velocity triangle concept to obtain the expression for
work done on a Pelton wheel. The jet of water issuing from the nozzle strikes the
bucket at the splitter, which splits up the jet into two parts. These two parts of the
jet glides over the inner surfaces and comes out at the outer edge. Figure.23.7
shows the inlet velocity triangle at the splitter, and outlet velocity triangle at the
outer edge of the bucket.
Let, H = net or effective head on the Pelton wheel = (Hg–hf)
4 fLV 2
Here, Hg= gross head and hf= head loss due to friction = ; where,
D = diameter of the penstock 2 g Dp
p
If D = diameter of the wheel; N = speed of the wheel in rpm; d = Diameter of
the jet, then

V1 = 2 gH (23.18)

Since the inlet and outlet tips are at the same radial distance from the center
p DN
u = u1 = u2 = (23.19)
60

Since the velocity triangle at the inlet is a straight line, we have

a = 0; u = 0
Therefore,

Vr1 = (V1 − u1 ) = (V1 − u ) = Vr 2 (assu ming no friction ) (23.20)

and Vw1 = V1
u2 Vw2
φ β
Vr2 V2 Vf 2

Angle of deflection
A B C
u1 Vr1
V1 = Vw1

Fig. 23.7 Inlet and outlet velocity triangle for pelton wheel bucket

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 1026 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

From the outlet velocity triangle, we have

Vr 2 = kVr1 and Vw 2 = Vr 2 cos f − U 2 = k (Vr1 cos f − u) (23.21)

Note The relative velocity at the outlet tip, Vr2 is actually k times Vr1. Here, k is a
friction factor to allow for losses due to splitter and bucket friction. However, for
smooth buckets, k is unity.
Force exerted by the jet of water in the direction of motion is given by

Fx = m(Vw1 + Vw 2 ) rQ(Vw1 + Vw 2 ) (23.22)

(because, the direction of Vw2 is opposite to Vw1)

gQ
= (Vw1 + Vw 2 ) (23.23)
g

Work done by the jet on the runner per second = force exerted  speed of the run-
ner
That is,
gQ
= Fx × u = (Vw1 + Vw 2 ) × u (23.24)
g

gQ
= (V1 + k (V1 − u) cos f − u)u (23.25)
g

gQ Nm
= (V1 − u) (1 + k cos f)u (23.26)
g s

Similarly, work done by the jet per unit weight of water

gQ
(V + Vw 2 ) × u
g w1 (23.27)
=
rQg
1
= (Vw1 + Vw 2 ) × u (23.28)
g

1
= (V1 − u)(1 + k cos f)u (23.29)
g
AQ 6
The energy supplied to the jet at inlet is in the form of kinetic energy. Therefore,
kinetic energy of the jet is given by
gQV12
(23.30)
2g

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1027

Hydraulic efficiency (or blade efficiency) of the Pelton wheel turbine is given by
work done at the wheel
hh =
kinetic energy of jet
gQ
(V + Vw 2 ) × u
g w1
=
g QV12 (23.31)
2g

2u(Vw1 + Vw 2 )
= (23.32)
V12

Vw1 = V1 ; Vr1 = V1 − u1 = V1 − u
And,
Vw 2 = Vr 2 ;cos f − u2 = Vr 2 cos f − u = k {V1 − u} cos f − u (23.33)

Substituting, Vw1 and Vw2 in hydraulic efficiency equation, we get

2 (V1 − u ) (1 + k cos f) u
= (23.34)
V12
But, for smooth vanes, k = 1, therefore, hydraulic efficiency becomes

2u (V1 − {V1 − u}cos f − u )

hh = (23.35)
V12
2[V1 − u] × [1 + cos f]u
= (23.36)
V12

To find maximum efficiency:

For a given value of V1, efficiency will be maximum, if and only if,

d
du
(hh ) = 0 (23.37)

d ⎛ 2[V1 − u] × [1 + k cos f]u ⎞

or du ⎜⎝ V12 ⎟ =0
⎠

(1 + k cos f)
or
V12
d
du
(
2uV1 − 2u 2 = 0 ) (23.38)

or 2V1 − 4u = 0 (23.39)

V1
u=
or 2 (23.40)

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 1028 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

From Eqn (23.40), it can be stated that the hydraulic efficiency of a Pelton wheel
will be maximum when the velocity of the wheel is equal to half the velocity of
the jet of water at inlet.
To find maximum efficiency: AQ 7

⎛ V⎞ V
2 ⎜ v1 − 1 ⎟ (1 + k cos f) × 1
⎝ 2⎠ 2 1 + k cos f (23.41)
hh,max = =
V12 2

For smooth vanes: k = 1, then, maximum efficiency is given by

1 + cos f
hh,max = (23.42)
2

Notes
1. To prevent the jet from striking the back of the following bucket, usually
speed ratio is kept at an average value of 0.46
2. If the buckets deflect the jet exactly through 180°
Then, f = 0 and hydraulic efficiency becomes 100%
In practice:
The maximum efficiency seldom exceeds 95%, k is always less than one and angle
f is not zero.
The angle f is usually kept between, 10° and 20°(this angle f is known as the
side clearance angle)

23.9 WORKING PROPORTION OF A PELTON WHEEL

The following points are considered while designing Pelton wheel:
1. The velocity of jet at inlet is given by

V1 = CV 2 gH (23.43)

Here, Cv = coefficient of velocity for the nozzle with its value ranging from
0.97 to 0.99; H = net head or effective head in meters
2. The velocity of wheel is given by

u = f 2 gH (23.44)

Here,  = speed ratio or speed factor (the ratio of peripheral velocity, u to

ideal velocity 2gH is known as speed ratio). This speed ratio varies from
0.43 to 0.47.
For most efficient turbine operation, f has been found to depend upon
specific- speed as shown in Table 23.3.

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1029

Note Reader should not con- Table 23.3 Dependence of f on

fuse this speed ratio () it is specific speed
different from the angle used in
outlet velocity triangle. Specific speed (Ns) f
3. If angle of deflection is not given 7 0.472
in the problem, then, consider
10 0.463
165° as angle of deflection.
4. The pitch diameter D: For Pel- 15 0.450
ton wheel it is given as
20 0.38

23 0.432
60u
D= (23.45)
pN 27 0.424

5. Jet ratio (m): It is defined as the ratio of the pitch diameter, D of the Pelton
wheel to the diameter of the jet (d). That is,

D
m= (23.46)
d

The jet ratio varies from 10 to 14. In the case of Pelton wheel, normally, a
jet ratio of 12 is adopted.
6. Number of jets (n): It is involved when more power is to be produced with
the same wheel and also because of restriction on the jet velocity, wheel
speed, jet ratio, and diameter of the wheel. A Pelton wheel fitted with more
than one jet is known as a multiple jet Pelton wheel. It is obtained by divid-
ing the total rate of flow (Q) through the turbine by the rate of flow of water
through one jet (q).
7. Number of buckets on the runner (Z): Several empirical formulae have
been developed for determining the number of buckets. One such formula
which is widely used is given below,
D
Z = 15 + = 15 + 0.5 m (Taygun formula ) (23.47)
2d
Here, m is the jet ratio.
Table (23.4) indicates the approximate number of buckets required for a
Pelton wheel turbine for different jet ratios.
8. Diameter of the jet (d): The jet diameter is obtained if the total discharge is
known. That is,
p 2 Q
d = (23.48)
4 Cv 2 gH

Table 23.4 Approximate number of buckets for a Pelton wheel turbine

Jet ratio (m) 6 8 10 15 20 25
No of buckets (Z) 17 –21 18 –22 19 –24 22 –27 24 –30 26 –33

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 1030 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

4Q
d= (23.49)
pCv 2 gH

9. Size of the buckets: Please refer to Fig. 23.8 for the dimensions.
a. Radial length of the bucket, L = 2 to 3d
b. Depth of bucket, D = 0.8 to 1.2d
c. Axial width of the bucket, B = 3 to 5d
d. Width of the notch, w = 1.1d
Here, d = diameter of the jet.
10. To find number of buckets: Let the
mean radius of the bucket circle B
be r and ξ be the included angle
between the two consecutive buck-
ets. Then for the jet to be always L D
intercepted, buckets have configu-
ration as shown in Fig. 23.9. Fig.23. 8 Proportion of bucket

For the triangle, OAB:

1
OA = r + × height of the bucket = r + 0.6d
2

1
OB = r + × diameter of the jet = r + 0.5d
2

Therefore, O

r + 0.5d
cos j = (23.50) j
r + 0.6d
r
From Eqn (23.50), ξ is obtained
and the number of buckets
360° 6d d
obtained = 5d
j
A B C
However, from the practical AQ 8
Fig. 23.9 Definition sketch
consideration, since there is no
enough space available around the wheel to accommodate this number of
buckets, the number is restricted to ½.

Note If sufficient data in the problem is not given, then the following data should
be assumed.

1. Overall efficiency, 80% to 87% (preferably 85%)

2. Coefficient of velocity, 0.98 to 0.99 (preferably 0.985)
3. Ratio of peripheral velocity to the jet velocity, 0.46

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1031

Example 23.1 A Pelton wheel, working under a head of 400 m, produces

12000 kW at 400 rpm. If the efficiency of the wheel is 80%, determine
1. discharge of the turbine
2. diameter of the wheel
3. diameter of the nozzle (Assume suitable data)
Solution
Given: head of water, H = 400 m; power, P = 12000 kW; speed, N = 400 rpm;
overall efficiency of the turbine = 80%.
To find discharge of the turbine:
Using the relation for overall efficiency of a Pelton wheel turbine

S.P
ho =
g QH
12000
0.8 =
9.81 × Q × 400
Q = 3.82 cumecs ( Ans)

To find diameter of the wheel:

Assuming, Cv = 0.98; velocity of jet is given by

V1 = Cv 2 gH = 0.98 × 2 × 9.81 × 400 = 86.82 m / s

Under practical considerations for maximum efficiency

u = 0.46V1 = 0.46 × 86.82 = 39.94 m / s

Diameter of the wheel is given by

60u 60 × 39.94
D= = = 1.91 m ( Ans)
pN p × 400

To find diameter of the nozzle:

p
Q = V1 × × d2
4

d2
3.82 = 86.82 × p ×
4
d = 0.24 m ( Ans)

Example 23.2 A Pelton wheel turbine works under a head of 500 m and rotat-
ing at 15 r/s. Calculate the power produced and the hydraulic efficiency when the

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 1032 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

discharge through the machine is 400 l/s and the jet is deflected by 165°. Take
Cv = 0.96 and the blade velocity coefficient k = 0.9.
Solution
Given: head, H = 500 m; speed, N = 15 r/s; discharge, Q = 0.4 cumecs; the angle
through which the jet is deflected =165°, therefore, f = 15°; coefficient of veloc-
ity, Cv = 0.96; blade velocity coefficient, k = 0.9.
The velocity of jet is given by

V1 = Cv 2 gH = 0.96 × 2 × 9.81 × 500 = 95.08 m / s

For maximum velocity, speed ratio is given by

u
= 0.46
V1
V1
Note Theoretically, the peak overall efficiency occurs at u = , whereas in
2
actual practice, the peak occurs when speed ratio is less than 0.5 ad is about 0.46.
Therefore,
u = 0.46 × 95.08 = 43.74 m / s

And
Vr1 = V1 − u = 95.08 − 43.74 = 51.34 m / s

Vr 2 = kVr1 = 0.9 × 51.34 = 46.21 m / s

From the outlet velocity triangle, as shown in Fig. 23.7, we have

Vw 2 = Vr 2 cos f − u = 46.21 × cos15° − 43.74 = 0.89 m / s

Therefore, power produced is given by

rQ (Vw1 + Vw 2 ) u = 1000 × 0.4 × ( 95.08 + 0.89) 43.74 = 16.79 MW ( Ans)

Hydraulic efficiency

2(Vw1 + Vw 2 )u 2(95.08 + 0.89)43.74

hh = = = 0.928% or 92.8% ( Ans)
V12 95.082

Example 23.3 A Pelton wheel turbine has a mean bucket speed of 12 m/s with a
jet of water flowing at the rate of 900 l/s under a head of 40 m. The buckets deflect
the jet at an angle of 165° Fig. 23.10 Calculate the power given by water to the
runner and the hydraulic efficiency of the turbine. Assume coefficient of velocity
to be 0.96.

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1033

u2 Vw2
φ β
Vr2 V2 Vf 2

Angle of deflection
A B C
u1 Vr1
V1 = Vw1

Fig. 23.10 Inlet and outlet velocity trangle for Example 23.3

Solution
Given: speed of the bucket, u = u1= u2 = 12 M/S; discharge, Q = 0.9 cumecs; head
of water, (net head), H = 40 m; angle of deflection=165°; therefore, f = 180° −
165° = 15°; co-efficient of velocity, Cv = 0.96.
The velocity of jet is given by

V1 = Cv 2 gH = 0.96 × 2 × 9.81 × 40 = 26.89 m / s

But,

Vr1 = V1 − u1 = 26.89 − 12 = 14.89 m / s

Vw1 = V1 = 26.89 m / s

Assuming smooth vanes (k = 1) from outlet velocity triangle, we have

m
Vr 2 = Vr1 = 14.89 ; Vw 2 = Vr 2 cos f − u 2
s
= 14.89 × cos15° − 12 = 2.38 m / s

Work done by the jet per second on the runner

= rQ[Vw1 + Vw 2 ] × u = 1000 × 0.9 × [26.89 + 2.38] × 12 = 316116 Nm / s

Power given to turbine

316116
= = 316.116 kw ( Ans)
1000

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 1034 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Hydraulic efficiency is

2(Vw1 + Vw 2 ) × u 2( 26.89 + 2.38) × 12

hh = = = 0.9715% or 97.15% ( Ans)
V12 26.892

Example 23.4 A Pelton wheel having semi-circular buckets and working under
a head of 120 m is running at 500 rpm. The discharge through the nozzle is 40 l/s
and diameter of the wheel is 50 cm. Find the following:
1. the power available at the nozzle
2. hydraulic efficiency of the wheel, if coefficient of velocity is 0.96
Solution
Given: the angle through which the jet is deflected=180°, therefore,  = 0°; head
of water, H = 120 m; speed of wheel, N = 500 rpm; discharge, Q = 0.04 cumecs;
diameter of the wheel, D = 0.5 m
To find power available at the nozzle:
Let P = power available at the nozzle, then using the relation

P = g QH = 9.810 × 0.04 × 120 = 47.088 kW ( Ans)

To find hydraulic efficiency of the wheel:
The velocity of jet is given by

V1 = Cv 2 gH = 0.96 × 2 × 9.81 × 120 = 46.58 m / s

Tangential velocity of wheel is given by

p DN p × 0.5 × 500
u= = = 13.09 m / s
60 60
Using the relation for hydraulic efficiency, we have

[V1 − u] × [1 + cos f]u

2
V12
2 × ( 46.58 − 13.09) × (1 + cos 0°) × 13.09
=
46.582
= 0.81% or 81% ( Ans)
Example 23.5 A Pelton wheel, working under a head of 400 m, produces
12000 kW at 400 rpm. If the efficiency of the wheel is 90%, determine the fol-
lowing:
1. discharge of the turbine
2. diameter of the wheel
3. diameter of the nozzle (Assume suitable data)

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1035

Solution
Given: head of water, H = 400 m; power, P = 12000 kW; speed, N = 400 rpm;
efficiency of the wheel = 90%.
To determine the discharge of the turbine:
Using the relation for overall efficiency,

S.P
ho =
g QH

12000
0.9 =
9.81 × Q × 400

Q = 3.39 cumecs ( Ans)

To find diameter of the wheel:
Let, D be the diameter of the wheel and Cv = coefficient of velocity=0.98 Consid-
ering the relation,
u = 0.46V1

Velocity of jet is given by

V1 = Cv 2 gH = 0.98 × 2 × 9.81 × 400 = 86.82 m / s

Therefore,
u = 0.46 × 86.82 = 39.94 m / s

Also using the relation for tangential velocity of the wheel

p DN
u=
60
u × 60 39.94 × 60
D= = = 1.91 m ( Ans)
p×N p × 400

To find the diameter of the nozzle:

p
Q = V1 × × d2
4

p
3.39 = 86.82 × × d2
4
d = 0.22 m ( Ans)
Example 23.6 A Pelton wheel is to be designed for the following specifica-
tions:
a. Shaft power = 12000 kW
b. Head of water = 400 m

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 1036 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

c. Speed = 800 rpm

d. Overall efficiency = 90%
e. Jet diameter is not to exceed one-sixth of the wheel diameter. Determine
the following:
1. the diameter of the wheel
2. the number of jets required
3. diameter of the jet. (Assume coefficient of velocity = 0.98; speed
ratio = 0.45)
Solution
Given: shaft power, S.P = 12000 kW; head of water, H = 400 m; speed, N = 800 rpm;
overall efficiency = 0.9; ratio of jet diameter to diameter of the wheel = d/D = 1/6
Velocity of jet is given by

V1 = Cv 2 gH = 0.98 × 2 × 9.81 × 400 = 86.82 m / s

The velocity of wheel is given by

u = u1 = u2 = speed ratio × 2 gH = 0.45 × 2 × 9.81 × 400 = 39.87 m / s

But p DN
u=
60
p × D × 800
39.87 =
60
D = 0.95 m ( Ans)
Diameter of the jet is given by
d 1
=
D 6
d = 0.16 m ( Ans)

Discharge of one jet is given by

p p
q= × d 2 × V1 = × 0.16 2 × 86.82 = 1.75 cumecs
4 4
Using the relation for overall efficiency, we have
S.P
ho =
W.P
12000 12000
0.9 = =
gQH 9.81 × Q × 400

Q = 3.39 cumecs

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1037

Number of jets required is given by

total discharge 3.39
= = = 1.94 ≡ 2 jets ( Ans)
discharge of one jet 1.75

Example 23.7 A Pelton wheel turbine produces 20 MW while running at 700 rpm
under an effective head of 1700 m. Calculate:
1. least diameter of the jet
2. mean diameter of the runner
3. number of buckets
Solution
Given: power, P = 20 MW; speed, N = 700 rpm; effective head, H = 1700 m.
Assume coefficient of velocity = 0.98; overall efficiency of the turbine = 85%.
To find least diameter of the jet:
Velocity (absolute) of the jet is given by

V1 = Cv 2 gH = 0.98 × 2 × 9.81 × 1700 = 178.98 m / s

Using the relation for overall efficiency, we have

S.P 20 × 106
ho = =
W.P g QH
20 × 106
0.85 =
9810 × Q × 1700
Q = 1.41cumecs

Since,
p
Q= × d 2 × V1
4
p
1.41 = × d 2 × 178.98
4
d = 0.1 m ( Ans)

Here, d = diameter of the jet.

To find mean diameter of the runner:
Using the relation for maximum efficiency

u = 0.46V1 = 0.46 × 178.98 = 82.33 m / s

Therefore, mean diameter of the runner is given by

60 × u 60 × 82.33
D= = = 2.24 m ( Ans)
p×N p × 700

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 1038 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

To find number of buckets:

Using the relation,
D 2.24
Z = 15 + = 15 + = 26.2 ≡ 27 ( Ans)
2d 2 × 0.1

Example 23.8 A double jet Pelton wheel operates under a head 45 m and develops
a power of 850 kW, running at 400 rpm. Calculate the flow rate and the diameter of
the nozzle. Assume overall efficiency = 0.85 and coefficient of velocity = 0.98.
Solution
Given: head of water, H = 45 m; power developed, P = 850 kW; speed, N =
400 rpm; overall efficiency = 0.85; Cv = 0.98.
From overall efficiency relation, discharge is given by
P = g QH × ho

= 9.81 × Q × 45 × 0.85 = 850

Q = 2.26 cumecs ( Ans)

Velocity of jet is given by

V1 = Cv 2 gH = 0.98 × 2 × 9.81 × 45 = 29.12 m / s

In the case of multiple jets, total discharge is equal to the discharge through jets.
That is,
⎛p ⎞
Q = n × ⎜ × d 2 ⎟ V1
⎝4 ⎠

⎛p ⎞
2.26 = 2 × ⎜ × d 2 ⎟ 29.12
⎝4 ⎠

d = diameter of the jet = 0.22 m ( Ans)

Example 23.9 A Pelton wheel is running under a head of 150 m at the speed of
300 rpm. The overall efficiency of the turbine is 85% and the ratio of jet to the
wheel diameter is 1/10. Find the following:
1. diameter of the wheel
2. diameter of the jet
3. width of buckets
4. depth of buckets
5. number of buckets
Solution
Data given: effective head, H = 150 m; speed, N = 300 rpm; overall efficiency =
0.85; d/D = 1/10

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1039

Assuming coefficient of velocity = 0.98.

Velocity (absolute) of jet is given by

V1 = Cv 2 gH = 0.98 × 2 × 9.81 × 150 = 53.16 m / s

To find diameter of wheel (D):

Peripheral velocity of the runner is given by

u = 0.46V1 = 24.46

Also, p DN
u=
60
p × D × 300
24.46 =
60

D = 1.56 m ( Ans)

To find diameter of the jet (d):

We have,
d 1
=
D 10

1.56
d= 0.156 m ( Ans)
10

To find the width of the bucket:

Using the relation

width = 5 × d = 5 × 0.156 = 0.78 m ( Ans)

Depth of buckets

= 1.2 × d = 1.2 × 0.156 = 0.187 m ( Ans)

For number of buckets:

D 1.56
= + 15 = + 15 = 20 ( Ans)
2d 2 × 0.156

Example 23.10 A Pelton wheel 2.5 m diameter operates under the following
conditions:
1. Net available head, H = 250 m
2. Speed, N = 350 rpm
3. Coefficient of velocity = 0.98
4. Blade friction coefficient = 0.95

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 1040 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

5. Blade angle = 165°

6. Diameter of the jet, d = 25 cm
7. Mechanical efficiency = 0.95
Determine the following:
a. the power developed
b. hydraulic efficiency
c. specific speed
Solution
Given: net available head, H = 250 m; diameter of the wheel, D = 2.5 m; diameter
of the jet, d = 0.25 m; speed, N = 350 rpm; Cv = 0.98; k = 0.95; blade angle = 165°,
therefore, f = 15°; mechanical efficiency = 0.95.
Jet velocity is given by

V1 = Cv 2 gH = 0.98 × 2 × 9.81 × 250 = 68.63 m / s

Discharge is given by

p p
Q= × d 2 × V1 = 0.252 × 68.63 = 3.37 cumecs
4 4

Peripheral velocity
p DN p × 2.5 × 350
u= = = 45.81 m / s
60 60

Let, He = head extracted

1
=
g
(V1 − u ) (1 + k cos f) u
1
= (68.63 − 45.81) (1 + 0.95 × cos15°) 45.81 = 204.35 m
9.81

Hydraulic efficiency is given by

head extracted 204.35

hh = = = 0.82 ( Ans)
net head availabe 250

Power developed,

P = g QH ho = 9.81 × 3.37 × 250 × (0.82 × 0.95) = 6438.37 kW ( Ans)

Specific speed:
N P 350 × 6438.37
Ns = = = 28.25 ( Ans)
H 5/ 4 2505 / 4

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1041

Example 23.11 A double jet Pelton wheel has a specific speed of 16 and is required
to deliver 1200 kW. The turbine is supplied through a pipeline from a reservoir
whose level is 380 m above the nozzles. Allowing 8% for friction loss in the pipe,
calculate the following:
a. speed in rpm
b. diameter of the jet
c. mean diameter of bucket circle. Assume Cv = 0.98, speed ratio = 0.46, and
overall efficiency = 85%.
Solution
Given: specific speed, Ns = 16; power delivered, P = 1200 kW; friction loss = 8%; net
available head, H = 380(1–0.08) = 349.6 m; power per jet, P = 1200/2 = 600 kW.
To find speed of the turbine:
Using the relation for specific speed, we get

N P
Ns = 5
H4

N 600
5
= 16
349.6 4
N = 987 rpm ( Ans)

To find diameter of the wheel:

Velocity of jet

V1 = Cv 2 gH = 0.98 × 2 × 9.81 × 349.6 = 81.16 m / s

Speed ratio
u
=
2 gH
u
0.46 =
2 × 9.81 × 349.6
u = 38.09 m / s

But, p DN
u=
60
p × D × 987
= 38.09
60
D = 0.74 m ( Ans)

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 1042 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Power developed:

1200 = g QH ho = 9.81 × Q × 349.6 × 0.85

Q = 0.41 cumecs

To find diameter of the jet:

p
Q = 0.41 = 2 × × d 2 × 81.16
4

d = 0.056 m ( Ans)

Example 23.12 The three jet Pelton wheel turbines are required to generate
10000 kW, when the net head at the nozzle is 400 m. The exit blade angle is
165° and the reduction in relative velocity while passing through the bucket is
5%. Assuming that the total efficiency of the wheel is 80%, coefficient of nozzle
velocity is 0.98, and speed ratio is 0.46, find the following:
1. the diameter of jet
2. total flow in cumecs
3. the force exerted by a jet on the buckets. If the jet ratio is not to be less than
10, find the speed of the wheel for a frequency of 50 hertz/s, and the cor-
responding wheel diameter
Solution
Given: power, P = 10000 kW; net head, H = 400 m; exit blade angle=165°, there-
fore, f = 15°; reduction in velocity while passing through the bucket, Vr2 = 0.95
u
Vr1; overall efficiency = 0.8; Cv = 0.98; . = 0.46
V1
Using the relation for overall efficiency, we get

g QH ho = P

9.81 × Q × 400 × 0.8 = 10000

Q = 3.18 cumecs ( Ans)

Three jet Pelton wheel is given, therefore, discharge through one jet

3.18
= = 1.06 cumecs
3

Velocity of jet is given by

V1 = Cv 2 gH = 0.98 × 2 × 9.81 × 400 = 87 m / s

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1043

To find the diameter of the jet:

p p
1.06 = × d 2 × V1 = × d 2 × 87
4 4
d = 0.125 m ( Ans)

Peripheral velocity is given by

u = 0.46 2 gH = 0.46 × 2 × 9.81 × 400 = 40.75 m / s

From inlet velocity triangle, we have

m
Vr1 = V1 − u = 87 − 40.75 = 46.25
s

Vr 2 = 0.95Vr1 0.95 × 46.25 = 44.0 m / s

From outlet velocity triangle, we have

Vw 2 = Vr 2 cos f − u = 44.0 × cos15° − 40.75 = 1.75 m / s

Force exerted by a single jet on the bucket is given by

= rQ (Vw1 + Vw 2 ) = 1000 × 1.06 × (87 + 1.75) = 94 kN ( Ans)

Considering, d/D=1/10; D = 1.25 m

Using the relation
p DN
u=
60

p × 1.25 × N
40.75 =
60
N = 620 rpm

But, the speed of the turbine should be such that a synchronous speed of the gen-
erator is attained. The synchronous speed of generator is given by
60 f
N=
p

Here, f is the frequency in cycles per second and p is the number of pair of poles.
60 × 50
620 =
p
p = 4.85; adopting 5 pairs of poles

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 1044 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Then,
60 × 50
N= = 600 rpm
5

Because peripheral velocity is constant, the diameter

40.75 × 60
D= = 1.3 m ( Ans)
p × 600

Check
D 1.3
= > 10 ( o.k )
d 0.125

Example 23.13 A single jet Pelton wheel running at 400 rpm., develops a certain
power P, with an efficiency of 85% and Cv for the nozzle is 0.98. The diameter
of the jet is 120 mm. The number of buckets on the wheel is 30. Taking the speed
ratio as 0.46, for, best results, find the bucket circle diameter, size of the buckets,
the head under which it operates, and the power developed.
Solution
Given: speed, N = 400 rpm; overall efficiency = 85%; Cv = 0.98; diameter of the
jet = 120 mm; number of buckets = 30; speed ratio = 0.46
Angle between two adjacent buckets is given by

360°
j= = 12°
30

To find bucket circle diameter:

Using the relation for number of buckets
r + 0.5 d
cos j =
r + 0.6 d

r + 0.5 × 0.12 r + 0.06

cos12° = 0.978 =
r + 0.6 × 0.12 r + 0.072

0.022r = 0.0104 r = 0.473m or 47.3 cm

Diameter of the bucket circle, D = 2 × 47.3 = 94.6 cm (Ans)

Depth of the bucket = 1.2 d = 1.2 × 12 = 14.4 cm (Ans)
Width of the bucket = 5d = 5 × 12 = 60 cm (Ans)
Bucket speed is given by

p DN p × 0.946 × 400
u1 = = = 19.81 m / s
60 60

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1045

For maximum efficiency condition

u1 = 0.46 × V1

19.81
V1 = = 43.06 m / s
0.46
Jet velocity is given by

V1 = Cv × 2 gH

43.06 = 0.98 × 2 × 9.81 × H

H = 98.4 m ( Ans)

For a single jet, weight of water used

p
W= × 0.122 × 43.06 × 1000 = 486.99 kg / s
4

Power developed

P = WH × 9.81 × ho = 486.99 × 98.4 × 9.81 × 0.85 = 399.585 kW ( Ans)

23.10 RADIAL FLOW IMPULSE TURBINE

As shown in Fig. 23.11, in the case of a radial flow impulse turbine, the inlet veloc-
ity triangle is not a straight line and has blades fitted radially to the rim of a wheel.
Flow of water may be either inward or outwards. Hence, work done is given by

 rQ (Vw1u1 ± Vw 2 u2 ) (23.51)

V1
V2
v

V2 V1
r2 r2

r1 r1

(a) Inward radial flow (b) Outward radial flow

Fig. 23. 11 Radial flow impulse turbine

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 1046 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Here,

u1 = vr1 ; u2 = vr2 (23.52)

If there is no loss of energy in the runner vanes, then the work done may also be
expressed as
gQ 2
2g
(
V1 − V22 ) (23.53)

or
V12 − V22
Vw1u1 ± Vw 2 u2 = (23.54)
2

From inlet and outlet triangles, it can be shown that

V12 − V22 u12 − u22 Vr22 − Vr21

Vw1u1 ± Vw 2 u2 = + (23.55)
2 2 2

From Eqns (23.54) and (23.55), we can write

V12 − V22 V12 − V22 u12 − u22 Vr22 − Vr21

= + (23.56)
2 2 2 2
or
Vr22 Vr21 ⎛ u22 − u12 ⎞
= + (23.57)
2 2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

⎛ u22 − u12 ⎞
Here, ⎜ ⎟ represents centrifugal head impressed in water as it flows through
⎝ 2 ⎠
the runner of a radial flow impulse turbine.
Notes
1. For an outward flow turbine: u1 < u2, then Vr2 > Vr1
2. For inward flow turbine: u1 > u2, then Vr2 < Vr1
Hence, centrifugal head increases the relative velocity of water in an outward flow
turbine and decreases the relative velocity of water in an inward flow turbine.
Example 23.14 In an outward flow impulse turbine, the net head is 30 m. The
peripheral speed at the inlet is 0.45 2 gH . The inlet and outlet radii are 25 cm and
.
33 cm, respectively. Both the guide vane angle and the wheel vane angle are 20°.
If the coefficient of velocity is 0.95, calculate the hydraulic efficiency. Assume the
vanes are smooth.
Solution
Given: net head, H = 30 m; peripheral speed at inlet, u1 = 0.45 0.45 2 gH ; guide
vane angle = 20°; Cv = 0.95 (vanes are smooth).

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1047

Jet velocity is given by

V1 = Cv 2 gH = 0.95 × 2 × 9.81 × 30 = 23 m / s

Peripheral speed at inlet is given by

u1 = 0.45 2 gH = 0.45 × 2 × 9.81 × 30 = 10.92 m / s

Peripheral speed at outlet is given by

33
u2 = 10.92 × 14.4 m / s
25 V1
Vf 1
Vr1
Referring to Fig. 23.12
α θ
u1
Vw1 = V1 cos a = 23 × cos 20 = 21.61 m / s
Vw1
From cosine rule
Fig. 23.12 Inlet velocity diagram

Vr12 = V12 + u12 − 2V1u1 cos 20 = 232 + 10.922 − 2 × 23 × 10.92 × cos 20 = 176.22

Vr 2 = 13.27 m / s

Using the relation,

Vr22 Vr21 ⎛ u22 − u12 ⎞
= +
2 2 ⎜⎝ 2 ⎟⎠

( ) ( )
Vr 2 = Vr21 + u22 − u12 = 13.272 + 14.4 2 − 10.922 = 16.25 m / s

Referring to Fig. 23.13 K

u2 Vw2
K = Vr 2 cos 20 = 16.25 × cos 20 = 15.27 m / s
φ β
But Vf 2
V2
Vr2
Vw 2 = K − u 2 = 15.27 − 14.4 = 0.87 m / s
Hydraulic efficiency is given by
Fig. 23.13 Outlet velocity diagram

Work done M (Vw1u1 + Vw 2 u2 )

hh = =
Input V2
M 1
2

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 1048 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

⎛ ⎞
⎜ 21.61 × 10.92 + 0.87 × 14.4 ⎟
=⎜ ⎟
⎜ 232 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠

hh = 0.9395% or 93.95% ( Ans)

23.11 REACTION TURBINE

The reaction turbine is just the reverse of a centrifugal pump in that the whole
system is under pressure, not open to atmosphere, and the water power is utilized
to produce torque on a rotating shaft, which in turn rotates an armature coil in the
magnetic field having p pairs of poles and generates an alternative current with
frequency f. The speed of the turbine should correspond to the synchronous speed,
N of the alternator, which is given as
60 f
N= (23.58)
p

In 1849, an eminent hydraulic engineer, J.B. Francis designed an inward flow

reaction turbine. In the original design of the Francis turbine, the flow was purely
radial, both at inlet and exit. The present day Francis turbine is an inward mixed
flow (in a mixed flow turbine water enters radially through the outer periphery of
the runner under pressure and discharges substantially in the axial direction) reac-
tion turbine. Water under pressure enters the runner from the guide vane toward
the center in radial direction and leaves the runner axially.
Francis turbine (Fig. 23.14) operates
under medium heads (30 to 400 m) and
requires medium quantity of water. If the
head is less than 150 m, Pelton wheel tur-
bines are unsuitable for power generation.
In such cases, Francis turbine is a better
option.
There is a difference in the pressure of
water between the exit tips of guide vanes
and working vanes. Only a part of the net
head (H), is transformed into the kinetic AQ 9
Fig. 23.14 Francis turbine
energy at inlet and the rest remains in the
form of pressure energy. This pressure dif-
ference is termed as reaction pressure and is partly responsible for the motion of
the runner; hence, the turbine is referred to as a reaction turbine.
In this turbine, the pressure at the inlet is more than that at the outlet. Obvi-
ously, the water in the turbine must flow in a closed conduit. The runner is always
full of water, and also the movement of the runner is affected by the change of both

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1049

the pressure energy and kinetic energy of water. After doing its work the water
is discharged to the tail race through a draft tube. The free end of the draft tube
is submerged deep in the tail race, thus making the entire water passage totally
enclosed.

23.12 CLASSIFICATION OF REACTION TURBINE

Depending upon the direction of flow of water through the wheel, the reaction
turbines may be classified into the following three types:
a. Radial flow turbines
b. Axial flow turbines
c. Mixed flow turbines
Radial flow turbines: Radial flow turbines are those turbines in which the water
flows in the radial direction. Here, the flow may be radially from outwards to
inwards, that is, towards the axis of rotation or from inwards to outwards. Accord-
ingly, the radial flow turbines are further sub-divided into the following two
classes:
1. inward flow radial turbine
2. outward flow radial turbine
If the water flows from outwards to inwards through the runner, the turbine is
known as inward radial flow turbine, on the other hand, if the water flows from
inwards to outwards, the turbine is known as outward radial flow turbine.
Axial flow turbines: If the water flows parallel to the axis of rotation of the shaft
of the reaction turbine, then the turbine is known as axial flow turbine.
Mixed flow turbines: Here, the water enters the runner of the reaction turbine in
the radial direction at outlet under pressure and leaves in the axial direction at the
inlet of the runner.

23.13 MAIN COMPONENTS OF A RADIAL FLOW

REACTION TURBINE
A radial flow reaction turbine has the following main components:
1. casing
2. guide mechanism
3. runner
4. draft tube
Casing: Water flows from the reservoir to the casing through penstock pipes. The
purpose of casing is to distribute water over guide vanes and to prevent the for-
mation of eddies. This casing is designed in such a fashion its cross-sectional
area goes on reducing uniformly around the circumference. The cross-sectional

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 1050 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

area is maximum at the entrance and From penstock

minimum at the tip, so that water
enters the runner at a constant velocity Runner
at all points. A casing of spiral shape
is ideally suited for this purpose. This
Spiral
spiral casing is provided with inspec-
casing Guide vane
tion holes and pressure gauge connec-
tions. Casings are made of reinforced
concrete for heads up to 30 m and Fig.23.15 Main components of reaction
are made of rolled steel plates or cast turbine
steel for high heads ranging from 30 to
150 m. Guide vane

Guide mechanism: The guide vanes are Pivot

fixed between two rings in the form of
wheel as shown in Fig. 23.15. Water in
the spiral (scroll) casing is made to pass
through a series of guide vanes. When
water flows through the guide vanes, a
part of the pressure energy is converted Fig. 23.16 Guide vanes
into kinetic energy. Each guide vane can
rotate about its pivot center, and thus, the flow of cross-sectional area can be var-
ied, which helps in regulating the quantity of water going to the runner. The guide
vanes (Fig. 23.16) are usually made of cast steel. These guide vanes are also used
to start and stop the function of the turbine.
Runner: The runner consists of a series of vanes, which are fitted between two
circular plates. The shape of the runner blades is so designed that water enters the
blade in radial direction and leaves the blade in the axial direction. The surfaces of
the vanes are made smooth. The number of vanes, usually, varies between 16 and
24. The width of the runner depends upon the specific speed. The runner is keyed
to the shaft, which may be vertical or horizontal. If the shaft is vertical, then it is
called a vertical turbine. Similarly, if the shaft is horizontal, it is called a horizontal
turbine.
The overall movement of the runner is obtained as a result of change of both
the potential energy and kinetic energy of water. In the case of inward radial flow
turbines, if Vr1 is the inlet relative velocity and Vr2 exit relative velocity, then,

Vr21 Vr22 ⎛ u12 u22 ⎞

= + −
2 g 2 g ⎜⎝ 2 g 2 g ⎟⎠
(23.59)

Here,

⎛ u12 u22 ⎞
⎜ 2 g − 2 g ⎟ centrifugal head. Therefore, any increase in velocity due to load rejec-
⎝ ⎠
tion do not cumulatively increase Vr1.

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1051

In the case of outward radial flow turbines, the relationship is

Vr22 Vr21 ⎛ u22 u12 ⎞
= + = (23.60)
2 g 2 g ⎜⎝ 2 g 2 g ⎟⎠

Thus, from the governing point of view, an inward radial flow turbine is better than
an outward radial flow turbine.
Draft tube: Draft tube is an integral part of a pressure/reaction turbine. It helps to
locate the turbine above tail race. The draft tube is a pipe of gradually increasing
area, which connects the outlet of the runner to the tail race. In case of pressure
turbines, the energy that is not extracted by the runner appears as exit velocity
energy. It helps to convert the exit velocity head into pressure or potential head.
The energy recovered in the draft tube is large enough in high speed turbines.
Especially, for mixed flow turbines, this exit energy at rotor outlet varies from
4% to 25% and for axial flow turbines from 20% to 50% of the total available
energy. This unused energy can be extracted by the draft tube. The conical-type
draft tube has the shape of a frustum of a cone with an angle of flare not greater
than 8° to avoid separation. The length of the draft tube should be long enough
so that the exit velocity is about 1 m/s. This is efficient and nearly 90% of the
energy is converted into potential head. An improved version is the Prasil tube,
wherein the deceleration of water is kept constant. The Moody spreading tube
has the shape of a falling jet on a plate. Elbow- type draft tube is adopted when
it becomes uneconomical to adopt a vertical- type tube because of large amount
of excavation.
Various types of draft tubes are shown in Fig. 23. 17.

Hs Hs

Tail race

η = 90% Conical draft tube Prasil draft tube

Hs

Tail race
Tail race
η = 60%
Moody spreading draft tube Simple elbow draft tube
AQ 10 η = 80% – 85%
Fig. 23.17 Different forms of draft tube

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 1052 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

23. 3.1 DRAFT TUBE THEORY—CAVITATION

Let us consider a vertical conical draft tube as 2
shown in Fig. 23.18. Applying Bernoulli’s equa- hs
3
tion between points (2) and (4) and neglecting the
losses in the draft tube, we have Z2 4 Z3
Z4
p2 V22 p V2
+ + Z 2 = 4 + 4 + Z 4 (23.61) Fig. 23.18 Draft tube
g 2g g 2g

or
p2 p4 ⎡V 2 − V42 ⎤
= − [Z2 − Z4 ] − ⎢ 2 ⎥ (23.62)
g g ⎣ 2g ⎦
But
p4 p3
= − [ Z3 − Z 4 ] (23.63)
g g

Here, p3= atmospheric pressure; therefore, Eqn (23.62) reduces to

p4 p3 ⎡V 2 − V42 ⎤
= − [ Z 2 − Z3 ] − ⎢ 2 ⎥ (23.64)
g g ⎣ 2g ⎦

or
p3 ⎛ V 2 − V42 ⎞
= − ⎜ h2 + 2
g ⎝ 2 g ⎟⎠ (23.65)

Here, hs = static suction head = height of the runner outlet above the tail race
level;
V22 − V42
= dynamic suction head
2g
From Eqn (23.65), it is clear that the static pressure at runner outlet is less than the
atmospheric pressure by an amount equal to the static and dynamic suction head.
Thus by providing a draft tube, we can install the turbine above the tail race level
without any loss in the static head and the draft tube recovers a part of the kinetic
energy, which as a waste turned into a useful pressure energy.
As already mentioned, the boiling temperature of a liquid depends directly
upon the pressure and whenever the pressure at any point inside the turbine falls
below the evaporation pressure, the liquid water will boil and a large number of
small bubbles of vapor and gases (are dissolved in the liquid) will be formed,
which leads to a phenomenon called cavitation.
Prof. Thomas has suggested a critical value for the cavitation factor. That is,

sc =
(ha − hv ) − hs (23.66)
H

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1053

where, ha = average atmospheric pressure; hv = vapor pressure; hs = suction head;

H = working head of the turbine in meters of water.
Cavitation can be avoided in the turbines, if and only if s > s c
For Francis turbine:
2
⎛ Ns ⎞ (23.67)
s c = 0.625 × ⎜
⎝ 380.78 ⎟⎠

For Kaplan turbine:

⎛ 1 ⎛ N ⎞2⎞
s c = 0.308 + ⎜ ⎜
s
⎟ ⎟ (23.68)
⎝ 6.82 380.78 ⎠ ⎠
⎝

Example 23.15 A conical draft tube must carry 20 cumecs of water. It is 1.8 m
diameter at the top and is to discharge water at an average velocity of 1 m/s. The
pressure at the top of the tube is not to be less than 3.0 m water absolute. Neglect-
ing losses, find how far below tail water level (TWL) should the tube extend.
Solution

Given: discharge, Q = 20 cumecs; diameter of the tube at top, D1 = 1.8 m;

p1
= −7.3 m
g
V1 = 1 m/s; assuming the draft tube is 1 m below TWL as shown in Fig. 23.19
Then, 1.8 m
1
20 × 4
V1 = = 7.85 m / s h
p × 1.82 TWL
AQ 11
1m
20 × 4 2
D2 = = 5.02 m 5.02 m
1× p
Fig. 23.19 Definition sketch for
Example 23.15
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between
1 and 2, we get
p1 V12 p V2
+ + h1 + h = 2 + 2
g 2g g 2g

7.852 1
−7.3 + +1+ h =1 =
2 × 9.81 2 × 9.81
h = 4.2 m

Table 23.5 gives some typical Francis turbine installations in India.

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 1054 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Table 23.5 Typical Francis turbine installations in India

Project Location Source

Bhakra dam Bhakra, Punjab Sutlej river

Cauvery hydroelectric scheme Shivana Samudra, Karnataka Cauvery river

Chambal hydroelectric scheme Gandhi Sagar, Rajastan Chabal river

Hirakud dam Hirakud, Orissa Hirakud river

23.14 EXPRESSION FOR WORK DONE IN AN INWARD

RADIAL FLOW TURBINE
Figure 23.20 shows the velocity tri- u1
angle at inlet and outlet of the mov- Vw1
ing radial vanes. From the velocity α θ
triangles, the work done by water on V1 Vr1 Vf 1
the runner and efficiency of the turbine
can be determined. Let, V1 = absolute
velocity of water at inlet; D1= inner D2
R2 =
diameter of the wheel; N = speed in 2
rpm; u1 = tangential/ peripheral veloc-
ity of the wheel at inlet; Vr1= relative Vf 2
velocity of water to the wheel at inlet; Vr2 V2 β
Vf1= velocity of flow at inlet; similarly, φ
V2, D2, u2, Vr2, Vf2 are the correspond- Vw2 R1 = D1/2
u2
ing values at outlet; α = angle at which
the water enters the wheel (Guide
blade angle); β = angle at which water O
leaves the wheel; u = vane angle at the
Fig. 23.20 Inward radial flow turbine
inlet; Φ = vane angle at outlet; H =
total head of water under which the turbine is working.
From inlet velocity triangle

Vw1 = V1 cos a; V f 1 = V1 sin a (23.69)

From outlet velocity triangle

Vw 2 = V2 cos b; V f 2 = sin b (23.70)

The expression for the work done when the fluid is flowing through radial direction
has been obtained by using the moment of momentum principle (Euler momentum
equation).

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1055

The work done per second by the water on the runner is expressed as

 rQ[Vw1u1 ± Vw 2 u2 ] (23.71)

Equation (23.71) also represents the energy transfer per second to the runner.
Here,

Vw1 = velocity of whirl at inlet; Vw 2 = velocity of whirl at outlet

p D1 N
u1 = tangential velocity of the wheel at inlet =
60
p D2 N
u2 = tangential velocity of the wheel at outlet =
60

D1 = inner diameter of the whell; D2 = outer diameter of the wheel

N = speed of the turbine in rpm

Note In Eqn (23.71) the + ve sign is taken if angle β is an acute angle. On the
other hand if β is an abtuse angle, –ve sign is taken.
The maximum work done under the given condition is obtained when, Vw2 = 0.
Thus, the maximum work done is given by

= rQ (Vw1u1 ) (23.72)

The work done per unit weight of water per second is given by
1
=
g
(Vw1u1 ± Vw 2 u2 ) (23.73)

Equation (23.73) is known as fundamental equation of hydrodynamic machines.

This is also known as Euler’s equation of hydrodynamics machines.
Note If β = 0, then Vw2 = 0; then, the work done per second per unit weight of
water striking is given as
1
= Vw1u1 (23.74)
g

Hydraulic efficiency:

power deliverd by the water to the runner R.P (Vw1u1 ± Vw 2 u2 )

hh = = = (23.75)
water power W.P gH
If Vw2 = 0; (if the discharge is radial at outlet), then
Vw1u1
hh = (23.76)
gH

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 1056 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

The hydraulic efficiency of radially inward flow turbine varies from 0.8 to 0.9.
Discharge of the radial flow reaction turbine:
The discharge through reaction radial turbine is given by

Q = p D1 B1V f 2 = p D2 B2V f 1 (23.77)

Here, D2 = diameter of runner at inlet/outer diameter of the runner; D1 = diameter

of the runner at outlet/inner diameter of the runner; B2 = width of the runner at
inlet; B1 = width of the runner at outlet; Vf 2 = velocity of flow at outlet; Vf 1 = veloc-
ity of flow at inlet.
Example 23.16 An inward flow reaction turbine, having an external diameter
of 2 m runs at 300 rpm. The velocity of flow at inlet is 12 m/s. If the guide blade
angle is 15°, find
1. the absolute velocity of water
2. the velocity of whirl, at inlet
3. the inlet vane angle, and
4. the relative velocity at inlet
Solution
Given: diameter at inlet, D2 = 2 m; speed of the turbine, N = 300 rpm; velocity of
flow at inlet, Vf 1 = 12 m/s; guide blade angle at inlet, α = 15°
Tangential velocity of vane is given by
p D2 N p × 2 × 300
u1 = = = 31.41 m / s
60 60

From inlet velocity triangle u1

(Fig 23.21), absolute velocity of Vw1 Vr2
Vf 2
water at inlet is given by α β
Vf 1 φ
Vf 1 V1 Vr1 u2
12
V1 = = = 46.36 m / s Inlet velocity triangle Outlet velocity triangle
sin 15 sin 15
Fig. 23.21 Velocity triangle
Velocity of whirl at inlet

Vw1 = V1 cos15 = 46.36 × cos15 = 44.78 m / s

Inlet vane angle:

Vf 1 12
tan u = =
Vw1 − u2 44.78 − 31.41

u = 41°54 ′32.35′′
Relative velocity at inlet:
Vf 1
Vr1 = = 17.97 m / s
sin u

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1057

Example 23.17 An inward flow reac- u1

tion turbine has outer and inner diameters Inlet velocity 15°
V1 Vf 1
of the wheel as 1.2 and 0.6 m, respec- diagram
tively. The vanes are radial at inlet and
the discharge is radial at outlet and the
water enters the vanes at an angle of 15°
(Fig. 23.22). Assuming the velocity of V2 = Vf 2
flow to be constant and equal to 2.5 m/s, Vr2 Outlet velocity
find the following: φ u2 diagram
1. the speed of the wheel
Fig. 23.22 Definition sketch for AQ 12
2. the vane angle at outlet
Example 23.17
Solution
Given: outer diameter, D2 = 1.2 m; inner diameter, D1 = 0.6 m; vane angle at inlet,
α = 15°; velocity of flow at inlet and outlet, V f 1 = V f 2 = 2.5 m / s ;
Note Since the vanes are radial both at inlet and outlet, velocity of whirl at inlet
and outlet will be zero.
From inlet velocity triangle

Vf 1
u1 = = 9.33 m / s
tan 15

But, tangential velocity of wheel at inlet is also given by

p D2 N
u1 =
60
p × 1.2 × N
9.33 =
60
N = 148.49 rpm

Vane angle at outlet:

Tangential velocity at outlet is given by
p D1 N p × 0.6 × 148.49
u2 = = = 4.66 m / s
60 60

From outlet triangle,

Vf 2 2.5
tan F = =
u2 4.66

F = 28°12′ 45.72′′

Example 23.18 An inward flow reaction turbine (Fig 23.23) has external and
internal diameters as 1.2 m and 0.6 m, respectively. Assuming the velocity of flow
through the runner to be constant and equal to 1.2: m/s determine the following

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 1058 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

u1
Vw1 Vr2
Vf 2
α Vf 1 β φ
AQ 13
V1 Vr1 u2
Inlet velocity triangle Outlet velocity triangle
Fig. 23.23 Velocity triangle

1. discharge through the runner

2. width of the turbine at outlet if the width of the turbine at inlet = 250 mm
Solution
Given: external diameter of the turbine, D2 = 1.2 m; internal diameter of the tur-
bine, D1 = 0.6 m; velocity of flow at inlet and outlet , Vf 2 = Vf 1 = 1.2 m/s; width of
the turbine at inlet, B2 = 250 mm = 0.25 m
Using the relation for discharge:

Q = p D2 B2V f 1 = p × 1.2 × 0.25 × 1.2 = 1.131cumecs

And also,
p D1 B1V f 2 = p D2 B2V f 1

D2 B2 1.2 × 0.25
B1 = = = 0.5 m
D1 0.6

Example 23.19 An inward flow reaction turbine has an external diameter and an
internal diameter of 1.0 m and 0.5 m, respectively. The hydraulic efficiency of the
turbine is 85% when the head on the turbine is 30 m. The velocity of flow at outlet
is 2.0 m/s and the discharge at outlet is radial. If the vane angle at outlet is 15° and
the width of the wheel is 200 mm at inlet and outlet, determine
a. the guide blade angle
b. speed of the turbine
c. vane angle of the runner at inlet
d. discharge of the turbine
e. power developed
Solution
Given: external diameter, D2 = 1.0 m; internal diameter, D1 = 0.5 m; hydraulic effi-
ciency = 85%; head, H = 30 m; velocity of flow at outlet, Vf2 = 2.0 m/s; discharge
is radial, that means, Vw2 = 0; vane angle at outlet, Φ = 15°; width of the wheel,
B1 = B2 = 0.2m
Using the relation for hydraulic efficiency,
Vw1u1
hh =
gH

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1059

Vw1u1
0.85 =
9.81 × 30
Vw1u1 = 250.15

From outlet velocity triangle (Fig. 23.24), Vw1

u1
Vf 2 α θ Vf 1
tan F = V1 Vr1
u2
Inlet velocity triangle
2.0
tan 15 =
u2

u2 = 7.46 m / s
But,

p D1 N p × 0.5 × N Outlet velocity triangle

u2 = 7.46 =
60 60 Vr2
Vf 1
φ
u1
N = 284.95 rpm Fig. 23.24 Velocity triangles for AQ 14
Example 23.19
Therefore,
p D2 N p × 1.0 × 284.95
u1 = = = 14.92 m / s
60 60

250.15
Vw1 = = 16.77 m / s
14.92

Using the relation,

p D1 B1V f 2 = p D2 B2V f 1 , we get

p D1 B1V f 2 0.5 × 0.2 × 2.0

Vf 1 = = =1m/s
p D2 B2 1.0 × 0.2

Guide blade angle, α

From inlet velocity triangle, we have
Vf 1 1
tan a = =
Vw1 16.77

a = 3°24 ′45.08′′

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 1060 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Angle of runner at inlet, is given by

Vf 1 1
tan u = = = 0.54
Vw1 − u1 16.77 − 14.92

u = 28°22′ 8.57′′

Discharge in the turbine

Q = p D1 B1V f 2 = p × 0.5 × 0.2 × 2.0 = 0.628 cumecs

Power developed:

= work done per second = rQ (Vw1u1 )

1000 × 0.628 × 16.77 × 14.92

= = 157.13 kW
1000

Example 23.20 An inward flow water turbine works under a head of 30 m.

The inlet peripheral velocity is 15 m/s. The rate of flow through the turbine is
0.2 cumecs and exit pipe is of 0.3 m diameter. The radial velocity of flow through
the runner is same as the velocity in the exit pipe. Determine:
1. vane angle at inlet
2. guide blade angle
3. output in kW, assuming mechanical and volumetric efficiencies are 90%
and 95%, respectively
Solution
Given: head, H = 30 m; inlet peripheral velocity, u1 = 15 m/s; discharge, Q = 0.2
cumecs; exit pipe diameter = 0.3 m; mechanical efficiency = 90%; volumetric
efficiency = 95%
u1
Velocity in the exit pipe (Fig. Vr2
Vw1
23.25) is given by, Vf 2
α V β φ
f1
0.2 × 4 V1 Vr1 u2
V2 = = 2 . 83 m / s
p × 0.32 Inlet velocity triangle Outlet velocity triangle
Fig. 23.25 Velocity triangles tringle
Considering the exit velocity as
radial
Vw1u1 V2
=H− 2
g 2g

Vw1 × 15 2.832
= 30 −
9.81 2 × 9.81
Vw1 = 19.35 m / s

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1061

Because, V f 1 = V2

Vf 1 2.83
tan a = = = 0.146
Vw1 19.35

a = 8°18′ 23.38′′

Vf 1 2.83
tan b = = = 0.65
Vw1 − u1 19.35 − 15

b = 33°1′ 25.92′′

The hydraulic efficiency,

2.832
30 −
hh = 2 × 9.81 = 0.98
30

Overall efficiency is given by

= 0.9 × 0.95 × 0.98 = 0.837

The output power

= 9.81 × 0.2 × 30 × 0.837 = 49.32 kW

Example 23.21 An inward flow reaction turbine works under a head of 100 m.
The inlet and outlet diameters of the runner are 1.2 m and 0.6 m, respectively. The
width of the runner is 150 mm which is constant throughout. The blade angle at
outlet is 15°. The hydraulic efficiency is 0.9. Calculate the following:
1. the speed of the turbine
2. the blade angles
3. the power produced when the discharge velocity is 6 m/s
Solution
Given: head, H = 100 m; inlet diameter, D2 = 1.2 m; outlet diameter, D1 = 0.6 m;
width of the runner, B1 = B2 = 0.15 m; blade angle at outlet = 15°; hydraulic effi-
ciency = 90%.
From the outlet velocity triangle (Fig. 23.26),

Vf 2 u1
tan F = Vw1 Vr2
u2 Vf 2
α Vf 1 β
6 φ
tan15 = V1 Vr1 u2
u2 Inlet velocity triangle Outlet velocity triangle
u2 = 22.392 m / s Fig. 23.26 Velocity triangle

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 1062 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

But,

p D1 N
u2 =
60
60 × 22.392
N= = 712.76 rpm
p × 0.6

Note The quantity of water flowing through the turbine is equal to the velocity
of flow * area of flow.
The area of flow at any point is given by

Area = (p D − nt ) B and Q = (p D − nt ) B × Vf

Here, n = number of blades, t = thickness of blade, and B = width of blade

If thickness of blade is negligible, then

Q = p D1 B1V f 2 = p D2 B2V f 1 = p × 1.2 × 0.15 × 6 = 3.39 cumecs

3.39
Vf 1 = = 11.99 m / s
p × 0.6 × 0.15

Also,
p D2 N p × 1.2 × 712.76
u1 = = = 44.78 m / s
60 60

Hydraulic efficiency,
Vw1u1
hh =
gH

Vw1 × 44.78
0.9 =
9.81 × 100

Vw1 = 19.72 m / s

From inlet velocity triangle

Vf 1 11.99
tan a = = = 0.61
Vw1 19.72

a = 31°22′ 59.49′′

Vf 1 11.99
tan b = = = 0.478
u1 − Vw1 44.78 − 19.72

b = 25°32′ 52.08′′

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1063

Power produced

P = rQVw1u1 = 1000 × 3.39 × 19.72 × 44.78 = 2.99 MW

23.15 OUTWARD FLOW REACTION TURBINE

In the case of an outward flow reaction Fixed guide
turbine shown in Fig. 23.27, water enters blade
at the center of the wheel and then flows
outwards over the vanes, toward the outer
periphery of the wheel. The inner diameter
of the runner is the inlet and outer diam- Revolving
wheel
eter of the runner is the outlet. The velocity
triangles at inlet and outlet will be drawn
by the same procedure as that adopted for Fig. 23.27 Outward flow reaction
an inward flow turbine. The work done turbine
by water on the runner per second, power
developed, and hydraulic efficiency will be obtained from the velocity trian-
gles. Here, the tangential velocity at inlet will be less than that at outlet, because
D1 < D2. All notations for an out- u2
ward reaction turbine are the same
as those of an inward flow reaction
turbine. All the relations, for find- φ
Vf 2
ing out the various angles and other Vr2
data, will hold good for an outward
turbine also.
Outlet
Example 23.22 An outward flow
reaction turbine, shown in Fig.
23.28, has inner and outer diameters
of the wheel as 1 m and 2 m, respec-
tively. The water enters the vanes Inlet
at an angle of 20° and leaves radi- V1
Vr1 Vf 1
ally. If the velocity of flow remains
α β
constant as 10 m/s and the speed of
the wheel be 300 rpm, find the vane u1
Vw1
angle at inlet and outlet.
Solution D2/2 D1/2
Given: inner diameter of the wheel,
D1 = 1 m; outer diameter of the
wheel, D2 = 2 m; angle at which
water enters the wheel, α = 20°;
velocity of flow, Vf 1 = Vf 2 = 10 m/s; Fig. 23.28 Velocity triangle for outward
speed of wheel, N = 300 rpm flow reaction turbine

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 1064 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Peripheral velocity at inlet is given by

p D1 N p × 1 × 300
u1 = = = 15.71 m / s
60 60
From the inlet velocity triangle, we have
10
Vw1 = = 27.5 m / s
tan 20

And Vf 1 10
tan b = = = 0.8482
Vw1 − u1 27.5 − 15.71
b = 40°18′

Peripheral velocity at outlet is given by

p D2 N p × 2 × 300
u2 = = = 31.42 m / s
60 60
From the outlet triangle

Vf 2 10
tan f = = = 0.3185 ( radial discharge at outlet )
u2 31.42
f = 17°40 ′

23.16 MIXED FLOW TURBINE

The modern Francis turbine is a mixed flow turbine. Here, water enters the runner
of the turbine in the radial direction at outlet and leaves the runner of the turbine in
an axial direction at inlet of the runner. The water gives out most of its energy as
it changes its direction from radial to axial during its passage in the runner, hence,
the name mixed flow. The velocity triangles at inlet and outlet of the turbine are
drawn in the same way as in the case of inward flow reaction turbine. All relations,
for finding out the various angles and other data which were used for inward flow
reaction turbine, will hold good for Francis turbine too.

23.17 POWER AND EFFICIENCY

The expression for the power developed when the fluid is flowing through radial
direction that has been obtained by using the moment of momentum principle is
given by
P = rQ (Vw1u1 ± Vw 2 u2 ) (23.78)

Since the discharge from the runner is axial, the velocity of the whirl at outlet is
equal to zero. Hence, the work done by water on the runner per second
= rQVw1u1 (23.79)

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1065

Work done per second per unit weight of water striking

1
= [Vw1u1 ] (23.80)
g

And the power produced is also given as

P = rQVw1u1 (23.81)

Input power
= rgQH (23.82)

here, h = head applied on the runner

Hydraulic efficiency is given by

rQVw1u1 Vw1u1
hh = = (23.83)
r gQH gH

Energy utilized in the runner can also be expressed as (neglecting the losses in the
runner)
⎛ V2⎞
rQ ⎜ gH − 2 ⎟ (23.84)
⎝ 2⎠

here, V2= absolute velocity of water at outlet of the runner

Thus, the hydraulic efficiency
⎛ V22 ⎞
⎜⎝ gH −
Vw1u1 2 ⎟⎠ V22 (23.85)
hh = = rQ = 1−
gH gH 2 gH

Overall efficiency of the turbine is given as (considering losses that occur in the
turbine)
power available at the turbine shaft shaft power
h0 = = (23.86)
power produced r gQH

23.17.1 Working Proportions

Following are the working proportions for a Francis turbine:
1. Ratio of width to diameter (n): The ratio of width of wheel to its diameter
is given as
B2
n= (23.87)
D2

where, B2, and D2 are, respectively, the width and diameter of the wheel at
the inlet The value of n varies from 0.1 to 0.45

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 1066 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

2. Speed ratio (Ku): It is the ratio of the peripheral speed at inlet to the theo-
retical jet velocity.
u1
Ku = (23.88)
2 gH

The value of speed ratio varies from 0.6 to 0.9

3. Flow ratio (ψ): It is the ratio of the velocity of flow at the inlet to the theo-
retical jet velocity. Thus,

Vf 1
c= (23.89)
2 gH

The value of ψ varies from 0.15 to 0.3

Example 23.23 An inward mixed flow turbine develops 2800 kW at an overall

efficiency of 85% under a head of 30 m. The peripheral velocity of the wheel is
0.95 2gH and the velocity of flow is 0.3. 2gH . If the speed of the runner is
300 rpm and hydraulic efficiency is 90%, calculate the following:
a. guide blade angle
b. inlet angle of wheel
c. inlet and outlet diameter of the wheel
Solution
Given: power, P = 2800 kW; overall efficiency = 85%; head, H = 30 m; peripheral
wheel velocity, u1 = 0.95 2gH ; velocity of flow, Vf1 = Vf2 = 0.3 2gH ; speed,
N = 300 rpm; hydraulic efficiency = 90%.
Using the relation for peripheral velocity

u1 = 0.95 2 gH = 0.95 × 2 × 9.81 × 30 = 23.4 m / s

Velocity of flow is given by

V f 1 = 0.3 2 gH = 0.3 × 2 × 9.81 × 30 = 7.29 m / s

Using Hydraulic efficiency relation

Vw1u1
hh =
gH

Vw1 × 23.4
0.9 =
9.81 × 30

Vw1 = 11.32 m / s

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1067

To find guide blade angle:

From the inlet velocity triangle (Fig. 23.29), we have
u1
Vf 1 7.29 Vw1 Vr2
tan a = = = 0.64 Vf 2
Vw1 11.32 α Vf 1 β
φ
V1 Vr1 u2
Inlet velocity triangle Outlet velocity triangle
a = 32°37 ′ 9.28′′
Fig. 23.29 Velocity triangle
and
Vf 1 7.29
tan b = = = 0.603
u1 − Vw1 23.4 − 11.32

b = 31°5′ 23.92 ′′

To find the inlet and outlet diameter of the wheel:

p D2 N
u1 =
60
p × D2 × 300
23.4 =
60
D2 = 1.48 m

Using the relation for overall efficiency, we have

P = g QH h0

2800 = 9.81 × Q × 30 × 0.85

Q = 11.19 cumecs

Using the relation for discharge at outlet

p
11.19 = × D12 × V f 2
4
D1 = 1.39 m

Example 23.24 A Francis turbine runner is to be designed for the following data:
1. Net head, H = 50 m
2. Shaft power = 400 kW
3. Speed, N = 450 rpm
4. Hydraulic efficiency = 85%
5. Overall efficiency = 80%
6. Flow ratio = 0.15
7. Breadth and diameter ratio = 0.1

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 1068 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Assume the inner diameter as one-half the outer diameter. The velocity of flow is
constant throughout. The discharge is radial. Neglect vane thickness.
Solution
To find discharge, Q:
Using the relation for overall efficiency

S.P
ho =
g QH
or
S.P 400
Q= = = 1.019 cumecs
g H ho 9.81 × 50 × 0.8

Velocity of flow is given by

V f 1 = V f 2 = c 2 gH = 0.15 × 2 × 9.81 × 50 = 4.698 m / s

But
Q = p D1 B1V f 2 = p D2 B2V f 1

or
Q
c 2 gH =
p D22 n

1.019
0.15 × 2 × 9.81 × 50 =
p × D22 × 0.1

D2 = 0.831 m

D2
D1 = = 0.4155 m
2

B2 = nD2 = 0.1 × 0.831 = 0.083 m

We have
D1 B1 = D2 B2

D2 B2 0.831 × 0.0831
B1 = = = 0.166 m
D1 0.4155

Peripheral velocity at inlet

p D2 N p × 0.831 × 450
u1 = = = 19.58 m / s
60 60

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1069

Using the relation for hydraulic efficiency

hh gH 0.85 × 9.81 × 50
Vw1 = = = 21.29 m / s
u1 19.58

From inlet velocity triangle

Vf 1 4.698
tan a = = = 0.22
Vw1 21.29

a = 12°24 ′26.71′′

Vf 1 4.698
tan b = = = 2.75
Vw1 − u1 21.29 − 19.58

b = 70°1′ 0.82′′

From outlet velocity triangle, we have

Vf 2 4.698
tan F = = = 0.47
u2 9.79

F = 25°10 ′24.69′′

Example 23.25 Show that in a turbine with radial vanes at inlet and outlet, the
hydraulic efficiency is given by
2
hh =
2 + tan 2 a

where, α is the guide blade angle. Assume the velocity of flow to be constant.
Solution
Given: velocity of flow, Vf1 = Vf2; discharge is radial at outlet, therefore,

Vw 2 = 0 and V f 2 = V2

From the inlet velocity triangle, we have

Vf 1
tan a =
Vw1
or
V f 1 = Vw1 tan a

Also,
Vf 1
tan u =
Vw1 − u1

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 1070 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

or
Vf 1
Vw1 − u1 =
tan u

or
Vf 1 ⎛ V tan a ⎞ ⎛ tan a ⎞
u1 = Vw1 − = Vw1 − ⎜ w1 = Vw1 ⎜1 −
tan u ⎝ tan u ⎟
⎠ ⎝ tan u ⎟⎠

Also, we have
V22 1
H− = (Vw1u1 )
2g g

Note Radial discharge at outlet means, b = 0 and Vw 2 = 0

If there is no loss of energy when water flows through the vanes then we have,
V22 1
H− = (Vw1u1 ± Vw 2 u2 )
2g g

Therefore,
2
1 V2 1 Vf 1
H= Vw1u1 + 2 = Vw1u1 +
g 2g g 2g

Substituting the values of Vf1 and u1, we have

⎛ tan a ⎞ (Vw1 tan a)

2
1 Vw21 ⎧⎪ tan a tan 2 a ⎫⎪
H = Vw1 × Vw1 ⎜1 − + = ⎨1 − + ⎬
g ⎝ tan u ⎟⎠ 2 g ⎪⎩ tan u 2 ⎪⎭

Hydraulic efficiency is given by

Vw1u1 Vw1u1
hh = =
gH ⎧ tan a tan 2 a ⎫
Vw21
g× ⎨1 − + ⎬
g ⎩ tan u 2 ⎭⎪

⎛ tan a ⎞
Vw21 ⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ tan u ⎠ 1
= =
⎛ tan a tan a ⎞ 2 1 2
Vw21 ⎜1 − + tan a
⎝ tan u 2 ⎟⎠ 1+ 2
⎛ tan a ⎞
⎜⎝1 − tan ⎟⎠
u

When vanes are radial at inlet, then u = 90°

Then,
2
= AQ 15
2 + tan 2 a

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1071

23.18 PROPELLER AND KAPLAN TURBINE

Axial flow turbines are used for small heads and large quantities of flow. (The
power produced by a turbine is proportional to QH. As the head decreases, the
flow rate Q must increase to produce the same power.) The water enters the runner
in an axial direction and the water
flows parallel to the axis of the rota-
tion of the shaft.
The pressure at the inlet of
blades is larger than the pressure at
the exit of blades. The energy trans-
fer is due to reaction effect, that is,
a change in the magnitude of rela-
tive velocity across the blades. The
head at the inlet of the turbine is the
sum of pressure energy and kinetic
energy and during the flow of water
through runner a part of pressure
energy is converted into kinetic
energy. Hence, the Kaplan turbine
is also called an axial flow reac-
tion turbine. Propeller turbines are
nearly identical to Kaplan turbines Fig. 23.30 Kaplan turbine
except that the blades are fixed
(Figs. 23.30, 23.31). Compared to the Pelton wheel turbines and Francis turbines,
Kaplan turbines are most suited for low head, high volume flow rate conditions
(Fig. 23.32).

AQ 16 Fig. 23.31

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 1072 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Shaft
Scroll casing Scroll casing
Guide blades Db
Guide blades

Inlet vane tip

Inlet vane tip Boss

Outlet vane tip

Outlet vane tip D

Draft tube
Fig. 23.32 Kaplan turbine coaxial flow reaction turbine AQ 17

Table 23.6 indicates some typical installations of Kaplan turbines in India.

Let, D = diameter of the turbine; Db = diameter of the boss; Vf1 = velocity of
flow at inlet.
The discharge through the runner is given by
p
Q = Vf 1 × × [ D 2 − Db2 ] (23.90)
4
Here,
1. The peripheral velocity at inlet and outlet is given by
p DN
u1 = = u2 (23.91)
60
2. Velocity of flow at inlet and outlet are equal, that is
vf1 = vf 2 (23.92)

3. Area of flow at inlet = area of flow at outlet, that is

=
p
4
(
× D 2 − Db2 ) (23.93)

Table 23.6 Kaplan turbine installation in India

Project Location Source of water
Bhakra-Nangal project Punjab-Gangwal & Kota Nangal Hydel channel
Hirakud dam project Orissa, Hirakud Mahanadi river
Nizam Sagar project Nizam Sagar, A.P Nanjira river
Radhanagri hydroelectric scheme Maharashtra, Kolhapur Bhagavathi river
Tungabhadra hydroelectric Karnataka, Tungabhadra Tungabhadra river
scheme

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1073

The number of blades in this turbine and the ratio between the hub diameter and
the outer diameter of blades is a function of specific speed.

Table 23.7 Number of blades for different head, d/D ratio, and specific speed
Head (m) 70 60 50 40 20 5
Number of
10 8 6 5 4 3
blades
d/D 0.7 0.6 0.55 0.5 0.4 0.3
Ns 250 300 350 520 700 850

Note All parts such as spiral casing, vanes, guide vanes, control mechanisms, and
draft tube are similar to mixed flow turbines in design. If the blades are fixed to a
hub, as in Francis turbine, then the unit is called propeller turbine. If the positions
of blades are variable according to the guide vanes, then it is called Kaplan turbine.
Inlet and outlet velocity triangles of kaplan turbine are shown in Fig 23.33. AQ 18

Example 23.26 A Kaplan turbine run- u2

ner is to be designed to develop 9000 kW. φ
The net available head is 5.5 m. Assume Vf 2
a speed ratio 2, flow ratio 0.65, and total Vr2
efficiency 85%. The diameter of the boss
is 1/3 the diameter of the runner. Find the
diameter of the runner, its speed, and the
specific speed of the turbine.
Solution
Given: power, P = 9000 kW; net head,
H = 5.5m; speed ratio = 2; flow ratio = V1 V
α r1
θ Vf 1
0.65; efficiency = 85%; ratio of diameter u1
of boss to diameter of the runner = 1/3. Vw1
Peripheral velocity is given by Fig. 23.33 Inlet outlet velocity triangle
for Kaplan turbine

u1 = 2.0 × 2 × 9.81 × 5.5 = 20.78 m/s

Velocity of flow at inlet is given by

V f 1 = 0.65 × 2 × 9.81 × 5.5 = 6.75 m / s

Now, to find discharge, Q:

Using the relation for efficiency, we have

9000 = 9.81 × 5.5 × 0.85 × Q

Q = 196.24 cumecs

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 1074 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

To find the diameter of the runner, D:

Let, D is the diameter of the runner and Db is the diameter of the hub, then

p
Q= × ( D 2 − Db2 )V f 1
4
p ⎛ 2 1 2⎞
196.24 = × D − D ⎟ 6.75
4 ⎜⎝ 9 ⎠

⎛ 2 1 2⎞
⎜⎝ D − 9 D ⎟⎠ = 37.02

D = 6.45 m

To find speed of the runner, N:

60 × u1 60 × 20.78
N= = = 61.53 rpm
pD p × 6.45
To find the specific speed, Ns:

N P 61.53 × 9000
Ns = = = 693.03 rpm
H 5/ 4 5.55 / 4
Example 23.27 A propeller turbine runner has an outer diameter of 4.0 m and an
inner diameter of 2.0 m and develops 10,000 kW when running at 200 rpm under a
head of 20 m. The hydraulic efficiency is 95% and overall efficiency is 85%. Find
the discharge through the turbine and the guide angle at inlet.
Solution Given: outer diameter, D = 4.0 m; inner diameter, Db = 2.0 m; power
developed, P = 10000 kW; speed, N = 200 rpm; net head, H = 20 m; hydraulic
efficiency = 95%; overall efficiency = 85%.
To find discharge through the turbine, Q:

P
ho =
g QH

10000
Q= = 59.96 cumecs
9.81 × 0.85 × 20
Blade angle at inlet:
Let, α = guide blade angle at inlet; Vw1= velocity of whirl at inlet; Vf1= velocity of
flow at inlet.
Peripheral velocity at inlet is given by

p DN p × 4.0 × 200
u1 = = = 41.89 m / s
60 60

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1075

Using the relation for hydraulic efficiency, we have

Vw1u1
hh = a
gH

Vw1 × 41.89
0.95 =
9.81 × 20

Vw1 = 4.45 m / s

To find guide blade angle:

p 2
Q = Vf 1 × ( D − Db2 )
4
p 2
59.96 = V f 1 × ( 4 − 22 )
4

V f 1 = 6.36 m / s

From the inlet triangle, we have

Vf 1 6.36
tan a = =
Vw1 4.45

a = 55°1′ 12.27′′

Example 23.28 The hub diameter of a Kaplan turbine, working under a head of
10 m, is 0.4 times the diameter of the runner. The turbine is running at 150 rpm. If
the vane angle of the extreme edge of the runner at outlet is 15° and the flow ratio
is 0.5, find the following:
1. diameter of the runner
2. diameter of the hub
3. discharge through the runner. Assume velocity of whirl at outlet as zero.
Solution
Given: net head, H = 10 m; hub diameter, Db= 0.4 D; speed, N = 150 rpm; vane
angle at outlet,  = 15°; flow ratio = 0.5;velocity of whirl at outlet, Vw2 = 0
Velocity of flow at inlet is given by

V f 1 = 0.5 × 2 gH = 0.5 × 2 × 9.81 × 10 = 7 m / s

From the outlet velocity triangle

Vf 1 7
tan f = ; tan 15 =
u2 u2
u2 = 26.12 m/s

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 1076 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

For Kaplan turbine

u1 = u2 = 26.12 m/s
Using the relation
p DN
u1 =
60

p D × 150
26.12 =
60
D = 3.33 m

Diameter of the hub

Db = 0.4 × 3.33 = 1.33 m

Discharge through the turbine is given by

Q=
4
(
p 2
)
D − Db2 V f 1 =
p
4
( )
3.332 − 1.332 × 7 = 51.24 cumecs

23.19 RUNAWAY SPEED

When the external load suddenly drops to almost zero value and at the same time
the governing mechanism of the turbine fails, then the turbine runner will tend
to attain maximum possible speed. This maximum speed of the turbine runner is
known as runaway speed. The generator-connected turbine should be designed
for the maximum possible speed of the turbine. The runaway speed under no load
conditions is double the working speed. For a Pelton wheel the runaway speed
normally ranges from 1.8 to 1.9 times its normal speed. For a Francis turbine, it
normally ranges from 2 to 2.2 times its normal speed; and for a Kaplan turbine it
ranges from 2.5 to 3 times its normal speed.

23.20 SURGE TANKS

When the load on the generator decreases, the governor reduces the rate of flow of
water striking the runner in order to maintain the constant speed of the runner. But,
the sudden reduction of the rate of flow in the Penstock may lead to setting up of
water hammer in the pipe, which may cause excessive inertia pressure in the pipe-
line due to which the pipe may burst, unless some remedial measures are adopted.
However, two devices, such as deflector and relief valves, are provided to avoid
the sudden reduction of the flow rate in the penstock. But neither of these devices
is of any help when the load on the generator increases and the turbine is in need
of more water. Surge tank is provided in order to take care of both requirements.
Figure. 23.34 shows different types of surge tanks employed in the case
of high and medium head hydropower plants, where the penstock is very long.

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1077

Open
Reservoir level surge tank Decreased load b1
O ab Normal load 1
c a

Hydraulic c1
Surge tank Increased load
gradients
Hmax
Penstock
Hmin
Have Turbine

Open surge tank Conical-type

AQ 19
surge tank Valve
Penstock Draft tube

Riser

Tail race
Over flow
Ports
Penstock Penstock
Closed surge tank Differential surge tank
Fig. 23.34 Different types of surge tanks

An ordinary surge tank has a cylindrical open at the top, storage reservoir, which
is connected to the penstock at a point very close to the turbine. (Ideally, a surge
tank should be located as near to the turbine as possible, because the surge tanks
are generally open to atmosphere at the top, and if the surge tank is not to spill
when the system is shut down, then top of the surge tank must be extended beyond
maximum water level in the supply reservoir). The top of the surge tank is kept
well above the maximum water level in the supply reservoir. Under normal opera-
tion conditions, that is, when the load on the turbine is steady and normal, the
flow through the pipe line is uniform and pressure gradient is normal Oaa1. The
level of water in the surge tank is lower than in the supply reservoir by an amount
equal to frictional head loss in the pipe connecting the reservoir and the surge
tank. When the load on the turbine decreases, the turbine gates are closed to the
requirement by governor mechanism. Water moving towards the turbine has to
move backward and is then stored in the surge tank. The rising pressure gradient
Obb1 is developed. When the load on the turbine increases (i.e., when the power
demand is suddenly increased), the governor opens the turbine gates to increase
the discharge entering the runner. The surge tank supplies additional flow until the
water in the supply main is accelerated. As such, the water level in the surge tank
falls and a falling pressure gradient Occ1 is developed. The various other types of
surge tanks are also shown in Fig. 23.34.

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 1078 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

23.21 PERFORMANCE OF HYDRAULIC TURBINES

So far, we have assumed that in general a turbine will work under a constant head,
speed, and output. But in actual practice, turbines are often required to work under
varying conditions of head, speed, output, and gate opening. As such, in order to
predict their behavior, it is essential to study the performance of the turbine under
varying conditions. The following variations in working conditions usually occur
in practice:
a. The head and output of the turbine may change. In this case, keeping the
discharge constant, the speed is adjusted so that the efficiency remains con-
stant
b. Keeping the head and the speed constant, the output may vary by adjusting
the discharge. These are the normal operating conditions, and the curves
drawn for these conditions are called operating characteristics curves
c. Keeping the head and discharge constant, the speed may vary by adjusting
the load on the turbine. These conditions are possible only in the laborato-
ries. The curves so obtained for such conditions are known as main charac-
teristics curves
d. The head and speed may vary. This is common in turbines working under
low heads

23.21.1 Performance Under Unit Head—Unit Quantities

As already mentioned, a turbine operates most efficiently at a particular combi-
nation of head, discharge, speed, and power. In practice, these variables seldom
remain constant. In order to predict the behavior of a turbine working under vary-
ing conditions of head, speed, and power, recourse has been made to the concept
of unit. The unit quantities give the speed, discharge, and power for a particular
turbine under a head of 1 m assuming the same efficiency. The following are the
three important unit quantities:
1. unit speed
2. unit power
3. unit discharge
Unit speed (Nu): The speed of the turbine, working under unit head (say, 1 m) is
known as unit speed of the turbine.
Let, H = head of water, under which the turbine is working; N = speed of turbine
under a head, H; u = tangential velocity; Nu = speed of the turbine under a unit
head.
Tangential velocity of runner is given by
u  velocity of water
V

(
u  H because,V  2 gH )

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1079

Also, the tangential velocity is given by

p DN
u= (23.94)
60
60u
or N= (23.95)
pD
N u

N H

N = K1 H

Here, K1 is constant of proportionality

If H = 1; then, N = Nu
N u = K1 1 = K 1 (23.96)

N = Nu H (23.97)

Therefore,
N
Nu = (23.98)
H

Unit power (Pu): The power developed by a turbine, working under a unit head
(say, 1 m) is known as unit power of the turbine.
Let, H = head of water under which the turbine is working; P = power developed
by the turbine under a head of water, H; Q = Discharge through the turbine; Pu =
power developed by the turbine under a unit head.
Power developed by a turbine is given as
P = g QH (23.99)
But,
Q = area of the pipe × velocity of water in pipe = aV

and
V = 2 gH (23.100)

Therefore,
(
P = g a 2 gH H ) (23.101)

aH 3 / 2
or
P = K2 H 3/ 2 (23.102)

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 1080 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Here, K2 is a proportionality constant.

If H = 1; then, P = Pu
Pu = K 213 / 2 = K 2 (23.103)

P = Pu H 3 / 2 (23.104)
Thus,
P
Pu = (23.105)
H 3/ 2
Unit discharge (Qu): The discharge of the turbine working under a unit head
(say, 1 m) is known as unit discharge.
Let, H = head of water, under which the turbine is working; Q = discharge through
the turbine under a head of water H; Qu = discharge through the turbine under a
unit head.
Discharge through the turbine is given by
Q = area of the pipe × velocity of water pipe = aV (23.106)
But
V = 2 gH

Therefore,
Q = a 2 gH (23.107)

a H = K3 H
If, H = 1; Then, Q = Qu
Qu = K3 1 = K3 (23.108)

or
Q = Qu H (23.109)

Thus
Q
Qu = (23.110)
H

Note If a turbine is working under different heads, the behavior of the turbine
can be easily known from the unit quantities.
Let, H1, H2 are the heads under which a turbine works; N1, N2 are the correspond-
ing speeds; Q1, Q2 are the discharges, and P1, P2 are the power developed by the
turbine, then
N1 N2
Nu = = (23.111)
H1 H2

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1081

P1 P2 (23.112)
Pu = =
H13 2 H 23 2

Q1 Q2
Qu = = (23.113)
H1 H2

Example 23. 29 A turbine develops 5000 kW when running at 80 rpm. The head
on the turbine is 20 m. If the head on the turbine is increased to 30 m, determine
the speed and power developed by the turbine.
Solution
Given: power developed, P1 = 5000 kW; speed, N1 = 80 rpm; head on the turbine,
H1 = 20 m, H2 = 30 m.
Using the relation
N1 N2
=
H1 H2

N1 H 2
N2 =
H1

80 × 30
= = 97.97 ≈ 98 rpm
20

Also
P1 P2
=
H13 2 H 23 2

P1 H 23 2
P2 =
H13 2

5000 × 303 / 2
= = 9185.59 kW
203 / 2

23.21.2 Performance Under Specific Conditions

The concept of the specific turbine is useful for comparing the turbines of differ-
ent types. The performance of turbines under unit head gives us the comparison
of turbines of the same type. A specific turbine is an imaginary turbine identi-
cal (identical in shape, geometrical proportions, blade angles, gate openings, etc.)
with actual turbine, but reduced to such a size that it develops 1 kW power under
unit head. Figure 23.35) shows the actual and the specific runners for the turbine.
Since, actual turbine under unit condition and specific turbine both work under

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 1082 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

unit head (1 m head), whatever the velocity B

triangle holds good for the actual turbine, will Bs
hold good for specific turbine also. In other
words, Ds
D

us = uu ;V fs = V fu ; etc
Fig. 23.35 Actual and specific runner
Similarly,

Qu = p DBVfu and Qs = p Ds BsVfs (23.114)

Therefore,
2
Qu ⎛ D ⎞ (23.115)
=
Qs ⎜⎝ Ds ⎟⎠
Because,
B = nD; Bs = nDs
On the same line
Pu = g Qu × 1 × no and Ps = g Qs × 1 × no
Assuming overall efficiency to be same, one obtains
2
Pu Qu ⎛ D ⎞ (23.116)
= =
Ps Qs ⎜⎝ Ds ⎟⎠

From Eqn (23.116), one can infer that the power of geometrically similar turbines
working under the same head vary as the square of the runner diameters.
Since, the specific turbine develops 1 kW under a unit head, Ps = 1,
2
⎛ D⎞
Pu = ⎜ ⎟ (23.117)
⎝D ⎠ s

or
D
Ds = (23.118)
Pu
But P
Pu =
H 3/ 2
Therefore,
D DH 3 / 4
Ds = = (23.119)
P P
H 3/ 2
Further,
p DN u p DS N S
uu = and us = (23.120)
60 60

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1083

But
uu = us
Therefore,
p DN u p Ds N s (23.121)
=
60 60
or,
D
Ns = Nu = Nu P (23.122)
Ds
But
N
Nu =
H
Thus
N P (23.123)
Ns =
H 5/ 4
This value of Ns, the speed of the specific turbine, is known as specific speed of
the turbine.

Significance of Specific Speed

It is independent of the dimension or size of the actual turbine. All turbines of the
same geometrical shape and having the same efficiency will have same specific
speed. As such, it may be stated that Ns represents the specific speed of the actual
turbine as well as of the specific turbine. The specific speed of a turbine may be
defined as the speed in revolutions per minute of a turbine geometrically similar
to the actual turbine, but of such size that under corresponding conditions it will
develop 1 kW power working under unit head (1 m head).
The dimensions of the specific speed may be obtained by substituting the
dimensions of N, P, and H, in Eqn (23.123).

⎡ F ⎤
N s = ⎢ 3/ 2 ⎥
⎣L T ⎦
Since the specific speed is not a pure number, its value depends upon the system
of units.
Example 23.30 A turbine develops 12,000 kW under a head of 30 m at 150 rpm.
What is the specific speed? What would be its normal speed and output under a
head of 25 m?
Solution
Given: power, P = 12000 kW; head, H = 30 m; speed, N = 150 rpm
Using the relation for specific speed, we have

N P 150 × 12000
Ns = = = 234 rpm
H 5/ 4 305 / 4

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 1084 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

To find normal speed under a head of 25 m:

Using the relation
1/ 2
⎛H ⎞ ⎛ 25 ⎞
N1 = N ⎜ 1 ⎟ = 150 × ⎜ ⎟ = 136.9 rpm
⎝H⎠ ⎝ 30 ⎠

To find normal output power:

Using the relation
3/ 2 3/ 2
⎛H ⎞ ⎛ 25 ⎞
P1 = P ⎜ 1 ⎟ = 12000 × ⎜ ⎟ = 9128.7 kW
⎝H⎠ ⎝ 30 ⎠

Example 23.31 Prove that for a single jet Pelton wheel, the specific speed is
given by the relation
d
N s = 219.78 ho
D
where, d = diameter of the jet in meters; D = diameter of the runner in meters; and
= overall efficiency of the wheel.
The coefficient of velocity for the nozzle is 0.98 and bucket speed is 0.46
times the speed of the jet.
Solution
Given: d = diameter of the jet in meters D = diameter of the runner in meters; ho=
overall efficiency of the wheel; Cv = 0.98; bucket speed, u = 0.46V1
Let, N = speed of the runner in rpm; Ns = specific speed of the runner;
P = power developed by the turbine in kW; Q = discharge of the turbine in cumecs;
H = net head in meters.
Jet velocity is given by

V1 = Cv 2 gH = 0.98 × 2 × 9.81 × H

Velocity of the bucket is given by

u = 0.46V1 = 0.46 × 0.98 × 2 gH = 0.45 2 gH

Velocity of bucket is also given by

p DN
u=
60

p DN
Therefore, 0.45 2 gH =
60

60 × 0.45 2 gH 38 × H
N= =
pD D

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1085

But, discharge is given by

p
Q = area of jet × velocity of jet = × d 2 × Cv 2 gH
4

Using the relation for overall efficiency

P
ho =
g QH

p
P = g QH × h0 = 9.81 × × d 2 × 0.98 2 gH × H × ho = 33.45H 3 / 2 d 2ho
4

Using the relation for specific speed,

38 × H
× 33.45H 3 / 2 d 2ho
N P D
N s = 5/ 4 =
H H 5/ 4
d
N s = 219.78 ho
D

23.22 CHARACTERISTICS OF TURBINES

Even though turbines are generally designed and fabricated to work at particular
values of H, Q, P, N, and ηo (which are known as designed conditions), often
the turbines are required, to work at conditions different from these for which
they have been designed. It is, therefore, imperative to have complete information
about the performance of the turbine over a wide range of operating conditions.
These are obtained by the manufacturers by conducting experiments on models in
laboratory. Usually turbines are tested at:
1. constant head H, that is, N is varied, and Q, P are measured (main or con-
stant head characteristics)
2. constant speed N, that is, Q and H are varied; P is measured (operating or
constant speed characteristics)
3. efficiency constant (Muschel curves)
Main characteristics: Here, head and gate opening are kept constant and the speed
is varied by varying the load on the turbine. For each value of the speed, the corre-
sponding values of the power, P and the discharge, Q are obtained. The following
are the three set of curves obtained:
1. speed-discharge
2. speed-power
3. speed-efficiency
Each for Pelton wheel turbine, Francis turbine, and Kaplan turbine have been
shown in Fig. 23.36, Fig. 23.37, and Fig. 23.38, respectively.

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 1086 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

Discharge, Q Power, P Efficiency

H = constant H = constant H = constant
Gate opening
increasing

Gate opening Gate opening

increasing increasing
Speed, N Speed, N Speed, N
Fig. 23.36 Main characteristics of pelton wheel turbine

Discharge, Q Power, P Efficiency

Gate opening
H = constant H = constant
increasing
Gate opening
Gate opening
increasing
increasing

H = constant

Speed, N Speed, N Speed, N

Fig. 23.37 Main characteristics of francis turbine

Discharge, Q Power, P Efficiency

Gate opening H = constant H = constant
increasing Gate opening Gate opening
increasing increasing

H = constant
Speed, N Speed, N Speed, N
Fig. 23.38 Main characteristics of Kaplan turbine

Speed Versus Discharge Curve

For a given area of flow, the discharge depends upon for the Pelton wheel turbine.
Since, H is constant, discharge is independent of speed; hence, the curves are hori-
zontal lines. Whereas, in the case of Francis turbines; discharge depends upon the
velocity of flow. The velocity of flow will decrease with increase in speed. Thus,
discharge decreases with the increase in speed. In Kaplan turbine, the reverse is
true, and hence, the discharge increases with increase in speed.

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1087

Efficiency, Power
Efficiency (%)

Power, P
Constant speed
Pelton wheel turbine Efficiency
Francis turbine
Kaplan turbine Head constant
% Power output Discharge, Q
(a) (b)
Fig. 23.39 Operating characteristics
AQ 20

Speed Versus Power Curve

Speed – power curve for turbines are parabolic in nature. When N is zero, the
output power is zero. When N is equal to runaway speed, then also power is zero,
because power is proportional to angular speed.
Speed Versus Efficiency Curve
It is similar to speed – power curves for all turbines.
Operating characteristics: These curves are drawn for constant speed. By
varying the discharge (i.e., by operating the gate opening) as the load changes,
one can maintain constant speed. Overall efficiency is calculated from the mea-
sured values of discharge, head, and power. Please refer to Fig. 23.39 for operat-
ing characteristics.
In addition to the above-mentioned curves discharge-power and efficiency
curves are also important and have been shown in Fig. 23.39a,b.
Constant efficiency curve: These curves are also called as iso-efficiency curves.
Data to plot these curves are obtained from main characteristic curves. They are
as follows:
1. Speed – efficiency
2. Speed – discharge. For different gate openings
For a given efficiency, there are two
values of discharge for a particular Discharge, Q
gate opening. In other words, for a
Efficiency
given efficiency and gate opening
increasing
there are two speeds and two values of
discharge, except for the point of max- Constant
imum efficiency, which is occurring efficiency
at the designed speed. Thus, one can curves
locate the region of constant efficiency
so that the turbines are operated with Speed, N
maximum efficiency. The efficiency Fig. 23.40 Constant efficiency curve
curves are plotted in Fig. 23.40.

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 1088 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

SUMMARY

• Impulse turbine, which works under atmospheric pressure, the whole

energy of water supplied to the wheel being in the form of kinetic energy.
• Reaction turbines, which work under pressure, much higher than atmo-
spheric. The energy of water supplied is mostly in the form of pressure–
energy; hence, they must run full and must be enclosed in a casing.
• A radial inward flow turbine is that in which the water enters the wheel
at its outer periphery, and then flows inwards towards the center of the
wheel.
• A radial outward flow turbine is that in which the water enters at the center
of the wheel and, then flows outwards toward the outer periphery of the
wheel.
• An axial flow turbine is that in which the water flows parallel to the axis of
the wheel.
• Number of jets in a pelton wheel can be calculated by dividing the total
discharge of the turbine by the discharge of one jet.
• Size of the buckets: (a) width = 5d; (b) depth = 1.2d; here, d = diameter of AQ 21
the jet.
• Number of buckets is given by

D
+ 15
2d
Here, D = diameter of the runner wheel; d = diameter of the jet
• Francis turbine is an inward flow reaction turbine with radial discharge.
• Kaplan turbine is an axial flow turbine, wherein the flow of water is parallel
to the shaft.
• Discharge through reaction turbine is given by

Q = p DBV f

• Hydraulic efficiency is given by

Vw1u1 − Vw 2 u2
hh =
gH
For radial discharge
Vw1u1
hh =
gH
• Mechanical efficiency is given by

Aactual power available

hm =
Energy imparted to the wheel

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1089

• Overall efficiency
ho = h h × h m

• The power developed by a turbine working under a unit head of 1 m is

known as unit power.
• The speed of the turbine working under unit head of 1 m is known as unit
speed.
• The discharge of a turbine working under a unit head of 1 m is known as
unit discharge.
• Specific speed of a turbine

N P
Ns =
H 5/ 4

AQ 22 SUGGESTED READINGS

Agrawal S.K., Fluid Mechanics and Machinery, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing
Company Ltd., New Delhi.
Arora K.R., Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulics and Hydraulic Machines, Standard
Publishers Distributors, Nai Sarak, Delhi.
Kumar D.S., Fluid Mechanics and Fluid Power Engineering, S.K. Kataria & Sons,
Publishers of Engineering and Computer Books, Delhi.
Modi P.N. and S.M. Seth, Hydraulics and Fluid Mechanics, Standard Book House,
Delhi.

Multiple Choice Questions

1. A turbine is a device which converts

(a) kinetic energy into mechanical energy
(b) mechanical energy into hydraulic energy
(c) hydraulic energy into mechanical energy
(d) none of the above
2. A Pelton wheel is an
(a) axial flow impulse turbine
(b) inward flow impulse turbine
(c) outward flow impulse turbine
(d) inward flow reaction turbine
AQ 23 3. Which of the following is an impulse turbine?
(a) Francis turbine (b) Kaplan turbine
(c) Pelton wheel turbine (d) All of the above
4. In an impulse turbine, the jet of water impinges on the bucket with a low
velocity.
(a) true (b) false

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 1090 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

5. The net available head H in a Pelton wheel turbine installation is the

(a) head at the base of the nozzle
(b) kinetic energy of the jet issuing from the nozzle
(c) difference in elevation between fore bay water level and the nozzle
outlet
(d) none of the above
6. An impulse turbine is used for
(a) low head of water (b) high head of water
(c) medium head of water (d) high discharge
7. In an impulse turbine, the pressure of water while entering and leaving the
vanes is atmospheric.
(a) true (b) false
8. Work done by a turbine ____ upon the weight of water flowing per second.
(a) depends (b) does not depend
9. Breaking jet in an impulse turbine is used
(a) to break the jet of water
(b) to bring the runner to rest in a short time
(c) to change the direction of runner
(d) none of the above
10. A double overhung Pelton wheel has
(a) two jets (b) two runners
(c) four runners (d) all the above
11. What is the maximum number of jets, generally, employed in an impulse
turbine without jet interference?
(a) two (b) four
(c) six (d) eight
12. The number of buckets on the periphery of a Pelton wheel is given by

D
(a)
D
+5 (b) + 10
2d 2d
D D
(c) + 15 (d) + 30
2d 2d

13. The depth of the bucket for a pelton wheel is generally ____ the diameter
of jet.
(a) equal to (b) 1.2 times
(c) 1.8 times (d) double
14. The width of the bucket for a Pelton wheel is generally ____ the diameter
of jet.
(a) double (b) four times
(c) six times (d) five times

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1091

15. The hydraulic efficiency of an impulse turbine is the

(a) ratio of the actual power produced by the turbine to the energy actu-
ally supplied by the turbine
(b) ratio of the actual work available at the turbine to the energy imparted
to the wheel
(c) ratio of the work done on the wheel to the energy of the jet
(d) none of the above
16. The hydraulic efficiency of an impulse turbine is maximum when velocity
is ____ of the jet velocity.
(a) one-fourth (b) one-half
(c) three-fourth (d) double
17. The mechanical efficiency of an impulse turbine is the
(a) ratio of the actual power produced by the turbine to the energy actu-
ally supplied by the turbine
(b) ratio of the actual work available at the turbine to the energy imparted
to the wheel
(c) ratio of the work done on the wheel to the energy of the jet
(d) none of the above
18. The efficiency of a pelton wheel working under constant head ____ with
the increase in power.
(a) remains same (b) increases
(c) decreases (d) none of the above
19. The overall efficiency of an impulse turbine is the ratio of the actual power
produced by the turbine to the energy actually supplied by the turbine.
(a) true (b) false
20. In a Pelton wheel, the flow is
(a) radial (b) tangential
(c) axial (d) all the above
21. If the jet ratio in a Pelton wheel is 18, the number of buckets will be about
(a) 24 (b) 21
(c) 26 (d) 18
23. A draft tube is used with impulse turbines
(a) true (b) false
23. Francis turbine is
(a) a reaction radial flow turbine
(b) an axial flow turbine
(c) a radial flow turbine
(d) an impulse turbine
24. Francis turbine is used when the available head of water is
(a) 0–25 m (b) 25–250 m
(c) Above 250 m (d) none of the above

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 1092 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

25. In a Francis turbine runner, the number of blades are generally between
(a) 2–4 (b) 4–8
(c) 8–16 (d) 16–24
26. In a reaction turbine, the water enters the wheel under pressure and flows
over the vanes.
(a) true (b) false
27. In a reaction turbine, the pressure head of water while flowing over the
vanes is converted into kinetic head before leaving the wheel.
(a) true (b) false
28. In an axial flow reaction turbine, the water flows ____ to the axis of the
wheel.
(a) parallel (b) perpendicular
29. In a mixed flow reaction turbine, the flow of water is partly radial and partly
axial
(a) true (b) false
30. In a Kaplan turbine runner, the number of blades are generally between
(a) 2–4 (b) 4–8
(c) 8–16 (d) 16–24
31. A draft tube is not required for
(a) a Francis turbine (b) a Kaplan turbine
(c) a Pelton wheel turbine (d) none of the above
32. Which of the following turbine is preferred for 0–25 m head of water? AQ 24
(a) Pelton wheel (b) Kaplan turbine
(c) Francis turbine (d) All of the above
33. Draft tube is used for discharging water from the exit of
(a) a Kaplan turbine
(b) a Francis turbine
(c) a Pelton wheel turbine
(d) both (a) and (b)
34. In a reaction turbine, the draft tube is used
(a) to run the turbine full
(b) to prevent air to enter the turbine
(c) to increase the head of water by an amount equal to the height of run-
ner outlet above the tail race
(d) none of the above
35. The specific speed of a hydraulic turbine depends upon
(a) speed and power developed
(b) discharge and power developed
(c) speed and head of water
(d) none of the above

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1093

AQ 25 Review Questions

1. What do you understand by the term turbine? Discuss briefly the uses of
turbines.
2. Write a brief note on the classification of hydraulic turbines.
3. What is meant by an impulse turbine?
4. Differentiate between the turbine and pump.
5. Differentiate between an impulse turbine and a reaction turbine.
6. Differentiate between radial and axial flow turbines.
7. On what factors does the number of jets depend in the case of a Pelton
wheel?
8. Differentiate between an inward and an outward flow reaction turbine.
9. Define and explain hydraulic efficiency, mechanical efficiency and overall
efficiency of a turbine.
10. Define the terms unit power, unit speed, and unit discharge with reference
to a hydraulic turbine.
11. Obtain an expression for unit speed, unit discharge, and unit power for a
turbine.
12. Define the specific speed of a turbine
13. Why is the efficiency of Kaplan turbine nearly constant irrespective of
speed variation under load?
14. Write a short note on draft tube.
15. Explain the factors which decide the choice of a particular hydraulic tur-
bine for a hydropower project.

Problems

1. The jet of water coming out a nozzle strikes the buckets of a Pelton wheel,
which when stationary would deflect the jet through 165°. If the relative
velocity of water at exit is 0.9 times that at the inlet and the bucket speed is
0.45 times the jet speed, determine the hydraulic efficiency and diameter of
Pelton wheel. The speed of the turbine is 300 rpm. and the effective head is
150 m. Take Cv = 0.98. (Ans: 92.8%;1.55 m)
2. Determine the power given by the jet of water to the runner of a Pelton
wheel, which is having tangential velocity as 20 m/s. The net head on the
turbine is 50 m and the discharge through the jet is 0.03 cumecs. The side
clearance angle is 15°. Assume Cv = 0.98. (Ans: 12.43 kW)
3. Calculate the main dimensions of a Pelton wheel to develop 3000kW under
a head of 300 m at 83% efficiency. The ratio of peripheral velocity of wheel
to jet velocity is 0.465 and specific speed 16.5. Assume any necessary
data. (Ans: 375 rpm; 1.78 m; 1.23 cumecs; 0.142 m)

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 1094 Fluid Mechanics and Machinery

4. A double jet Pelton wheel operates under a head of 40m and develops 735
kW power when running at 450 rpm. Make calculations for the flow rate
and the diameter of the nozzle jet. Assume overall efficiency = 0.85 and
coefficient of velocity = 0.98. (Ans: 2.204 cumecs; 0.226 m)
5. A Pelton wheel is working under a head of 45 m and the discharge is 0.8
cumecs. The mean bucket speed is 14 m/s. Find the overall efficiency
and the power produced if the jet is deflected by the blades through an
angle of 165°. Assume the coefficient of velocity = 0.985 and mechanical
efficiency = 0.95 (Ans: 90.5%;335.6 kW)
6. A Pelton wheel working under a head of 500 m, produces 13000 kW at 429
rpm. If the efficiency of the wheel is 85%, determine:
(1) discharge of the turbine
(2) diameter of the wheel
(3) diameter of the nozzle. (Assume suitable data)
Ans: 3.09 cumecs; 1.99 m; 0.2 m)
7. A Pelton wheel is to be designed for a head of 60 m, when running at 200
rpm. The Pelton wheel develops 95.65 kW shaft power. The velocity of
the bucket is 0.45 times the velocity of the jet. Assume overall efficiency =
0.85 and coefficient of velocity = 0.98.
(Ans: 0.085 m;0.425 m; 0.102 m; 24)
8. An outward radial flow impulse turbine has nozzles with a total area of
100 mm2. The guide vanes make an angle of 20° to the wheel tangent at
exit. The inner and outer diameters are 0.5 m and 0.7 m, respectively. The
moving vanes have an outlet angle of 20° to the wheel tangent. The turbine
develops 11.75 kW at the shaft running at 620 rpm under a head of 60 m,
at a discharge of 0.03 cumecs. The water at discharge leaves the runner in a
forward direction and is inclined at 15° to the radius. Calculate (a) the head
lost in the nozzle (b) the head lost in the moving vanes and (c) the head lost
by the bearing friction. (Ans: 14.13 m; 0.8 m; 2.04 m)
9. A turbine works under a head of 16 m at a speed of 200 rpm, and develops
367.875 kW when the rate of flow of water is 2.5 cumecs. If the head on
the turbine is increased to 25 m, calculate the new speed, discharge, and
power. (Ans: 250 rpm; 3.125 cumecs; 718.5 kW)
10. A Francis turbine operating under a head of 70 m runs at 420 rpm. If the
outer diameter is 1 m the inner diameter is 0.5 m, and the discharge is
radial, determine the vane angles at inlet and outlet. The constant velocity
of flow through the runner is 12 m/ and the hydraulic efficiency is 80%.
(Ans: β = 76°: Φ = 47.5°)
11. A Kaplan turbine runner is to be designed to develop 9100 kW. The net
head is 5.6 m. Assume a speed ratio 2.09, flow ratio 0.68, and total effi-
ciency 86%. The diameter of the boss is 1/3 the diameter of the runner. Find
the diameter of the runner, its speed, and the specific speed of the turbine.
(Ans: 6.21 m; 67.5 rpm; 746 rpm)

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 Hydraulic Machines–Turbines 1095

12. A turbine develops 10000 kW under a head of 25 m at 135 rpm. What is the
specific speed? What would be its normal speed and output under a head of
20 m? (Ans: 241 rpm; 120.7 rpm; 7155 kW)
Answers to Multiple choice Questions
1. (c), 2. (a), 3. (c), 4. (b), 5. (a), 6. (b), 7. (a), 8. (a), 9. (b), 10. (b), 11. (c), 12. (c),
13. (b), 14. (d), 15. (c), 16. (c), 17. (b), 18. (b), 19. (a), 20. (b), 21. (a), 23. (b),
23. (a), 24. (b), 25. (d), 26. (a), 27. (b), 28. (a), 29. (a), 30. (b), 31. (c), 32. (b), 33.
(d), 34. (c), 35. (c)

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