Ed 623273

An Illustration of the Use of Geometrical Forms
JUNIOR MATHEMATICS
BOOK TWO
BY
ERNST R. BRESLICH
, •
Assistant Professor of the Teaching of Mathematics,

The College of Education
and
Head of the Department of Mathematics,

The University High School
The University of Chicago
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

1925
All rights reserved

wttU Marabor
ITT
\°IE 5
1925
Copyright
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1925.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

PREFACE
This is the second volume of a series of textbooks
on junior high-school mathematics. Like the first
volume, it is organized on the principles that were
stated in the preface of Book One.
Geometry is the basis of the first part of this course.
By actual measurement formulas are developed for
finding the areas of triangles, quadrilaterals, and the
circle. In these formulas quadratic terms and poly¬
nomials make their appearance and some of the funda¬
mental operations with integral numbers are taught.
Then follows a study of the common solids which leads
to algebraic terms and polynomials of the third degree.
Algebra in the first half of this course is a tool subject.
Algebraic notation is used because it is helpful and
because it simplifies discussions of geometry.
In the second half of Book Two emphasis is trans¬
ferred from geometry to algebra. Positive and nega¬
tive numbers are introduced. Geometry is now used
to illustrate and to make concrete the meaning of
abstract algebraic concepts and operations.
Opportunities for arithmetical computation and for
problem solving are offered everywhere to help the
pupil attain a high degree of accuracy in arithmetical
work.
There is an abundance of real problems which will
make the subject seem worth while to the learner, but
VI PREFACE
the author has intentionally made use of many prob¬

lems of the traditional type wherever they can be
made helpful for the purpose of drill and practice.
The author expresses his appreciation and gratitude
to Director Charles H. Judd, Professor H. C. Morrison,
and Professor W. C. Reavis for inspiration, advice, and
support during the time in which the material was tried
out in the laboratory schools.
A grant from the Commonwealth Fund has aided
the studies which contributed to the development of
this course. E. R. Breslich.
CONTENTS
PAGE
I. Areas of Rectangles and Squares. Mul¬
tiplication of Polynomials. Square Root 1
Measuring the Surface of a Rectangle.
Multiplication of a Polynomial by a Mono¬
mial.
Multiplication of a Polynomial by a Polyno¬
mial.
Area of a Square.
Square Root.
II. Areas of Quadrilaterals, Triangles, and
Circles. 39
The Area of a Parallelogram.
The Area of a Trapezoid.
The Area of a Triangle.
The Area of the Circle.
III. Areas of Surfaces. Volumes of Solids. .. 66
Rectangular Solids.
The Cube.
The Rectangular Block.
The Prism.
The Cylinder.
Pyramids and Cones.
The Sphere.
Formulas and Tables.
IV. The Meaning of Positive and Negative
Numbers... 102
Directed Numbers.
Positive and Negative Numbers.
V. The Operations with Positive and Neg¬
ative N umbers.. 116
Addition.
Subtraction.
Multiplication.
Division.
Vll
Vlll CONTENTS
PAGE
VI. Solving Simple Equations and Problems. 139
What You Already Know about Equations.
Translating Verbal Statements into Symbols.
Practice Problems in Deriving and Solving
Equations
VII. Problems Leading to Simple Equations in
Two Unknowns. 161
Graphical Solution.
Algebraic Solution of Equations in Two Un¬
knowns.
VIII. Problems Leading to Quadratic Equa¬
tions. 174
What We Have Previously Learned about
Quadratic Equations.
Graphical Solution of Quadratic Equations.
Algebraic Solution of Quadratic Equations.
IX. Community Arithmetic. 191
Taxes.
Insurance.
Banks and Banking.
Investments.
X. Efficient Methods of Computation. 228
Multiplication.
Division.
Square Root.
Interest.
XI. Supplementary Exercises. 248
The Fundamental Operations.
The Formula.
The Equation.
Fractions.
XII. Tables and Formulas for Reference. . . . 256
INTRODUCTION
The success of the seventh-year book on combina¬

tion mathematics which was the first volume of the
series of which this book is the second, supplies gratify¬
ing evidence that junior high schools of various types
and teachers with different kinds of preparation can
use this material to the great advantage of junior high
school pupils.
The report of the National Committee on Math¬
ematical Requirements recommended combination
mathematics in the junior high school but left to
later experimentation the formulation of details of
such a course. The preparation of a course of the
type called for had been under way in the schools of
the School of Education of the University of Chicago
for some time before the appearance of the report
of the Committee on Mathematics Teaching. Mr.
Breslich, who had charge of the course, had accord¬
ingly the advantage of years of experience and was
able to furnish material refined by much use in the
classroom
When he published his first volume administrators
and teachers in some quarters questioned whether
schools which had up to that time followed the tradi¬
tional program could adopt the new type of material
without a long period of readjustment. The answer
which experience has given to such questioning is most
IX
X INTRODUCTION
promising for the progress of mathematics and for the

evolution of the junior high school.
Experience shows that pupils who formerly were
uninspired by the review and repetitious number drills
which are traditional in seventh and eighth grades,
get a new view of the meaning of precise quantitative
thinking when they are introduced to the methods and
materials of elementary geometry and algebra. They
exhibit an interest in these new subjects which was
lacking under the older program. They show an intel¬
lectual maturity and grasp of methods of thinking
which are usually thought to be beyond pupils of this
age.
All these facts lead the advocates of combination
mathematics and of the junior high school to express
with more assurance than ever before their confidence
in the movement to which the course which is presented
in the following pages is a contribution.
Charles H. Judd.
CHAPTER I
AREA OF RECTANGLES AND SQUARES.

MULTIPLICATION OF POLYNOMIALS.
SQUARE ROOT
Measuring the Surface of a Rectangle
1. What we are going to study in this chapter.

When buying land one should be able to determine its
size, i.e., to measure it. We have learned how to meas¬
ure line segments, circle arcs, and angles. We know
that in measuring a line segment, the segment is com¬
pared with a unit segment. We have measured angles
and arcs by means of unit angles and unit arcs. Since

pieces of land, such as fields, lots, townships, and
states, are very often in the form of polygons, we shall
learn to measure surfaces (interior) of polygons. This
means that we shall learn how to determine the number
l
2 JUNIOR MATHEMATICS
of times a unit surface is contained in the surface of the

polygon. The surface of a square is used as a unit
surface.
We shall first see that the measure of surfaces of
rectangles or squares may be found by counting the
number of unit squares which they contain. Then a
formula will be developed from which the result can be
obtained more easily and accurately than by counting
unit squares.
By the use of this formula, we shall solve some
simple problems and equations, multiply a polynomial
by another, such as (a+6+c) by (m+m), and find
square roots of arithmetical numbers.
Finally we shall work out a relation from which one
side of a right triangle can be found if the other two are
known. For example, in the
B
triangle ABC (Fig. 1), if a is
the unknown length of the side
CB, if c is the known length of
the hypotenuse BA, and if h
is the known length of AC, it
will be shown that a can be
found by solving the equation a2 + 62 = c2 for a.
We shall learn how to solve such equations.
2. Some important prop¬

erties of a rectangle. A quad¬
rilateral whose angles are right
angles is a rectangle (Fig. 2).
One of the two sides, as AB,
A 8 B is the base and the other, AD,
Fig. 2 is the altitude.
AREA OF RECTANGLES AND SQUARES 3
If the rectangle is equilateral it is a

square (Fig. 3).
The following exercises establish two
important properties of the rectangle:
Fig. 3
Exercises
1. Draw a rectangle (Fig. 2), using ruler and protractor. Make

the side AB equal to 8 centimeters, and AD equal to 6 centimeters.
2. Measure the other sides of the rectangle drawn in Exercise 1.
Your results should show that the opposite sides of a rectangle are equal.
3. Measure the diagonals of the rectangle and show that the
diagonals of a rectangle are equal.
3. How to measure the surface of a rectangle by

counting unit squares. Let us measure the interior of
a rectangle whose base AB is 3 centimeters long and
whose altitude BC is 2 centimeters.
Place the rectangle on squared paper (Fig. 4).
Draw lines EF and GH, dividing the rectangle into
three strips equal in size, like n ,
JlTZ - ,—i—
, ,i , M ~r
M
the strip AEFD. Divide -D-F-H-—-C- D M — cp
each of the strips into two III ZZZZZflZZZAfZZZZIII
equal squares. Ill IZIIljlltllplllI
■ ■■■ ■ ■ '■iik
?-
Show that the rectangle Z&l
is now divided into 3x2
equal squares. j4 i E O 15L-
U sing one of these squares - Tib j" nTn
:4++ A I 1A
~~
as a unit, we find that the ' H-H

^ I 3M I -H- I I I l
Fig. 4
measure of the rectangular
surface ABCD is equal to 3X2 square centimeters, or 6
square centimeters.
Find the measure of the surface ABCD, if one of the
small squares is used as a unit.
4. What is meant by area. The number of times

the surface of a unit square is contained in the interior
of a polygon is the area of the polygon. Thus, the area
of the rectangle shown in Fig. 4 is 6, or 150, according
as a large or small square is used as a unit.
Exercises
1. On squared paper draw a rectangle whose base is 5 centi¬

meters and whose altitude is 3 centimeters.
Find the area by counting unit squares.
Find the product of the lengths of the sides (dimensions) of the
rectangle.
Compare the area with the product of the dimensions and state
your result.
2. By counting unit squares find the area of a rectangle 4 centi¬
meters long and 2 centimeters wide. How may the area be expressed
in terms of the dimensions? In terms of the base and altitude?
3. Draw a rectangle whose dimensions are 4 centimeters
and 3.5 centimeters. Count the
Aj 4/. to 72
bdr unit squares and find the area
by adding the unit squares and
4- -4 =u-
i i the fractional parts of unit
'10
at4 —
6,,
squares. Show that the area is
equal to the product of the
\ 1JL 1
*1Q dimensions.
4. Find the area of a rec¬
--
.
6 -1- tangle 3.6 centimeters long
Fig. 5 and 2.4 centimeters wide.
Solution: Divide the interior of the rectangle as shown in Fig. 5.
Show that the area is equal to
l + l + l+l + l + l + .6+.6+.4+.4+.4+(^)x(T)
= 6+2.4+.24 = 8.64.
>
Show that the same result may be obtained by multiplying 3.6

by 2.4.
5. Finding the area of a rectangle by means of a

formula. The Exercises in §4 show that the area of a
rectangle is equal to the product of the base by the altitude.
If we denote the lengths of the base and altitude by
b and h, respectively, and the area by A, this prin¬
ciple may be translated into the formula A = bXh.
Writing briefly bh for bXh we have
A = bh.
Exercises
In the following exercises arrange the written work as shown

in Exercise 1.
1. Find the area of a rec¬

tangular flower bed 16 feet 6
inches long and 8 feet 8 inches
wide.
Solution: A = bh. Why?

6 = 16^. Why?
h = 8§. Why?
11 13
Hence A = 16AX8-|=-^X^= 143
2X3
/.Area = 143 square feet.
2. Find the number of square feet of lighting surface in your

classroom.
3. Find how much floor space per pupil your classroom con¬
tains.
4. Compare the lighting surface in your classroom with the

floor space by finding the ratio of one to the other.
5. Find the number of square feet in the floor of a corridor

300 feet long and 12 feet wide.
6. A cement walk feet wide and 120 feet long is to be

laid for 30 cents a square foot. Find the amount paid for the
walk.
7. A fence 8 feet high surrounds a rectangular field. The field
is 250 yards by 300 yards. How much paint will be needed to paint
the fence on the smooth side, if a gallon of paint covers 250 square
feet?
8. The dimensions of the floor of a rectangular room are 11
feet and 10 feet. If the room is 9 feet high, how much will it cost
to plaster the walls and the ceiling at a rate of 45 cents per square
yard, not allowing any deductions for windows or doors?
9. A farmer has 16 yards of wire fencing with which to enclose
a vegetable bed of rectangular shape. If the length is to be three
times the width, what is the area?
10. How many rolls of wall paper are needed to paper a wall
12 feet wide and 8 feet high, if the paper to be used is 18 inches
wide and if each roll contains 8 yards?
Suggestion: Find the number of strips in a roll and discard the
piece left over.
AREA OF RECTANGLES AND SQUARES /
11. During an anniversary rug sale, a department store ad¬

vertised rugs as shown below:
These rugs are in plain or moresque grounds with nar¬

row borders. There are slight imperfections in weave, which
make the prices far lower than usual.
I. Size 27 x 54 inches ... $ 6.50 Size 6x9 feet.$41.00
Size 36x63 inches ... 10.00 Size 8V4X I0y2 feet... 62.50
Size 41/2 x 71/2 feet. ... 22.50 Size 9x12 feet. 67.50
Seamless Axminster Rugs Specially Priced

Very heavy Axminster rugs with plain centers or in Ori¬
ental designs. These also have slight imperfections. Priced
as follows:
II. Size 41/2 x 6V2 feet... .$11.75 Size 8*4 x IOV2 feet.. .$36.00
Size6x9feet. 22.00 Size9xl2feet. 42.00
III. Size 60x84 inches. $20.00 pair
Size 72x84 inches. 22.50 pair
Which rugs in the advertisement give the most floor space for
the money? Arrange all your work as shown in the table below:
Area in Cost per

Dimensions Cost
Square Feet Square Unit
1. 27 X 54 10| $6.50 $0.64

36 X63 10.00
42 X (\ 22.50
6X9 41.00
s}-xio£ 62.50
9 X12 67.50
II. 4\ X 6-J- 11.75

6X9 22.00 .
SjXlO^- 36.00 .. • •
9 X12 42.00 .
III. 60 XS4 20.00 ........

72 X84 22.50
Find the areas of rectangles of the following dimensions. State

the equations and arrange your work as shown in Exercise 1 above.
12. 42 and 17. 15. and 14^.
13. 3.4 and 6. 16. 17-| and 123y.
14. 8.2 and 1.42. 17. .06 and .24.
18. A farmer got 59 bushels of potatoes from a patch 9 rods by

11 rods. Find the yield per acre.
Suggestion: 1 acre = 160 square rods.
19. What is the price of a field 400 feet wide and 650 feet long
if land is worth $80 an acre?
20. The area of a football field is 52,800 square feet, and the
length is 330 feet. Find the width.
21. Draw a rectangle whose area is 6; 5; 4X2; xy; mn; ab. Find
the area ab, when a = 2, 6 = 7; a =1.4, 6 = 3.6; a = 3.16, 6 = 7.84.
22. Divide the shaded surfaces (Fig. 6) into rectangles and

find the area of each.
2
Fig. 6
Using the area sums obtained for the last three surfaces (Fig. 6)
as formulas, find the area if a — 2, 6 = 4, c = 3, d —1.5, /=2-|q
a — 3, 6 = 7, c — 2.5, d = 4, e = 4.5,/=3.
Find the value of each of the polynomials in Exercises 23 to 30

if a = 6, 6 = 2, c = 1, d=-
23. n6+uc+6c+4.
Solution: (z6+nc+6c+4 = 6X2+6Xl+2Xl+4
= 12+6+2+4
= 24.
ab-\-ac
24. ac-\-bd-\-bc. 28.
ab—dc
bd-\-ba
25. ab — 6c+d+5. 29.
ad—c
ad-\-a—c ac—d
26. 30.
ab ab — be
y-r b-\-d-\-bd 2ab+c

31.
bd Sac-\-2d
31. Draw a rectangle using protractor and ruler. Measure the
sides and find the area.
32. Find the cost of covering a rectangle 25 inches by 18 inches
with gold leaf at 9 cents a square inch.
33. A garden plot is 16 yards long and 18 yards wide. Find the
cost of sodding it at 22 cents a square yard.
34. Find the cost of an inlaid floor 20 feet by 18 feet at 12.75 a
square foot.
35. How many acres are there in a field 95 rods long and 72 rods
wide?
6. The area of a rectangle varies directly as the

altitude. Let A = 3h (§5) be the equation for finding the
area A when b is equal to 3. Show that if h= 1, A = 3;
if h = 2, A = 6; if h = 3, A = 9, etc. Thus when h is dou¬
bled, trebled, etc., we see that A is also doubled,
^4
trebled, etc. However, ~r is always 3. Hence, A
. A
varies (changes), if h varies, but the ratio — remains
the same (constant).

Briefly we express this by saying that A varies
directly as h.
7. Graphical representation of the formula A = bh.

Let the altitude of a rectangle vary, the base remaining
the same, e.g., equal to 3. Show that when h = 1, 2. 3,
etc., A = 3, 6, 9, etc.
Make a table of corresponding values of h and A
(Fig. 7).
Make the graph of the equation A = 3h as follows:
Fig. 7
On squared paper (Fig. 7) draw two lines OH and OA

at right angles to each other.
On OH and OA mark off convenient units of length.
Plot the pairs of numbers in the table. Thus, the
pair (1, 3) is plotted by passing from 0 to the right 1
unit and up 3 units.
Draw the line joining the points. This is the required
graph.
Exercises
1. From the graph (Fig. 7) find A when A = 2.4; 3.8.

2. Make graphs of the equations A = 5h; A = 8h.
8. Using the rectangle to show the law of order of

the factors of a product. We have seen that the area
of a rectangle is equal to the product of the base by
the altitude. Thus the area of ABCD (Fig. 8) is 4X2.
Since a rectangle with a base equal to 2 and an
altitude equal to 4 differs from the rectangle ABCD
only in position, its area, 2X4, must be equal to
the area of ABCD, i.e., equal to
4X2.
This shows that 4X2 = 2X4.
Any product, as xy, may be
thought of as representing the
area of a rectangle of dimensions
x and y. Since this rectangle is
equal to a rectangle of dimensions y and x, it follows
that xy and yx have the same value. This illustrates
the following principle, known as the law of order in
multiplication:
The value of a product remains the same when the
order of the factors is changed.
Exercises
1. Show from a drawing, as in Fig. 8, that 4X6 = 6X4.

2. Show, by substituting values for a and b, that ab = ba.
Solution: Left Side Right Side
3X2 2X3
6 = 6
3. Explain why the formula A — bh may be written A = hb.

4. By substituting values for x, y, and z show, as in Exercise 2,
that xy-\-yz-\-zx = yxJrzy-\-xz. For example, let x = 3, y = 2, z = 4.
5. Show that ab-\-bc-\-ca = baJrcbJrac.
6. Find the value of mn-\-nt-\-ts for m = 3.6, 71 = 1.2, t = 5.5,

s = 2.7.
7. Since 4X0 means O+O+O+O, it follows that 4X0 = 0. By

means of the law of order show that the value of 0X4 is zero.
9. Multiplying numbers by zero. Exercise 7 (§8)

illustrates that the value of a product is zero if one of the
factors is zero.
Multiplication of a Polynomial by a
Monomial
10. How to use the rectangle to multiply a poly¬

nomial by a monomial. A carpenter wishes to compute
the number of square feet of siding needed for a garage
whose floor is 18 feet X 20 feet, and whose walls are 9
feet high. To do this he may find the number of square
feet needed for each side and then find the sum. This
gives the number of square feet in the four walls equal
to (9 X 20) -f- (9 X18) -J- (9 X 20) -|- (9 X18).
The required number may also be found as follows:

Imagine the 4 walls placed adjacent to each other
(Fig. 9). They
form a rec¬ 9x20 9xl8 9X2 O 9xl8
tangle whose 20 18 20 18
Fig. 9
length is
20+18+20+18, and whose width is 9. The number
of square feet contained in the whole rectangle is
9 X (20 +18+20 +18), or 9 X / 6.
Since the whole rectangle is equal to the sum of the
parts computed above, we have
9X (20+18+20 + 18)
= (9 X 20) + (9 X18) + (9 X 20) + (9 X18).
Simplify both members of this equation and show
that they have equal values.
The product 9X (20+18+20 + 18) may be written
briefly without the multiplication sign, as
9(20+18+20+18).
The products 9X20, 9X18, etc., may be written
9*20, 9* 18, etc.
Exercises
1. Show from a figure that 4(2+l+6) =4-2+4T+L6.
2. Show that a(b-\-c) =ab-\-ac (Fig. 10).
3. Draw a figure to show that
o(5+2) =5a+2a.
4. Show from a figure that
m (a+6) =ma-\-mb. Fig. 10
5. Show that a(b-\-c-\-d) = abJrcic-\-ad, first by means of a
figure, second by substituting values for the literal numbers.
11. A rule for multiplying a polynomial by a mono¬

mial. Exercises 1 to 5 (§10) illustrate the following
important law for multiplying a polynomial by a
monomial: A polynomial is multiplied by a monomial

by first multiplying each term of the polynomial by the
monomial, and then adding the resulting products. This
law is to be used in the following exercises:
Exercises
1. Multiply as indicated: 4(x+2); 3 (£+7); a(s-\-t);

b(y+z+4); 3(m+n+l); t(a+b+c+2); (p+g+4)a; (f+g+h)m;
5(a+c)+2(o+6)# 4{x-\-y-\-z)-\-{aJrb)m
c ’ 3++2) '
2. Find the value of each of the parts in Exercise 1 for a=l,

6 = 1, c= 1, /= 3, g = 3, h = 3, m = 5, n = 5, p = 4, ^ = 4, r = 4, s = 4,
t = 4, x = 2, 2/= 2, 2 = 2.
Multiply Exercises 3 to 13 as indicated and check as shown in

Exercise 3:
3. 7(5a+3).
Solution: 7(5a+3) =35a+21.
Check: Substitute for a some value, first in the exercise, then in

the result to see if both reduce to the same number; e.g., let a — 2.
Exercise Result
7(5-2 + 3) 35-2 + 21
713 70+21
91 == 91
4. b (3a+4). 9. 3.r(4?/+2)+5(x+6).
5. 2 m(a-\-b). 10. -J-m(6n+9)+2(5x+l).
6. 5(2a+3x+2). 11. p(3m+4)+(/(2n+10).
7. £(6p+9). 12. 2 x (4 u+26) +c? (3x+56).
8. ib(r+6). 13. 3m(2T+8y)+4.r(2w+y).

14. The base of a rectangle is 2 feet and the altitude is 10 feet.

By how much must the base of the rectangle be increased to form a
rectangle whose area is 119 square feet? ...
Suggestion: Let x be the number of
feet in the increased part of the base
(Fig. 11). 10 ;
Then the new base is a;+2.
Hence 10(2+2) = 119
10x+20 = 119 ..I
102 = 99 2 *
2 = 9.9 Fig. 11
15. The base of a rectangle is 15 feet and the altitude 1 foot. By

how much must the altitude be increased to form a rectangle whose
area is 105 square feet?
16. The base of a rectangle is 8 and its altitude is 32+2. If the
area is 56, find x and the altitude.
Solve the following equations in Exercises 17 to 22 and check each
as shown in Exercise 17:
2(2+2)
17.
"8-
3-2(x+2)
Solution: = 3-8. by multiplying both members by 3
3
22+4 = 24, by changing the fraction to the sim¬
plest form
22 = 20, by subtracting 4 from each member
2 = 10, by dividing both members by 2
Check: Substitute 10 for x in the original equation and see if
both sides of the equation reduce to the same number:
Left Side Right Side
2(10+2) g
3
4
2X>2 o
2X4 »
8 = 8-
18. 3(;r+4) =22-\-x.
19. 9(t/+35) = 5(2y+45).
20. 3(«+15)+5 = 2(2a+9)+4(a+3).
50+3)
21. 2
= 20. 22.
AlULTIPLICATION OF A POLYNOMIAL BY A
Polynomial
12. Finding the product of two polynomials by

means of a rectangle. Divide the rectangle (Fig. 12)
into smaller rectan¬
a b _c
gles, as shown in the
ax bx cx diagram.
Then the area of
aij by cy the whole rectangle
(x + y) (a + 6+-c)
is equal to the sum
Fig. 12
of the parts
ax-{-ay-\-bx-\-by-{-cx-\-cy.
Hence, (x-\-y) (a-\-b-\-c) =ax-\-ayJrbxJrby-\-cx-\-cy.
Exercises
1. Represent the product (m+n) {x-\-y) geometrically as the

area of a rectangle, and express it in the form of a polynomial.
2. Express (a+6) (m+n) as a polynomial without the use of

a drawing.
13. A rule for finding the product of two polyno¬

mials. A study of the results in Exercises 1 and 2
above reveals the following law for multiplying poly¬

nomials without using a geometric figure:
Two polynomials are multiplied by multiplying each
term of one by every term of the other, and then adding the
resulting products.
Apply this law to the following products:
Exercises
1. (ft-)-6) (c+d).
Solution: (a+6) (c-\-d)=ac-\-bcJradJrbd.
2. (x-\-y) (m+n+4). 5. (/+^/+6) (a+4).
3. (x+2) (?/+5), 6. (x+2)
4. (r+8) 7. (m+n+p) (.x+tg+z).
8. Find the values of the polynomials in Exercises 1 to 7, sub¬

stituting the value 3 for a, b, c and d; 4 for/, g, m and n; fr for p, r
and t; -3- for a: and y.
9. Find the value of the polynomial in Exercise 6 when x = 3.52,

r = 1.7, ^ = 1.34.
10. Find the value of the polynomial in Exercise 3 when x = .18,

p = 3.12.
Multiply as indicated:
11. (3.r+2y-\-z)(x-\-y). 18. (-J(6a-fT 25+18c).
12. (ra+3n+4)(2?a+3). 19. (.5a+.25&) (10p+60g+8r).

13. (2a+8b+Sc)(Ux+7y). 20. (2x+y) (4a+35+c).
14. {krX-\--±y-\-îrz) (-ân+Ti). 21. (a-\-b)x-{- + (a-\-b).
15. (x+3y-\--%z) (a+26). 22. 4:r(m+-3-n)+5?/(10a+36) + 16.
16. (a+6) (c+d-f-e). 23. -|a(3x+?/)+|-6(m+6?r)+4.
17. (3ra+p+5r) (x+y). 24. a(x-f-p)+|(4m+60+8.

Area of a Square
14. A formula for finding the area of a square. If

the base of a rectangle is equal to the altitude the
figure is a square (Fig. 13).
Denoting the length of the sides of the square by a,
the area is given by the formula
A = aXa.
The product aXa is written a2 (read

^ “a-square,” or “a to the second
power”). In this notation the area
of a square is given by the formula
a
Fig. 13 A =a2,
where a denotes the length of the side.
The symbol a2, meaning aXa, should not be confused
with 2a, which means a-\-a, or 2Xa.
Exercises
1. Find the area of a square whose side is 1.3.

Solution: A = a2
a =1.3
A = (1.3) (1.3), or 1.69
.-.A =1.69.
2. Find the area of a square whose side is 3.6; 8.4; 1.25.

3. State the meaning of 22; (1.8)2; a2; (mn)2; (-J-)2; (-§-)2.
4. Tabulate the squares of all whole numbers from 1 to 20, as

shown below, and memorize the squares:
n i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 '14 15 16 17 18 19 20
n2
5. State the meaning, and then find the value, of each of the
following:
3
(i)* 1 2; (f)2; (f)2; C5)2; (.75)2; 3(f)2;
22*32’ 42*32.
6. The table below contains units of square measure which are

commonly used. Verify the first three.
Table of Square Measure
144 square inches (sq. in.) = l square foot (sq. ft.)

9 square feet (sq. ft.) =1 square yard (sq. yd.)
30 \ square yards (sq. yd.) = 1 square rod (sq. rd.)
160 square rods (sq. rd.) =1 acre (A)
640 acres (A) =1 square mile (sq. mi.)
15. How to use rectangles and squares to picture

per cents. The square ABCD (Fig.
14) contains 100 small squares. The
area of each small square is there¬
fore xfo °f ABCD, or 1% of
ABCD.
Similarly 2, 3, 4, 5 squares are
2%, 3%, 4%, 5% of the whole
figure. Fig.14
Exercises
1. State the number of per cents in each

of the shaded surfaces (Fig. 14).
2. Statistics show that in 1920 our popu¬

lation was divided as follows: 76.7% native
whites, 13.0% foreign whites, 10.3% colored.
Make a drawing like Fig. 15 to illustrate
these facts. Fig. 15
3. A man divides his farm as follows: he takes 15% for pas¬

ture, 50% for corn, 25% for wheat, 7% for meadow, and 3% for
lots. Make a drawing like Fig. 15 to show how the farm is divided.
4. The table below states the percentage of illiterates of all

people in the United States older than 10 years:
1880 1890 1900 1910 1920
17% 13.3% 10.7% 7.7% 6%

Represent these facts on squared paper as in Fig. 14.
5. In a spelling test containing 100 words Richard spelled 92
words correctly, Mary 95, and John 67. What per cent did each
spell correctly? Make a drawing to show these per cents.
16. How to show the relation between important

per cents and fractions. By counting the small squares
contained in a large square divided
into hundredths (Fig. 16), we shall
show how to change per cents to
common fractions and common frac¬
tions into per cents.
Exekcises
Fig. 16
1. Divide a square (Fig. 16) into 100 equal
squares and mark off of the large square. Count the number
of small squares. What per cent is equal to -J-?'
What per cent is equal to -f?
2. By means
of drawings pic¬
ture per cents
equal to the fol¬
lowing fractions:
JL Jl 3 ii
2> 8> 8’ 1 2•
3. By means
of drawings repre¬
sent: 6%, 12%%,
33-g-%.
4. From re¬
cent statistics it
was learned that
the shares of various nations in supplying the world with cotton
were as given below. Illustrate the per cents by means of a drawing.
United States 56.7% Egypt 5.9% Brazil 2.8%
British India 22.4% China 5.7% All others 6.5%
17. How to find the square of a number by means

of rectangles and squares. The square of 25 may be
found geometrically as follows:
Write 25 as a binomial, as
20+5. 5 5X20 52
Draw a square whose side
is 20+5. (See Fig. 17).
The area of this square is 20 202 5X20
(20+5)2. Why?
Divide the square into two
rectangles and two squares as
20 5
shown in the diagram and find
Fig. 17
the area of each part.
The sum of the four parts is
202+ (5 X 20) + (5 X 20) +52 - 202+2 (5 X 20) +52.
It follows that (20+5)2 = 202+2(5X20)+52.
Exercises
By means of drawings find the squares of 13, 26, 34, 29.
18. A rule for squaring a number. We see from

Fig. 17 that the square of 25 may be found without a
diagram as follows:
1. Square 20 2. Square 5
3. Multiply the product 20X5 by 2.
4. Find the sum: 202+52+2(20X5).
State a rule for squaring a two-figure number.
Exercises
Square the following numbers, doing as much as you can orally.

Test each result by multiplying the number by itself directly.
Solution: 622 = (60+2)2 = 602+2(60X2)+4
= 3600
+ 240
+_4
622 = 3844
2. 24. 4. 41. 6. 38. 8. 105.

3. 35. 5. 74. 7. 82. 9. 109.
19. How to find the square of a binomial by means

of a drawing. You may square a
b ab b2 binomial a-\-b as follows:
Draw a segment equal to a-\-b
(Fig. 18).
a a2 ab Draw a square on (a+6) and
divide it into four parts as
shown.
a b Show that
Fig. 18 (a+b)2 = a2+2ab+b2.
Exercises
By means of drawings find the squares of the following binomials:

1. (ra+rr)2. 3. (x+2)2.
2. (c+d)2. 4. (7+4)2.
20. A law for finding the square of a binomial. The

formula (a+6)2 = a2+2ah+52, translated into words,
expresses the following law:
The square of a binomial may be found by squaring the
first term, adding twice the product of the two terms, and
then adding the square of the second term.
Exercises
Use the formula (a+6)2 = a2+2a6+62 to find the trinomials

equal to the following squares. Do as many as you can orally.
Illustrate some of them with drawings.
1. (m+w)2. 4. (i^+î/)2. 7. (a+f-6)2.
2. (:v+y)2. 5. (3a+25)2. 8. (6j+1)2.
3. (x+3)2. 6. (.4a+.56)2. 9. (4a+^6)2.
Find the following products, using the principle of §13:

10. (2u+36) (o-j-2b).
Solution: (2a+36) (u+26) = 2a2+3a6+4a&+662
= 2a2+7a5+662.
11. (s+8) U+2). 17. (55+2c) (5c+36).

12. (x+6) (z+l). 18. (z+2a) (3z+6).
13. {x~\~7) (x+4). 19. (a+6+c) (x+y).
14. (2^+4) (32+5). 20. (2x+3y+4) (x+y).
15. (^-a+-J-6) (6a+26). 21. (ct+6+c)2.
16. (-f-x+3z) (6x+122). 22. (2.r+?/+5)2.
21. Trinomial square. The trinomials m2+2mn+n2,

x2-\-2xy-\-y2, x2+6^+9, are perfect squares. Show
that the trinomials, which were found by squaring the
binomials in Exercises 1 to 9 (§20) are perfect trinomial
squares.
Make up three other quadratic trinomials that are
squares.
Square Root
22. To find the side of a square' whose area is

known. A field of the form of a square has an area of
100 square rods. We may find the
length of the side of the square as fol¬
lows :
Let a (Eig. 19) denote the number
of rods in one side.
Then a2 = 100. Why?
This equation may be regarded as
expressing numerically the question:
What number multiplied by itself gives the product
100?
The answer is 10, since 10X10 = 100.
Hence, a = 10.
23. Meaning of square root. The process of finding

one of the two equal factors whose product is equal to
a given number is called finding the square root of the
given number. Thus 10 is the square root of 100,
because 10X10 = 100. The square root of a number
is one of the two equal factors whose product is the
number.
Exercises
1. State the squares of the whole numbers from 1 to 20.

2. Determine the square root of each of the following numbers
by finding a number which multiplied by itself gives a product equal
to the given number.
64 - 676 441
169 900 625
400 529 784
484 256 324
24. Radical sign. To indicate that a square root of

a number is to be found, the radical sign \ is
used. Thus, “square root of 100” is written briefly
\~Too.
Exercises
1. Give the meaning and value of each of the following symbols:
V 25,
Solution: V 25 = 5, since 5X5 = 25.
Vm. V~36. \C25.
Vl96. V~225. Vltt.
2. Find the side of a square whose area is 625 square feet.
Solution: Let a denote the number of feet in the side.
Then a2 = 625
Taking the square root of both members of this equation we have
V“2=
or a = 25.
3. Find the side of a square whose area is 144; 81; 324; 256; .25;
16. 144. 81 . 400
49 ’ 169 ’ 289 ^ 169*
25. Finding the square root of a perfect square by

factoring. If you know the squares of all whole num¬
bers from 1 to 20 you can easily find the square roots
of all perfect squares from 1 to 400. The process of
finding a square root of a perfect square larger than
400 is illustrated in the following example:
Let it be required to find the square root of 11,025.
Solution: Find all the factors (divisors) of 11,025
which contain no other numbers as factors but 1
(prime factors):
5)11025
5)2205
3)441
3)147
7)49
7
We may now write
\ 11025 = V 52X32X49 = 5X3X7
Hence, \ 11025 = 105.
Exercises
Find a square root of each of the following perfect squares.

Arrange your work as shown in Exercise 1.
1. 576.
Solution: Computation:
V~576 = V 2X2X12X12 2)576
= 2X12
12)144
= 24. 12
2. 1225. 5. 2916. 8. 3249.

3. 2304. 6. 2601. 9. 3969.
4. 2704. 7. 2401. 10. 4356.
26. Square roots may be found by means of a

table. To save time and energy, tables containing
numbers and their square roots may be used. In the
table on page 28 the columns headed “Nos.” contain the
integral (whole) numbers from 1 to 104. The columns
immediately to the right give the corresponding
squares, and the second columns to the right give the
square roots of the numbers in the first column. The
roots are approximated to four figures.
Exercises
By means of the table on page 28, find the square roots of:
6241; 9216; 3481; 5625.
27. How to tell the number of digits in the square

root of a number. In extracting the square root of a
number we must know where to place the decimal
point. The following shows us how to do this:
State the squares of the integral (whole) numbers
from 1 to 9, and note that they contain either one or
two digits, and that none contains more than two digits.
It follows that the square root of an integral number,
which is less than 100 and greater than 1, lies between
1 and 10, and contains only one digit in its integral
part.
Similarly show that the squares of the integral num¬
bers from 10 to 99 contain either three or four digits.
It follows that the square root of an integral number
Table of Squares and Square Roots
Square Square Square

Nos. Squares Nos. Squares Nos. Squares
Roots Roots Roots
35 1225 6.916 70 4900 8.366

1 1 1.000 36 1296 6.000 71 5041 8.426
2 4 1.414 37 1369 6.082 72 5184 8.485
3 9 1.732 38 1444 6.164 73 5329 8.544
4 16 2.000 39 1521 6.244 74 5476 8.602
5 25 2.236 40 1600 6.324 75 5625 8.660

6 36 2.449 41 1681 6.403 76 5776 8.717
7 49 2.645 42 1764 6.480 77 5929 8.774
8 64 2.828 43 1849 6.557 78 6084 8.831
9 81 3.000 44 1936 6.633 79 6241 8.888
10 100 3.162 45 2025 6.708 80 6400 8.944
11 121 3.316 46 2116 6.782 81 6561 9.000
12 144 3.464 47 2209 6.855 82 6724 9.055
13 169 3.605 48 2304 6.928 83 6889 9.110
14 196 3.741 49 2401 7.000 84 7056 9.165
15 225 3.872 50 2500 7.071 85 7225 9.129

16 256 4.000 51 2601 7.141 86 7396 9.273
17 289 4.123 52 2704 7.211 87 7569 9.327
18 324 4.242 53 2809 7.280 88 7744 9.380
19 361 4.358 54 2916 7.348 89 7921 9.433
20 400 4.472 55 3025 7.416 90 8100 9.486

21 441 4.582 56 3136 7.483 91 8281 9.539
22 484 4.690 57 3249 7.549 92 8464 9.591
23 529 4.795 58 3364 7.615 93 8649 9.643
24 576 4.898 59 3481 7.681 94 8836 9.695
25 625 5.000 60 3600 7.745 95 9025 9.746

26 676- 5.099 61 3721 7.810 96 9216 9.797
27 729 5.196 62 3844 7.874 97 9409 9.848
28 784 5.291 63 3969 7.937 98 9604 9.899
29 841 5.385 64 4096 8.000 99 9801 9.949
30 900 5.477 65 4225 8.062 100 10.000 10.000

31 961 5.567 66 4356 8.124 101 10,201 10.049
32 1024 5.656 67 4489 8.185 102 , 10,404 10.099
33 1089 5.744 68 4624 8.246 103 10,609 10.148
34 1156 5.830 69 4761 8.306 104 10.816 10.198
containing three or four digits contains only two digits

in the integral part.
Likewise the square root of an integral number of five
or six digits contains three digits in the integral part.
These conclusions are summarized in the following
table:
Number of digits in a
1 or 2 3 or 4 5 or 6 7 or 8 9 or 10
given number
Number of digits in
the square root 1 2 3 4 5
The table suggests a way of finding the number of

digits in the integral part of the square root of a given
number:
Beginning at the unit digit, mark off periods of two
figures each, as 14'44, or 1'36'82'30. The “number of
periods” is “the number of digits” in the integral part
of the square root. The last period at the left may
have only one figure, as in 5/52/25.
In all integral numbers the decimal point is omitted.
It is understood to be to the right of the last figure.
Hence, periods are marked off from the unit place.
When the number has a decimal point, as 36.489, the
periods are marked off from the decimal point.
Exercises
By marking off periods, find the number of digits contained in

the integral part of the square root of each of the following numbers:
1. 65. 4. 84. 7. 1.231. 10. 3600.

2. 784. 5. 676. 8. 73493.6. 11. 270.4.
3. 9363.6. 6. 42875. 9. 1849. 12. 2916.
28. How to extract the square root of a number.

The following example shows how to extract the
square root of a given number, and explains the rea¬
sons for the steps in the process.
Example: Extract the square root of 676.

1. Beginning at the decimal point, mark off periods
of two figures: 6'76. This shows that the square root
contains two digits in the integral part and tells where
to put the decimal point in the square root.
2. Find the largest square in the first period, 6.
3. Since this is 4, it follows that 2 is the tens digit
of the required square root, and that the square root
lies between 20 and 30.
The unit digit is to be found
next. Denoting the unit digit
o
CM
2 OU
by u, the square root of 676 is
equal to 20+u. Geometrically
this means that 20-\-u is the
side of a square whose area is
20 U iff 676 (Fig. 20).
Dividing the square into
20 U four parts as shown in the
Fig. 20
diagram, we have
676= (20+^)2 = 202+2X20i*+^2,

or 676 = 202+2X20m+?U.
4. Subtracting 202 from both sides, we have the

remainders
676-202 = 2X20^+w2,
or 276 = 40u-\-u2.
5. The value of u may now be found by trial as fol¬

lows: Disregarding for the moment the u2 and divid¬
ing by 40, i.e., dividing 40 into 276, or 4 into 27, we
find the quotient to be almost 6.
6. By trying u equal to 6, we have
40 u+u2 = (40 X 6) + 62 = 240+ 36 = 276
It follows that u = 6.
Hence, 676= (20+u)2 = (20+6)2
and -^676 = 20+6 = 26.
The preceding work may now be arranged briefly in
the following convenient form:
1. Write down the number 676 whose square root is
to be found. 2 6
2. Mark off periods and find the largest 676
square contained in the first period. This 4
gives 4. 46 2 76
3. Write the square root of 4 over the first 2 76
period.
4. Write the 4 under the first period and subtract 4
from 6. Bring down the second period 76.
5. As a trial divisor use twice the part of the root
thus far found, i.e., 2X2, and divide this into the re¬
mainder 276 leaving off the last digit 6 for convenience.
This gives 6. Annex the 6 just found to the trial divisor
4 and to the part of the root so far found.
6. Multiply the new divisor, 46, by 6 and write the
result, 276, under the remainder.
If the given number has more than two periods,
repeat steps 4 to 6 until all periods are used.1
1A brief method for finding the square root of a number approximately is given in
§169.
Exercises
Extract the square root of each of the following numbers, arrang¬

ing the work as in Exercise 1, below:
1. 73.6T64.
Solution:
8. 5 8
CO
'61' 64
64
165 9 61
8 25
1708 1 36 64
1 36 64
/. V 73.6164= 8.58.
2. 9801. 6. 43.56. 10. 20736.

3. 2079.36. 7. 2916. 11. 9.3636.
4. 82.81. 8. 3025. 12. 462.25.
5. 6084. 9. 1.5129. 13. 22.5625.
Extract the square root of each of the following numbers and

carry the process to two decimal places.
14. 5. 18. 25.64. 22. 65.48.

15. 8. 19. 3.243. 23. 739.4.
16. 18. 20. 421.6. 24. 8.364.
17. 1.24. 21. 50.43. 25. 98.36.
26. It is found by experiments that the approximate distance d

passed over in the time t by an object falling from rest, is given by
the formula d=lQt~. State this formula in words.
Find the distance an object falls in 3 seconds; 10 seconds; 18
seconds.
In how many seconds does an object drop 576 feet? 1296 feet?
176 feet?
29. The theorem of Pythagoras. Draw a right

triangle (Fig. 21) whose sides are three, four, and five
units long.
Draw a square on each side.
Divide the square on the
hypotenuse into parts as
shown in the diagram.
Showthat I+II = 3X4 = 12.
Since I = II it follows that
1 = 6 and II = 6.
Similarly III = IV = V = 6.
Therefore the area of the
square on the hypotenuse c
is II + III + IV+V+1 =4X6+1 =25.
Briefly c2 = 25
But a2 = 3X3 = 9
and 52 = 4X4 = 16
Hence a2+62 = 25
It follows that a2+62 = c2.
This formula is a very important relation. It holds
for the three sides of any right triangle. If two sides of
a right triangle are known it enables us to determine
the third side. Translated into words it may be stated
as follows:
The square on the hypotenuse of a right triangle
is equal to the sum of the squares on the other two
sides.
This principle is known as the Theorem of Pythag¬
oras, being named after the Greek mathematician,
Pythagoras. It is one of the famous theorems ol
geometry. Although it was known before the time
of Pythagoras, he is believed to have been the first

to give a general proof. The story is told that Pythag¬
oras, jubilant over his
great accomplishment
of proving this valua¬
ble theorem, made a
sacrifice to the muses
who inspired him.
Exercises
Solve the following prob¬

lems using the theorem of
Pythagoras. In each case
make a diagram.
PYTHAGORAS 1. The main pole of a

Pythagoras was bora at Samos about tent is 36 feet high. In
569 b.c., of Phcenecian parents, and putting up the tent, guy
died, probably at Metapontum, in
southern Italy, about 500 b.c. He was wires are to be attached to
primarily a moral reformer and philos¬ the top, and to stakes 48
opher, but he was also a geometer, an feet from the foot of the
arithmetician, and a teacher of astron¬
omy, mechanics, and music. He is said pole. How long must they
to have been the first to employ the be, excluding the length used
word mathematics. The meaning he for tying?
gave it was what we understand by
general science. With him geometry Solution: The pole, the
meant about what people to-day mean
by mathematics. wire, and the line from the
foot of the pole to one of the
stakes form a right triangle.
Make a diagram (Fig. 22).
By the theorem of Pythagoras, we have

z2 = 482+362
z2 = 2304+1296
a;2 = 3600.
Extracting the square root of both sides of the equation, we have
x =60.
2. Find the length of a guy wire used to brace a telephone pole

30 feet high, if it is to be attached to a stake 12 feet from the foot of
the pole.
3. A 20-foot ladder leans against a wall. If the foot of the

ladder is 6 feet from the base of the wall, how high above the
ground is the top of the ladder?
Solution: Let x be the number of feet required.
Then x2+ 62 = 202
z2+36 =400
Subtracting 36 from both sides of the equation, we have
z2 = 364
Extracting the square root of both members, we have
x = V 364 = 19 approximately.
4. A surveyor has to find the third side of a right triangle whose

hypotenuse is 20 rods, and one of whose sides is 12 rods. How long is
the remaining side?
5. The diagonal distance joining two opposite vertices of a

square is 18. Find the length of the side.
6. Find the length of the diagonal of a rectangle 36 feet X 64

feet.
7. If the side of a baseball diamond is 90 feet, how far is it

directly from home to second?
8. Measure the sides of a sheet of notebook paper. Find, with¬

out measuring, the distance between two opposite corners. Check
your result by measuring the distance.
9. To find the distance, AB, across a swamp (Fig. 23) a right

triangle ABC is laid off.
Side BC is measured
and found to be 332 feet
long.
A C is found to be 426
feet long. Find AB.
Solve the following
equations as shown in
Exercises 1 and 3:
10. .r2+82 = 102.
11. 352-212 = z2.
12. x2+729 = 2025.
13. 144+z2 = 225.
14. 252-z2 = 202.
Fig. 23 15. 1600—x2 = 576.
16. 900 —z2 = 324. 17. 400—x2 = 256.
30. What every pupil should know and be able to

do. The study of Chapter I should enable every pupil
to do the following:
1. To solve problems about areas of rectangles and
squares by means of the formulas A = ab, A = a2.
2. To find the length of one side of a right triangle
when the lengths of the other two sides are known.
3. To extract the square root of a given number.
4. To find the value of a polynomial, as
ab-\-cd-\-ef -\-Q2
for given values of the literal numbers.
5. To solve equations like 3(x+4)=22+x;
2 (x —{— 2)
—- =8; a2 = 169; a;2+36 = 400.
3
6. To make the graph of an equation like A = 5h.

7. To multiply a polynomial by a monomial, and
to multiply a polynomial by a polynomial.
8. To find the product when one factor is zero.
9. To state the squares of whole numbers from 1
to 20.
The following facts and principles should be known:
10. The formulas for finding the area of a rectangle
and of a square.
11. The law of order in multiplication.
12. The theorem of Pythagoras.
13. (a+6)2 = a2+2a6 + 62.
31. Typical problems and exercises. The problems

and exercises below review the essentials of Chapter I.
You should be able to work them correctly.
1. Draw a rectangle 2.3 centimeters X 1.6 centimeters, and find
the area by formula.
2. Make the graph of the equation A = 5h.
3. State the law of order in addition; in multiplication.
.
4 The base of a rectangle is 2 feet and the altitude 10 feet. By
how much must the base be increased to form a rectangle whose
area is 110 square feet?
5. Find the length of the diagonal of a rectangle 36 feetX64
feet.
6. To the top of a pole 18 feet high, a 25-foot rope is attached.
How far will the rope reach from the foot of the pole?
Multiply as indicated:
7. 8f-X14f. 11. (m+n)2.
8. .06 X .36. 12. (3 a+^b)2.
9. a{x-\ry+z)- 13. (2x+.3; ?/)2.
10. (a+6+c) 14. (3r+-g-:c)2.
15. If a = 12, 6 = 3.1, c = 2, d = 4.2, find the value of aXO; OXc;
i—— ; 2ab+cd-\-3ac-\-bd.
ad —be
Solve each of equations in Exercises 16 to 20 and check:

16. 3(:r+4)=22+:r. 18. u2 = 625.
17. 2(a+2)-=8. 19. x2+729 = 2025.

3
20. 1600—£2 = 576.
21. Find the square root of 3969; 2916; 98.36.
22. Write a paper on one of the following topics:
a. Uses of the formula for finding the area of a rectangle or
square.
b. The use of the rectangle in multiplying algebraic, or
arithmetical, numbers.
c. The life and work of Pythagoras, and his famous theorem.
CHAPTER II
AREAS OF QUADRILATERALS, TRIANGLES,

AND CIRCLES
The Area of a Parallelogram
32. What we shall study in this chapter. In Chap¬

ter I we have learned how to find the area of a rectangle
and square. We shall now take up the problem of find¬
ing areas of other well-known figures. Notice that the
city blocks of a business section (Fig. 24) are triangles,
Fig. 24
rectangles, squares, or other quadrilaterals which are

not rectangles or squares. The regularity of the occur¬
rence of such figures may be broken by circular sur¬
faces, such as circular fountains or circular parks.
39
Thus, block A is a rectangle, B is a square, C is a

parallelogram, D is a trapezoid, E is a triangle, and F
is a circular park. We shall work out the formulas for
finding the areas of these surfaces. The formulas will
7
be used to solve problems.
33. Meaning of parallelo¬

gram. A quadrilateral (Fig.
25) whose opposite sides are
Fig- 7 * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 25 parallel
34. How to construct a parallelogram. Draw two

intersecting lines, as AB (Fig. 26) and AD.
Following the suggestion
of the drawing construct at
point B angle x equal to
angle y, using only compass
and straightedge. Check
your construction by meas¬
uring the angles with a pro¬
tractor.
At D construct z = y and check the construction with
the protractor.
ABCD is the required parallelogram.
35. Some important properties of the parallelo¬
gram. The following exercises establish two important
properties of the parallelogram:
Exercises
1. Measure each side of the parallelogram ABCD (Fig. 26).

How do the opposite sides AB and DC compare as to length?
Compare AD and BC.
The results show that the opposite sides of a parallelogram are
equal.
QUADRILATERALS, TRIANGLES, AND CIRCLES 41
2. Show that a diagonal divides a parallelogram into two con¬

gruent triangles.
Suggestion: Draw a parallelogram as shown in §34. Draw a
diagonal. Cut out the two triangles into which the parallelogram is
divided and show that they can be made to coincide.
3. Measure the angles of a parallelogram and show that the

opposite a?igles of a parallelogram are equal.
4. The fact that the opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal

suggests the following simple construction of a parallelogram:
Draw AB and AD (Fig. 27).
With radius equal to AD, and with
B as center, draw an arc near C.
With radius equal to AB and with
D as center, draw an arc cutting the
first arc.
Let C be the intersection of the two arcs.
Draw B C and D C.
Then ABCD is the required parallelogram.
5. Construct the notebook cover design shown in Fig. 28.
>
M0
LSI V\\SSSSSSr
Fig. 28
6. Construct the design shown in Fig. 29.
36. How to find the area of a parallelogram. To

find the area of a parallelogram we may proceed as we
did with the rectangle, i.e., we may place it upon
squared paper and count the number of square units

contained in it (Fig. 30). In most cases this process
would be neither so convenient nor so practical as

that of finding the area by means of a formula. A
formula can be easily worked out for any parallelogram
as follows:
Draw the parallelogram ABCD (Fig. 31).
From B draw BC' perpendicular to the side DC.
D' D c' C This cuts off a triangle BCC'.
Move this triangle to the
position ADD'.
Then rectangle ABC'D' has
the same area as parallelogram
Fig. 31
ABCD.
Since the area of the rectangle is (AB) - (BC'), the
area of the parallelogram is also (AB) • (BC').
Calling AB the base of the parallelogram, and BC'
the height, or altitude, we may state the result in the
form of the following theorem:
The area of a parallelogram is equal to the product of
the base by the altitude. Translating this statement into
symbols, we have the formula
A = bh.
Notice that this formula is similar to that for find¬

ing the area of a rectangle. It should be clear, how¬
ever, that in the parallelogram the altitude is not the
same as the side.
Exercises
1. Measure the dimensions of blocks A, B, and C (Fig. 24) and

find the area of each, using the scale 1 inch equals 600 feet.
2. Find the area of ABCD (Fig. 31).
3. On squared paper draw a parallelogram whose base is equal
to 6 centimeters, whose altitude is equal to 2 centimeters, and in
which the side adjacent to the base is equal to 2.8 centimeters.
Find the area by means of the formula. Check your result by
counting unit squares.
4. Find the area of a parallelogram whose base is 12.4 feet and
whose altitude is 4-§- feet. Use the formula and approximate your
result to the nearest third figure. Then consider 12.4 and 4-§- as
exact, and find the exact area.
5. By means of an equation find the altitude of a parallelogram
whose area is 26 square inches and whose base is 2 inches.
6. The altitude of a parallelogram is 3 inches and the base 6
inches. By how much must the base be increased to form a paral¬
lelogram whose area is 84 square inches?
Suggestion: Make a sketch showing the 3, 6, 84, and the un¬
known increase.
Solve the problem by means of an equation.
7. The base of a parallelogram is denoted by 4.r+7, the alti¬
tude is 5, and the area is 75. Draw a sketch. Find x and the base.
8. Let the altitude of a parallelogram vary (change), the base
remaining the same. Let the base be 4.6, and arrange in the form
of a table (§7) the values of the area for the following values of the
altitude: 1, 1.3, 1.6, 2, 2.8, 3.7, 3.9, 4.
From the table find in each case the ratio of area to altitude and
show that the area varies directly as the altitude (§6).
Make the graph of the equation A= (4.6)h.
The Area of a Trapezoid
37. A formula for finding the area of a trapezoid.

Draw a quadrilateral with one pair of opposite sides
parallel, as ABCD (Fig.
a A
32).
A quadrilateral having
h
two, and only two, of its
sides parallel to each other
b B a D
is called a trapezoid. The
Fig. 32
trapezoid is frequently
used in the construction of bridges and buildings.
The parallel sides AB and DC are the bases of the
trapezoid, and the perpendicular distance h between
the parallel sides is the altitude.
Using the formula for the area of a parallelogram
we shall now work out a formula for the area of the
trapezoid as follows:
Place a trapezoid of the same size and shape as
ABCD in the position BD'A'C.
The two trapezoids together form the parallelogram
AD'A'D whose base is a+6
and whose altitude is h.
/.The area of AD'A'D is
h(a-\-b) (§36).
Hence the area of the
trapezoid is ±h(a-\-b), i.e., the
area of a trapezoid is equal to one-half of the altitude
multiplied by the sum of the bases.
Denoting the area by A, we have the formula
A = ih(a+b).
Exercises
1. The bases of a trapezoid are 7 inches and 5 inches and the

altitude is 3 inches. Find the area.
Solution: A = ^h(a+b). Why?
a — 7, 6 = 5, and 6 = 3.
.-.A = i(3) (7+5) = 18
Hence, Area = 18 square inches.
2. Measure the bases and altitude of the trapezoid (Fig. 32)
feet.
Divide the plan into rectangles and trapezoids and find the area.
5. Show by letting a = 2, 6 = 3, 6 = 4, that
1w , 7\ h , j >. J («+6) 6(a+6)

-2-6(a+6) = -(a+6)=6—~— =—-—
Using the method shown in Exercise 1, find the areas of trape¬

zoids whose bases and altitudes are given in the table below.
Base a Base 6 Altitude 6 Area A
6. 9 ft. 4 ft. 6 ft.

7. 10 2' in. 6|- in. 7 in.
8. 13.5 cm. 5.4 cm. 4 cm.
9. Find the area of block D (Fig. 24), using the scale 1 inch
equal to 600 feet.
10. The area of a trapezoid is 324 square inches, and the bases
are 27 inches and 9 inches. Make a sketch and find the height by
means of an equation.
11. One of the bases of a trapezoid is 7 inches, the area is 45
square inches, and the altitude is
5 inches. Find the length of the
other base.
12. Find the number of square
feet of siding needed for the garage
(Fig. 34), making no deductions
Fig. 34 for windows and door.
13. Find the cost of painting the walls of the garage (Fig. 34)
at the rate of 50 cents per square yard, making no deductions for
windows and door. j
14. The trapezoid (Fig. "K1
35) represents the cross sec¬
tion of a trench. Find the
area.
Solve the following equa¬
tions and check the results:
15. ^=63.
7(x+6)
Solution: = 63 Check: Left Side Right Side
2
7(12+6)
2-7(cc+6) 63
= 63-2 2
9
"XT?
7.r+42 = 126. 63
2
7x = 84.
£ = 12. 63 63
9(3x+5) = n7. 17_ 2(5.r+3) 4(3x+4)
16. 22. , 18. = 32.
o
19. It has been found that the normal weight of an adult taller
than 5 feet may be computed approximately from the formula
ll(d+20)
= w, where d is the number of inches of the height above
~2T
5 feet, and w the weight in pounds.
Find the normal weights of adults of the following heights:
5 feet 1 inch; 5 feet 2 inches; 5 feet 3 inches; 5 feet 4 inches; 5 feet
10 inches.
Make a table of the corresponding values of d and w and draw a
graph representing the equation of normal weight = w.
From this graph find the normal

weight of a man whose height is 5
feet \\ inches; 5 feet 3.4 inches; 5
feet 5f- inches.
20. The Fahrenheit thermom¬
eter (Fig. 36) is the standard in¬
strument in the United States
for measuring temperature. On it
the freezing point of water is at
the 32 degree mark above zero, and
the boiling point at 212 degrees
above zero.
In scientific work the Centi¬
grade thermometer is used. On it
the freezing point is marked 0 de¬
grees, and the boiling point 100
degrees.
The number of degrees of Fah¬
renheit may be found with a
Centigrade thermometer, using
9C+160
the formula where
C is the number of degrees Centi¬

Centigrade
grade and F the number of degrees Thermometer Thermometer
Fahrenheit. Fig. 36
a. By means of the formula, find the number of degrees Fahren¬

heit when the Centigrade thermometer reads 0°; 5°; 10°.
9C+160
b. Make a graph of the equation F = (See §7.)
c. From the graph determine, as nearly as you can, the number

of degrees Fahrenheit when the Centigrade thermometer reads
3^-°; 8.6°; 5.7°.
The Area of a Triangle
38. Need for a formula for finding the area of a

triangle. We have been studying formulas for finding
the areas of pieces of land of the shape of rectangles,
squares, parallelograms, and trapezoids. We shall also
learn how to find the area of an irregular-shaped sur¬
face (Fig. 37).
The area may be found by dividing the surface to be

measured into parts having shapes of trapezoids and
triangles. Hence, we see the need for a, formula for
finding the area of a triangle. The parts of the surface
are measured separately, and the area of each is found.

The sum is the required area, since the whole is equal
to the sum of the parts.
39. How to find the area of a triangle. We may

use two methods to find the area of a triangle.
Fig. 38
1. Place the triangle ABC on squared paper (Fig.

38). Note that each of the triangles ADC and BDC
is one-half of a rectangle.
Find the number of unit squares in triangles ADC
and DBC and add them.
The result is the required area.
2. We may develop a formula for finding the area
of the triangle. This is done as
follows:
Through the vertex B of tri¬
angle ABC (Fig. 39), draw line
BD II CA.
Through A draw line AD IICB.
The quadrilateral ADBC is a parallelogram. Why?
Since AB divides this parallelogram into two con¬
gruent triangles (§35), the area of A ABC = ^(ADB C).
But ADB C — b‘ h. (See §36.)

The area of the triangle = -§-& • h,
i.e., The area of a triangle is equal to one-half of the
product of the base by the altitude.
Stating this fact in symbols, we have the following
formula
A = |h>h.
Exercises
1. Measure the base and altitude of A ABC (Fig. 39). Find

the area.
1 b-h b h
2. Show that h;b-h = —— = - • h = b by substituting values for
Z Z Z
b and h.
3. The base line of a tri¬

angular park is 34 rods, and
the altitude is 18 rods. Find
the area in square rods.
4. The span of a roof

(Fig. 40) is 24 feet and the
height is 7 feet. How many
square feet of siding will be
needed for the gable?
Fig. 40
Find the areas of triangles
with the bases and altitudes given in Exercises 5 to 8 below:
Bases Altitudes
5. 12 ft. ■ 7 ft.
6. 20.6 ft. 18 ft.
7. 32i ft. 17.6 ft.
8. 2 ft. 8 in. 1 ft. 6 in.
Find the bases of triangles having the areas and altitudes as

shown in Exercises 9 to 13:
9. Area=48 square inches; altitude = 16 inches.

Solution: A = -}>b-h
Hence 48 = -J-6 X16
and 48 = 86
By dividing both members of this equation by 8, we have the
result
6 = 6.
A
Areas Altitudes
10. 28 sq. ft. 5 ft. 0
11. 30.5 sq. ft. 6 ft.
1
12. 70.4 sq. ft. 10.4 ft. 2
13. 125 sq. ft. 18 ft. 3
4
14. The base of a triangle is 6. If the base remains 5
the same and if the altitude varies, what formula ex¬ 6
presses the area of all of the resulting triangles? Show i
that the area varies directly as the altitude (§6). 8
15. Make a graph of the equation A = 36. 9
Suggestions: Complete the table (Fig. 41). 10
Plot the pairs of corresponding numbers in the table. Fig. 41
Draw the
graph.
From t h e
graph find A,
when h = 4
91_ o 1 JL o
°2> "2} 2> u-
16. Draw an
obtuse triangle
and find the
area as in Ex¬
ercise 1.
17. Find the
area of polygon
ABCDEF
(Fig. 42).
40. How to represent equations graphically. We

have seen repeatedly that the process of making graphs
of equations containing two variables, e.g., c = 3.14d,
involves the following steps:
1. Writing the equation.
2. Tabulating pairs of corresponding values of the
two variable literal numbers.
3. Drawing the two reference axes.
4. Selecting convenient units for laying off the num¬
bers in the table.
5. Plotting the pairs of corresponding numbers given
in the table.
6. Drawing the graph.
Exercises
Make a graph of each of the following equations, using the same

axes for all. Follow the directions given above.
1. y = 4:X. 2. y = 2x. 3. y = 6x.
The Area of the Circle
41. How to find the area of a circle. Draw a

circle whose radius is 1.5 inches long.
With the compass or protrac¬
tor, divide the circle into a num¬
ber of equal parts, e.g., twelve
equal parts (Fig. 43).
Draw the radii to the points
of division.
This divides the interior of
the circle into twelve congru¬
Fig. 43 ent surfaces, each bounded by
an arc and two radii, each forming a figure called a

sector.
The measure of the interior of a sector is called the
area of the sector.
The sum of the areas of the sectors is the area of the
circle.
Note that the sectors of the circle are nearly tri¬
angular in shape, the base being an arc of the circle
and the altitude the radius.
Cut the sectors from the circle and arrange them as
in Fig. 44. Figure AGHK thus formed is approxi¬
mately a par¬
allelogram, the
base being
equal to one-
half of the cir¬
cumference of
the circle, and
the altitude being equal to the radius.
The area of AGHK, which is also the area of the
circle, therefore seems to be approximately equal to
one-half of the circumference multiplied by the radius.
Stated in symbols, this gives the formula
A = ^cr.
Jt can be shown by more advanced methods of mathe¬
matics that this formula gives the exact area of a circle.
We know that C = ird = 2irr.
Substituting 2irr in place of c in the formula above,
it follows that the area
A =-j(27rr) (r) =tv2
Hence, A = ?rr2.
This formula expresses the area of a circle in terms of

the radius.
Comparing the circumference formula C = 2izr with
the area formula A=tt2, notice that both contain 2,
7r, and r, the 2 being an exponent in the area formula
and a coefficient in the circumference formula.
42. Approximation in measurement. When a num¬

ber is found by measuring, the last figure to the right
is generally approximated, the others being exact. If
the number 39.29 is obtained by measuring a seg¬
ment, it does not mean that the real length is exactly
39.29, but that it is somewhere between 39.285 and
39.295.
Let 6.254 and 3.141 be two numbers, obtained by
measurement in which the fourth figures were approxi¬
mated. The work of finding the product of these num¬
bers may then be arranged as follows:
6.254 The result, 19.643814, is mislead¬

3.14i ing. It expresses the product to eight
6 254 figures, giving the impression of a
250 16 high degree of accuracy. As a matter
625 4 of fact some of these figures are
18 762 meaningless, as will be seen from the
19.643 8i4 following discussion:
Let the doubtful figures in the par¬
tial products be marked with dots placed over the
figures. Since the last figure 4 in 6.254 is uncertain, the
product of this 4 by any number is also uncertain. This
makes the last figure on the right in each of the partial
products uncertain. Hence, in the sum of the partial
products the last four figures on the right are meaning¬

less and should be dropped. This leaves 19.64 as the
approximate product, with the 4 in doubt.
Evidently, the product of the two given numbers is
approximately 19.64, the four figures to the right hav¬
ing been left off because they have no meaning.
In multiplying numbers obtained by measurement
the degree of precision in the product must be carefully
considered. Otherwise this might lead to a misunder¬
standing. The degree of precision depends on the type
of problem and the kind of instruments used in meas¬
uring. Making a circular flower bed, building a circular
roundhouse for a railroad, and making a piston for an
automobile engine call for various degrees of precision.
The piston must be exact to the hundredth part of an
inch, and the flower bed may be entirely satisfactory
with a diameter one or two inches too long or too short.
Failure to be exact in the making of the piston is fatal,
but to apply the same precision in making a flower bed
is not only misleading but useless.
43. Abbreviated multiplication saves time and

effort. There is a short process of multiplying which
avoids useless effort and saves time spent on multiply¬
ing and adding figures which are meaningless and of
no value as far as the final product is concerned. The
process is easily learned and it will be to your advan¬
tage to master it.
We have seen that in the product 19.643814, the
figures 3814 have no meaning, because the figure 4
preceding 3814 is doubtful. To avoid writing meaning¬
less figures proceed as in Examples 1 and 2, page 56.
1. Write down the two numbers to be mul- 6.254

tiplied. 3.141
Put a check mark over the 6 and multiply
it by 1, the first number to the right in the
multiplier. 6
both numbers checked by 4, but carry the 2
resulting from 4X5. 250
the numbers checked by 1. 625
the numbers checked by 3. 18762
Add, and place the decimal point by esti¬
mating . 19.643
In the product the last figure to the right is in doubt,

because the last figure to the right in every partial
product is doubtful.
2. Find the product 3.52X 1.64X7.15.
Old Method: Abbreviated Method:

is \sy
3.52 3.52
1.64 1.64
1408 14
2112 211
352 352
57728 5.77
715 7.15
288640 28
57728 58
404096 4039
41.275520 41.25
Exercises
Find to the nearest third figure the following products, arrang¬

ing your work as in Exercises 1 and 2.
l/Yls
1. 13.5X2.17. 13.5
Solution: Check the 1 and multiply it by 7, carry- 2.17
ing the 2 from 7X3. 9
Check the 3 and multiply 13 by 1. 13
Check the 5 and multiply 135 by 2. 270
Then add the partial products. Place the decimal 29.2
point by inspection.
2. 1.34 X.CS.
Solution: 1.34
_68
10
_so
.90.
3. 16.2X4.18. 8. 240X2.76X17.1.
4. 20.1X6.07. 9. 6.37X19.1X46.2.
5. 9.60X16.5. 10. 1.36X0.47X3.12.
6. 180X3.14. 11. 1.39X2.42X1.47.
7. 12.4X3.14X14.6. 12. 4.12X0.41X2.51.
44. Abbreviated division. As in multiplication of

numbers there is a waste of time in carrying the mean¬
ingless figures in dividing approximate numbers. The
following example illustrates the process of abbreviated
division in which the meaningless figures are omitted.
To divide 24.68 by 21.62 proceed as follows:
a. To make the divisor a whole number, multiply
divisor and dividend by 100.
b. To place the decimal point, see /v/v/

1.141
how many times 2162 is contained in 21.62)24.68
2468. Write 1 in the quotient and 21 62
place the decimal point after 1. Mul¬ 3 06
tiply the divisor by 1 and subtract. 2 16
c. Put a check mark over the 2, the
90
first number at the right, in the di¬
_86
visor. The new trial divisor, 216, goes
into the first remainder 306 once, leav¬ 3
ing the remainder 90. Put 1 into the
2
quotient.
d. Check off the 6 in the divisor and try the new
trial divisor 21 in the last remainder 90. This gives 4.
Multiplying 21 by 4 and carrying 2 from the 4X6, we
have 86. Subtract 86 from 90.
e. Check off the 1 and try 2 in the remainder 3, which
gives 1. The quotient is 1.141, with the 1 at the right
uncertain.
Exercises
Find the following quotients to as many figures as are contained

in the dividend, using abbreviated division:
1 8L52 „ 42.67
2. -.
63.15‘ 51.24
Solution: \/W 1,291 Solution: VVs/ Q-888
63.15)81.52 51.24)42.67
63 15 40 99
18 37 168
1263 1 54
57 4 14
56 8 15
6
6
72.8 7.692 12742

3. 62.4*
5.
8.526*
7.
4L58*
489.90 979.7 81.24
2.1360*
6. 42.61*
8. 9.963’
45. Problems involving the area of a circle. The

determination of the value of ir is one of the famous
problems of geometry. It is known that Ahmes (1700
b.c.) took x equal to (-¥-)2. Archimedes (287-212 b.c.)
determined it to lie between 3tt and 3-nh Ptolemy,
Archimedes was born in Syracuse, Sicily. He studied at the Univer¬

sity of Alexandria and returned to Italy, where he lived the remainder
of his life. Being a man of extraordinary ability, he has a record of
wonderful achievements. You will find a number of interesting stories
about his life, his works, and his death in books on the history of
mathematics, e. g., in Ball’s History of Mathematics, pages 64-G6.
CO JUNIOR MATHEMATICS
who made astronomical observations at Alexandria

from the years 125 to 150 a.d., calculated x = 3.14166.
Vieta (1540-1603 a.d.) found the value to ten decimal
places. Since then the computation has been carried
to more than 700 decimal places. For our purposes
3.14 or 3.142 is usually sufficiently accurate. Taken
to six figures 7r is equal to 3.14159.
Exercises
In the following problems x is usually to be taken to three figures,

as 3.14. If r contains more than three figures, w is to be taken to as
many figures as are reliable figures in r2 3. The reliability of the final
results may be determined either by marking the doubtful figures
in the multiplications and divisions, or by using the abbreviated
processes explained in §§ 43, 44.
1. How much tin will be needed, not accounting for waste, to
make the bottom of a pail 12 inches in diameter?
Computation:
Solution: A=itr2 1 //
3.14
= tt-62
36
= 3.14X36
= 113 approximately 19
Area = 113 square inches. 94
113
2. Find to
three figures the
area of a circle
whose diameter is
7 feet.
3. How much
ground is needed
for building a
roundhouse for a
railroad if the radi¬
us is to be 52 feet?
4. Find the area of the circular surface of the piston of an

automobile engine if the diameter is 3.75 inches.
5. What will it cost to resilver a circular mirror 2w feet in
diameter at the rate of 50 cents a square foot?
6. What is the pressure of a piston head 1\ feet in diameter, if
the pressure is 236 pounds per square inch?
7. Find the area of a circular ring formed

by two concentric circles (Fig. 45) whose inside
and outside diameters are 8 inches and 10
inches respectively.
8. A 3-foot walk surrounds a circular grass

plot 40 feet in diameter. Make a sketch and
find the number of square feet covered by the Fig. 45
walk.
9. The cross section of a water main (Fig. 46) is a circular ring.
Draw a sketch of the cross section and find the area if the pipe is 1-f¬
inches thick, and lA feet in outside
diameter.
10. A cow is tied with a rope to

a stake which is driven at the mid¬
point of the longer side of a barn. If
;pIG 40 the barn is 14 feet by 18 feet and if
the rope is 24 feet long, what is the
area over which the cow can graze? Make a careful drawing before
finding the area.
11. Find the areas of the circles having the following radii:
8 inches; 20 inches; 10.5 inches; 7.25 inches; 4.75 inches; 3^- inches.
Check the results of the last four circles by using the radii: 10fr,
7i, 4f, 3.67.
12. On centimeter squared paper draw a circle whose radius is
2 centimeters. Draw a square on the radius. Count the number
of small squares within the circle, estimating the fractional parts.
Count the small squares in the square on the radius. Divide the
first number by the second. Tell why the quotient should be 3.14.
13. Find the radius of a circle whose area is 84 square feet.

Computation:
Solution: A = wr2 A/ 26.7
84 = 3.14r2 314)8400
628
3.14 212
or r2 = 26.7 approximately. 188
Extracting the square root of both members, 24
r = 5.1 approximately.
5.1
V 26.7
25
101 170
101
Find the radius of a circle whose area is

14. 68. 16. 23.3
15. 251. 17. 467.
18.
Find to four figures the radius and area of the circle whose
circumference is 39.29 feet.
Solution: Let r be the number of feet in the radius.
Take x = 3.141, since the circumference is given to four figures.
Then c = 2ttr
Hence 39.29 = 2(3.141)r
39.29 39290
r =-=-= 6.254
2X3.141 6282
A = 7rr2 =(3.141) (6.254) (6.254)
A =(19.64) (6.254) = 122.9
Area = 123 square feet.
.
19 The circumference of the head of a drum is 7.6 feet. Find
the number of square feet in the skin, making no allowance for over¬
lapping.
Suggestion: Use ?r = 3.14.
20. The circumference of a circle is 46.7 inches. Find the diam¬
eter to three figures.
21. The side of a square (Fig. 47) is 10.5

inches. Find the diameter and area of the
circumscribed circle to three figures.
Suggestion: From the center of the circle

draw radii to the end-points of one side. Use
the theorem of Pythagoras to find the radius.
Fig. 47
22. How much tin is needed

to make the bottom of a wash
boiler (Fig. 48) whose ends are
semicircles? Find the result to
three figures.
23. Find to two figures the area of a circu¬

lar ring (Fig. 49) if the radius of the inner cir¬
cle is 6 inches and that of the outer circle is
11 inches.
24. Find to two fig¬

ures the area of the sur¬
face included between Fig. 49
the circles (Fig. 50), the
radius of the large circle being 6 inches.
25. Find to two figures the area of the

shaded surface (Fig. 51).
26. A circle (Fig. 52) is inscribed within a

square. Find the number
of square feet in the shad¬
ed portion if the diameter
of the circle is 8 feet.
Fig. 51
27. The diameter of
a piston of an automobile engine is 3^- in¬
ches. Find the area of the circular surface of
the piston.

do. The following is a list of theorems and formulas
studied in Chapter II:
1. Opposite sides of a parallelogram are equal.
2. Opposite angles of a parallelogram are equal.
3. A diagonal divides a parallelogram into con¬
gruent triangles.
4. The area of a parallelogram is given by the
formula: A = bh.
5. The area of a trapezoid is given by the formula:
A —-(a-\~b).
6. The area of a triangle is given by the formula:
7. The area of a circle is given by the formula:

A = 7rr2.
Every pupil should be able to construct a parallelo¬
gram using only straightedge and compass; to make
graphs of linear equations containing two literal num¬
bers; to solve problems in areas by means of formulas
and equations; and to use the abbreviated processes of
multiplication and division.
47. Typical problems and exercises. Pupils should

be able to solve the problems and exercises of the type
given below:
4
1. Make a graph of each of the equations A = 6h; i=^—
2. The base of a parallelogram is 4.r+7, the altitude 5, and the

area 75. Find x and the base.
3. Find the area of a trapezoid whose bases are 9 feet and 4

feet, and whose altitude is 6 feet.
4. Find the area of a circle whose radius is 3| inches.
5. Find the radius of a circle whose area is 76 square feet.
6. Find the area of the surface between two concentric circles

whose radii are 12 inches and 9 inches respectively.
Solve the following equations and check each:
7. ^ = 63. 8. 3.14r2 = 82.4.

2
39.29
9. Find the approximate quotient , the last figures to the
3.141
right being doubtful.
10. Find the approximate product

39.29X3.141,
the last figures to the right being doubtful.

a. The use of the parallelogram in designs.
b. The degree of accuracy in multiplying numbers obtained
by measuring.
c. The value of the formula in geometry.
d. The life and work of Archimedes or of some other famous
mathematician mentioned in Chapter II.
CHAPTER III
AREAS OF SURFACES. VOLUMES OF

N
SOLIDS
Rectangular Solids
48. What we are going to study in this chapter.

The triangles, quadrilaterals, and circles which we have
studied earlier in the course are called plane figures
because they are figures all of whose points and lines
lie in one and the same plane. The drawings illustrat¬
ing important relations and properties of these figures
have been made on the page of the textbook, on note¬
book paper, or on the blackboard. When the points
and lines of a figure do not all lie in the same plane,
relations, when represented by means of a drawing, are
sometimes difficult to see for the beginner. Hence, in
studying figures that are not plane, we shall first
make models which actually represent the figures.
They will help us to form mental images and to make
drawings which we shall use to find the required rela¬
tions.
In observing our surroundings we notice many
objects of rectangular shape. Bricks, tanks, wagon
boxes, freight cars, rooms, houses, and stores are
rectangular. Rectangular solids are the first to be
studied in this chapter. We shall make models of these
solids, study the surfaces, and make use of some of the
66
AREAS OF SURFACES. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS 67
known area formulas to measure the surfaces. Then

we shall find a way of measuring the content of the
interior enclosed by the surface. This gives the volume
of the solid. Formulas will be worked out for finding
areas of surfaces and volumes of solids. In doing this
we shall use and review what we know about algebra
and extend our knowledge of this subject.
In the same manner we shall study solids that are
not rectangular, as the prism, cylinder, pyramid, cone,
and sphere (Fig. 53).
Fig. 53
The Cube
49. Making a model of a cube. On squared paper

construct a diagram like the scale drawing shown in
Fig. 54, using the
_ Scale'. 1 im.-4cm: dimensions in¬
-H- V>1 dicated on the
drawing. Notice
that some of the
■Sr\
r — lines are dotted,
.
-
+-
i —
t
--t-
+
H— ....- -4-9 ' others are solid.

jv Place your
-f drawing on a
si r- sheet of heavy
paper, or on card¬
board.
Fig- 54 Through all the
corners of the drawing prick holes with a pin, and then
make a copy on the cardboard.
Cut the cardboard along the solid lines, and crease
it along the dotted lines. Paste the flaps, and close up
the sides until a closed solid is formed. This is called a
cube.
Exercises
1. How many faces (sides) has the cube?

2. Find the area of each face of your cube. Find the total area.
3. The lines of intersection of the faces are called edges, the
points of intersection of the edges are the vertices of the cube. How
many edges has a cube? How many vertices?
4. If the edge of a cube is 3 centimeters, find the area of each
face; the total area.
5. Find the area of one face and the total area of a cube whose
edge is 5 inches; 6 centimeters; e inches.
6. State a formula for finding the total area, t, of a cube in
terms of the edge, e.
7. Using the formula of Exercise 6, find the total area of a cube
whose edge is 5 inches.
Solution: t = Qe2
:.t = 6X25 = 150.
Similarly, find the total area of a cube whose edge is 3 centi¬
meters; 16.2 inches; 36.14 centimeters; 4 feet; 8 inches.
8. On the cube point out: parallel lines, perpendicular lines,
diagonals, right angles, squares, plane surfaces.
50. How to draw a cube. To make a diagram of a

cube draw first the base, ABCD (Fig. 55). Then draw
lines AF, BE, CG, and
D H in vertical position
and equal in length. Fi¬
nally draw FEGH.
The quadrilateral
ABCD may not at first
look to you like a square
but with a little training
you will soon be able to
see it as a square. If you
have difficulty with seeing
ABCD as a square, this
is because you are looking at it from the side, and not
directly from the top down. With the square ABEF
you do not have this difficulty, because it is actually a
square in the diagram, owing to the fact that you are
looking at it directly and not from the side.
The invisible lines (the lines which cannot be seen

when one is looking at the model) are drawn as dotted
lines.
ABCD is the base of the cube, because the cube
stands on ABCD. However, any face may be con¬
sidered as the base.
Exercises
1. Make several diagrams of cubes like the one shown in

Fig. 55.
2. Note that line BE is perpendicular to AB and BC. It is

said to be 'perpendicular to the plane of face ABCD.
Show similarly that the edges CG, DH, AF are perpendicular to
the plane of AB CD.
In the classroom, locate lines which are perpendicular to planes.
3. The planes of opposite faces of a cube do not meet, how¬

ever far they may be extended. They are said to be parallel. On
the cube point out parallel planes. Point out parallel planes in the
classroom.
4. Draw the diagonal A C in one of the faces of the cube (Fig.

56). Show that the formula for finding the length of AC in terms
of the edge, e, is d= V 2e2 (§29).
5. Using the formula d = V 2e2

find, to four places of decimals,
the length of the diagonal A C, if
the edge of the cube is 4 centime¬
ters; 7 centimeters; 3.68 centi¬
meters.
Sohdion: e = 4
e2 = 16
2e2 = 32
d = V2?= V~32
d = 5.65.
6. Draw the diagonal FC (Fig. 56) through the opposite vertices

F and C. As in Exercise 4, find FC in terms of e and d; in terms
of e only.
7. If e = 2.5 find the length of the diagonal FC by means of
the equation Z = V 3e2 found in Exercise 5.
8. Find l if e = 3.2; 6.5.
51. How to measure the space inclosed within the

cube. Let the edge AB of a cube (Fig. 57) be 5 centi¬
meters long.
Divide each edge of the
B
cube into equal parts. In
Fig. 57 the edge AB is di¬
vided into five equal parts.
Imagine planes passed
through the points of divi¬
sion, parallel to the base.
Then the space enclosed in
A
the cube is divided into five Fig. 57
equal layers.
In one of the layers (Fig. 58) imagine planes passed
through the points of division of A C, parallel to plane
FCDE. They divide the
layer into five equal strips.
Divide edge CD of the
strip (Fig. 59) into five
equal parts and through
the points of
division pass planes parallel to CFGH. —
~7rJ
They divide the strip into five equal )d

/
cubes (Fig. 60). F /
/
Since each strip contains 5 centi- H c
I ig. 60 meter cubes, each layer five strips, Fig. 59
and the cube five layers, it follows that the original

cube contains 5X5X5 centimeter cubes.
The number 5X5X5 is a measure of the space en¬
closed within the cube. It is called the volume of the
cube. In general, the volume of a given cube is the
number of times that the given cube contains the unit
cube.
Just as 5X5 is written briefly 52 (read “5-square”),
the product 5X5X5 is written in the brief form 53,
(read “5-cube”).
Hence, the volume of the cube (Fig. 57) is 53, or 125.
Similarly, the volume of a cube with the edge e, is
eXeXe or e3, and may be found from the formula
v = e3.
Exercises
1. Measure the edge of a given cube and find the volume.

2. Using the formula, find the volume of a cube whose edge is
3 centimeters; 4.5 centimeters; 6.2 centimeters; 3^ centimeters; 3.14
centimeters.
3. State the meaning and value of each of the following cubes:
l3, 23, 33, 43,., 103.
4. Make a table of cubes of the whole numbers from 1 to 10.
Memorize the table.
5. Find the number of cubic inches contained in a cubic foot;
the number of cubic feet contained in a cubic yard. Change to cubic
inches: 5 cubic feet; 20 cubic feet; 12tt cubic feet.
6. What part of a cubic foot is a cubic inch?
7. What part of a cubic yard is a cubic foot?
8. At 95 cents per 1000 cubic feet what is the cost of 2576
cubic feet of gas?
9. Find the value of x1) a;3; 2x3; 3.r3; (3:r)3; 3x2; 6x3; 8x2; when
x = 2; 2.5; .
10. Find the value of x3+3x2+3a:+9 for x = -|-.

Solution: x3+3x2+3a:+9
= (|)3+3(|)2+3(f)-r9
=-8L+3(f)+3(i)+9
=¥+¥+!+9
_!8_9 _9o5
— 8 —ô8.
11. Find the value of <23+6a2-f4a —1 for a = 2.

12. Find the exact value of 2m3+5m2 —2m—3 for m = 3.5.
13. Find the exact value of 4£3 — t2-\-Qt — 1 for t = 2§-.
14. Find the exact value of 863-b562+f-—36 for 6 = ^-.
15. If the volume of a cube is 27 cubic inches, find the edge by-
means of an equation.
Solution: v = e3
v = 27
/. e3 = 27
• • 6 — 3.
16. Find by means of an equation the edge of a cube if the volume

is 8; 64; 216; 729.
52. The meaning of cube root. Just as we called

the number 2 the square root of 4 because 22 = 2X2 = 4,
we shall call the number 2 the cube root of 8 because
23 = 2X2X2 = 8. In general, the cube root of a number
is one of the three equal factors whose product is equal
to that number.
If a number is an exact cube, as 8, 27, 64, the exact
cube root can be found by trial. If a number, as 7, is
not an exact cube, the exact cube root is written yl 7,
and is read “cube root of 7.”
53. Powers. The products aXa, aXaXa, have

been written in the brief forms a2 and a3 respectively.
Similarly, we shall write aXaXaXa = aA,
aXaXaXaXa = a°, etc., read a-fourth, a-fifth, etc. The
products a2, a3, a4, etc., are powers of a.
Exercises
If a = 2, 6=1, c = 3, find the value of each of the following.

Arrange the work as in Exercise 10 (§51).
1. «+62+c3. 5. 2a3+3a2-5c.
a3 — 63+c3 a3—26+c
6* •
2 a2 3c — 2a
62+u2 —c. a‘1-\-2ab-\-b2

7.
a+6+c ab
a a4 4-a2 H-3
4. ab-\-1—.
62+c2
Solve the equations in Exercises 9 to 14.
9. 2x3 = 128. 10. 4:X3 = 108.
11. 3a;3 —5 = 76.

Solution: 3.x3—5 = 76
3x3 = 81
x3 = 27
x = S.
12. 2.r3+10 = 26.
13. 5x3—20 = 300.
14. 3x3—8 = 73.
.
15 The number of gallons in a tank is approximately 7.5 times
as great as the number of cubic feet. Find how many gallons there
are in a tank whose volume is 4^- cubic feet; 5^- cubic feet; 8^- cubic
feet.
r
AREAS OF SURFACES. VOLUMES OF SOLIDS *7
/D
The Rectangular Block
54. Rectangular solids. Cubes, boxes, cakes of ice,

and many other objects with six faces, have each face
of rectangular form.
They are called rectan¬
gular solids or blocks.
To make a rectan¬
i7 — •V?—
A
A i?—"S.
o - —1“ o - —r 4
4—i- A V
gular block from card¬ —V

—i- + V
Q 1f
board you may use as a 5
1 1 “T , 1
—i —i -t- T+
pattern the diagram in —f- »
1i
\y
i-
/ ./
Fig. 61. First draw this *
diagram on squared
paper, and then follow
Fig. 61
carefully the directions
for making the model for a cube that were given in §49.
Exercises
1. On your model of the rectangular block, point out parallel

lines, parallel planes, lines perpendicular to planes, diagonals.
2. How many edges has the rectangular block? How many
vertices?
3. Make several drawings of a rectangular block shown in
Fig. 62.
55. A formula for finding the area of the surface of

a rectangular block. Let a, b, c
be the dimensions of a rectan¬
gular block (Fig. 62). Show
that the area of the total sur¬
face may be found from the
Fig. 62 formula t = 2ab-f2bc+2ca.
Exercises
Using the formula t = 2ab-\-2bc-\-2ca, find the area of rectangular

blocks having the following dimensions:
1. a = 4. 6=1. c = 3.
2. a = 1.3. 6=4.6. c = 2.5.
3. ci = 2\. 6-If c = 4i.
4. How many square inches cf copper lining are required to

line the sides and bottom of a rectangular tank 18 inches long, 8
inches high, and 9 inches wide?
56. How to find the volume of a rectangular block.

Let the dimensions of a rectangular block (Fig. 63) be
3 centimeters, 4 centimeters, and 5 centimeters re¬

spectively.
We can divide the solid into four layers, each layer
into three strips, and each strip into five cubes.
Hence the solid contains 4X3X5 centimeter cubes,
and the volume is said to be 4X3X5, or 60.
This illustrates that the volume of a rectangular block
is the product of the three dimensions.
If we denote the length by l, the width by w, the

height by h, and the volume by v, we have the formula
v = lXwXh,
or v = lwh.
Exercises
1. Measure the edges of a rectangular block and find the

volume.
Suggestion: Use the formula v‘=lwh.
2. A classroom is 24 feet by 17 feet by 12 feet. Find how many

cubic feet of air space it contains.
3. If a cubic foot of ice weighs 58 pounds, what is the weight of

a piece of ice 10 inches by 16 inches by 18 inches?
„ 10X16X18X58
*8 u qqestion: w =-.
12X12X12
Change the fraction to the simplest form.
4. How many cubic feet must be excavated to make a ditch

2\ feet wide, 3 feet deep, and 120 feet long?
5. How many bars of soap can be packed into a box 2 feet by

2 feet by 1 foot, if a bar of soap when wrapped is 2\ inches by 4^-
inches by 1-J- inches?
6. During a storm one-half inch of rain fell. How many gal¬

lons of water fell on a lot 25 feet by 175 feet, if a cubic foot holds
approximately 7.5 gallons of water?
7. A coal bin 12 feet wide and 14 feet long is filled with coal to
a depth of 5 feet. If a cubic foot of coal weighs 63 pounds, how many
tons of coal does the bin contain?
8. Mr. Johnson’s coal bin is 8 feet wide and 12 feet long.

If he orders 15 tons of coal, to what height should the bin be
filled?
9. A freight car 12 yards long and 3 yards wide is filled with
wheat to a depth of 2 yards. If a cubic foot holds of a bushel
how many bushels does the car contain?
10. We have seen that the
volume of a rectangular solid (Fig.
64) may be found from the for¬
mula v — abc.
Since abc = a(bc) and since be
is equal to the area of the base, it
follows that the volume of a rec¬
tangular solid is equal to the prod¬
uct of the number of units of length
in the altitude by the number of
surface units in the base.
Find the volume of a rectangular solid whose base is 24 square
inches and whose altitude is 6 inches.
11. If a load of gravel is 1 cubic yard, how many loads are re¬
quired to make a road 3 miles long, if spread 9 feet wide and 8
inches deep?
12. An L-shaped corner building
(Fig. 65) is to be erected having
frontages of 60 feet and 48 feet on
the intersecting streets. Find the
cost of excavating a cellar 12 feet
deep and 26 feet wide at 40 cents a load, or cubic yard.
13. A swimming tank 36 feet wide and 48 feet long is filled with
water to a depth of 5 feet. If we allow 7.5 gallons of water per
cubic foot, how many gallons of
water are there in the tank?
14. Let v — abc. Find c if v = 400,
n = 4, b= 10; if ^ = 144, a = 8, 6 = 10.
15. A rectangular tank 12 feet
long and 10 feet wide contains 400
gallons of water. Find the depth.
Suggestion: Change the number
Fig. 65 of gallons to cubic feet.
16. A cubic inch of gold is to be rolled into gold leaf xTrV(T an

inch thick. How many square inches of gold leaf will it make?
17. How
many tons of
hard coal are
there in a bin
11 feet by 9-f-
feet when the
pile is Dr feet
high, assuming
that a ton of
hard coal occu¬
pies a space of
35 cubic feet?
18. A schoolroom is 40 feet long, 35 feet wide, and 12 feet high.

If we allow 450 cubic feet of air for each pupil, how many pupils
may be accommodated in the room?
19. A board foot is a piece of wood 1 foot long, 1 foot wide, and
1 inch thick (Fig. 66). Lumber may be measured in board feet.
Lumber less than one inch in thickness is figured as if it were
an inch thick. Material more than an inch thick is measured
according to actual thickness in inches and fractions of an inch.
Find the number of board feet in a 10-foot board 2 inches by 6
inches.
Solutmi:
Denoting by t the number of inches in the thickness;
by w the number of feet in width;
by l the number of feet in length;
Fig. 66
20. Find the number of board feet in a beam 3 inches by 4 inches,

14 feet long.
21. If 6 is the number of board feet, t the thickness in inches, w
the width in inches, and l the length in feet, show that
b=tX—X l
12
22. Using the formula in Exercise 21, find the number of board
feet in a plank 2 inches thick, 12 inches wide, and 16 feet long.
23. Find the number of board feet in a piece of lumber 11- inches
thick, 6 inches wide, and 12 feet long.
24. A boy wishes to make a bookcase with four shelves, each of

which is to be
24 inches by 8
inches. The
two sides are to
be 4 feet by 9
inches. How
much material
will he need,
and what will it
cost at 12 cents
a board foot?
Find the number of board feet in each of the following:
25. 6 planks 2 inches thick, 12 feet long, 8 inches wide.
26. 14 planks 1J inches thick, 10 feet long, 12 inches wide.
27. 9 beams 4 inches by 4 inches and 8 feet long.

28. Lumber is usually priced per thousand (M) board feet.
What is the price of lumber per board foot if sold at $45.00 per
thousand (M) feet?
Find the cost of each of the following:

29. 2050 feet of pine flooring at $65.00 per ,M.
30. 5000 feet of oak at $85.00 per M.

Write each of the following in the simplest form:
31. a>a»a. 34. 5m2a2. 37. 2a*3a*5a.
32. a2-a. 35. 3a;*5a;2. 38. 9a:*2a;.
33. (3a/)3. 36. 6m2.2m. 39. (2a)3+(36)3.
The Prism
57. How to draw and make a prism. If through the

corners of a polygon P (Fig. 67) parallel lines, AB,
CD, EF, etc., are drawn, not in the plane of the poly¬
gon, and if a plane Q is passed parallel to the plane of
Fig. 67
the given polygon, a prism is formed. Polygons P and

Q are the bases, and the other faces, as ABDC, are
the lateral faces of the prism. The lateral faces are
parallelograms. Note that the rectangular solids
studied in §§48 to 56 are prisms. Tell why they are
prisms.
The lines of intersection of the planes are the edges

of the prism. The intersections AB, CD, EF, etc., of the
lateral faces are called lateral edges. When the lateral
edges are perpendicu¬
lar to the planes of the
bases the prisms are
right prisms. Prisms
are said to be trian¬
gular, quadrangular,
or hexagonal, accord¬
ing as the bases are
triangles, quadrilat¬
erals, or hexagons.
Draw a pattern
(Fig. 68) and use it
to make a model of a hexgonal right prism.
Practice making figures like those in Fig. 67 until
you can make a good drawing of a prism.
Exercises
1. The sides of the base of a right prism are a, b, c, and d. The

altitude is e. Make a sketch of the prism. State a formula for find¬
ing the lateral area.
Using the lateral area formula L = e{a-\-b-\-c-\-d) =ep, where p
is the perimeter of the base, find the lateral area of each of the right
prisms below.
a b c d e L
2. 2 5 3 10 7 exact value
3. l£ 2| if 3 8i exact value
4. 4.3 2.6 5.4 3.8 12 value to three figures
5. 4.23 2.12 4.01 3.64 9.32 value to three figures
58. A formula for finding the volume of a right

prism. As in the rectangular solids, the volume of the
prism, as ABC-F (Fig. 69), is found as follows:
Divide the altitude CD into h equal parts. Then
divide the prism into h equal layers by drawing planes
which are parallel to the
base and pass through
the points of division.
On each layer we can
place as many unit
cubes as there are unit
squares in the base.
Thus, if the altitude of
the prism is h units long
and if the area of the
base is b square units,
the prism has a content
Fig. 69
equal to bXh cubic
units, i.e., the volume of a right prism is equal to the
product of the base by the altitude.
Briefly we say that
v = bh.
Exercises
1. By means of the formula v — bh find the

volume of a triangular right prism the area of
whose base is 18 square inches and whose
altitude is 12 inches.
2. Find the volume of a right prism
whose altitude is 13.4 inches and the area
of whose base is 65.3 square inches.
3. To order material for building a
chimney (Fig. 70), John’s father must know
the amount of masonry required. The chimney is to be 35 feet high,

24 inches wide, and 18 inches
deep. It has a flue 12 inches
by 14 inches. Find the number
of cubic feet in the masonry.
4. The base of a triangular

right prism is a right triangle
whose sides are 3 inches, 4
' inches, and 5 inches. The al¬
titude is 10 inches. Find the
lateral area; the volume.
5. The diagram (Fig. 71)

represents the cross section of
a concrete wall. If the wall is
120 feet long, how much con¬
crete will be required to
build it?
6. Suppose you find on

a winter morning that the
snow on your sidewalk is 4
inches deep. How many
cubic feet of snow do you
have to remove to clear
your walk if it is 50 feet
long and 4 feet wide?
The Cylinder
59. How to make a model of a cylinder.

Circular cans, water pipes, steam boilers,
lawn rollers, tanks, and many other ob¬
jects are of cylindrical shape. To make
a model of a right circular cylinder, cut,
from card board, two congruent circular
Fig. 72 disks (Fig. 72) and then paste a rectan-
gular strip L whose length is equal to the circumference

of the circles so as to form the lateral surface.
Make several drawings of
a cylinder (Fig. 73).
Fig. 73
The two congruent circles

B and Bi (Fig. 72) which en¬
close the flat surfaces of the
cylinder are called bases; the
perpendicular distance, h, be¬
tween the bases is the altitude;
and the curved surface, L, is the lateral surface of the
right circular cylinder. The bases lie in parallel planes.
60. A formula for find¬

ing the lateral area of a
right circular cylinder.
The area of the lateral
surface (Fig. 74) may be
found by rolling the cylin¬
der on a plane surface R.
The lateral surface will
Fig. 74
just cover a rectangle
whose base b is equal to the circumference of the base

of the cylinder and whose altitude h is equal to the
altitude of the cylinder.
This shows that the lateral area of a right circular
cylinder is equal to the circumference of the base multi¬
plied by the altitude.
Denoting the number of square units in the lateral
surface by L, the number of units in the altitude by h,
and the number of units in the radius of the base by r,
we have
L = 27rrh.
Exercises
1. How much does it cost to paint the lateral surface of a silo

14 feet in diameter and 25 feet high, at the rate of $2.25 per 100
square feet?
Solution: L = 2-n-rh Computation:

d= 14
r=7
h =-25
Since the cost is figured in dollars and cents,
use tt = 3.14.
L = 2(3.14) X7X23
1.57
1.57
. c t _ 2f>K) X 7 x&rx 2.25
JjOtT
10.99
£ 2.25
2 54
2 19
21 98
or Cost = $24.71. 24.71
2. Find the number of square inches of sheet iron in a stove

pipe 6 inches in diameter and 6 feet long, not allowing for locking.
.
3 Find to three figures
the lateral area of a cylinder
whose altitude is 9 inches
and the radius of whose
base is 5 inches.
.
4 Find the radiating
surface of a hot-water pipe
3 inches in diameter and 24
feet long.
.
5 How many square
feet of ma erial are used in
making a cylindrical tank
12 inches in diameter and
3A feet high?
6. Find the lateral area and total area of each of the following
cylinders:
Radius 18 ft. 12.5 in. 3 cm. 3 in.
Height 9 ft. 5 ft. 20 cm. 15 ft.
7. How much does it cost to paint a cylindrical chimney 25

feet high and 2.5 feet in diameter at
a rate of $2.75 per 100 square feet?
8. Find the cost of painting a cyl¬
indrical gasoline storage tank 22 feet
high and 25 feet in diameter at a rate
of $2.25 per 100 square feet.
.
9 When making application for
an automobile license a man is told to
compute the horse power of the engine
by means of the formula
. d2n
h.p. =-
2.5
—^—\—
ttjBggimrcl where d is the length of the diameter
ijfiit of the piston and n the number of
cylinders. Find to three figures the horse power of a four-cylinder

engine the diameter of whose piston is 3^- inches.
10. What is the horse power of an eight-cylinder engine the
diameter of whose pistons is 4-|- inches?
61. A formula for finding the volume of a right

circular cylinder. We may derive a formula for finding
the volume of a cylinder as follows:
Since the base (Fig. 75) contains tr2 unit squares, we
can place tr2 unit cubes on it, forming a layer one unit
high. If the altitude is h units long, we shall
have h such layers in the cylinder. Hence
the cylinder will contain {izr2)h unit cubes.
h Therefore the volume of a right circular
cylinder may be found from the formula
v = 7rr2h,
where r is the radius of the base, h the
Fig. 75
altitude, and 7r = 3.142. The number of
figures to be taken in 7r in a given problem depends on
the degree of accuracy to be attained.
Exercises
1. A gallon contains approximately 231 cubic inches of water.

How many gallons of water does a steam boiler (Fig. 76) hold that
is 12 feet long and 3 feet in diameter?
Solution: v = irr2h Computation:

7T= 3.14
3 3.14
T— —
2 27
A = 12 2 19
3 6 28
_(3.14)X3X3XET
"v 2x2 847
.*.27 = 84.7.
Hence the boiler contains approximately 84.7 cubic feet of water.

To find the number of gallons, n, contained in the tank, we find
the number of gallons in one cubic foot and multiply the result by
the number of cubic feet.
1.1
42rf 4
.
• • ft —
12X12X42
~ —-
7?
44
= (1.1) (12) (12) 4
Fig. 76
or n = 633.6
2. Find the volume of a cylindrical gas tank 50 feet in diameter

and 36 feet high.
Suggestion: Take tt = 3.142.
3. A farmer wishes to make a concrete roller 2 feet in diam¬

eter and 5 feet wide. How many cubic feet of concrete will he
need?
4. Find the volume of each of the following cylinders:
Altitude 12 in. 8 yd. 164 ft. 25 in.
Radius 6 in. 4 yd. 2 ft. 6g in.
5. How many gallons will a hot-water tank hold which is 1

foot in diameter and 5 feet long?
6. Find the capacity of a stand pipe 12 feet in diameter and 45

feet high.
7. The inside diameter of a silo is 12 feet, and the height 30

feet. How much silage does it hold?
8. Find the depth of a cylindrical cistern 6 feet in diameter

holding 600 gallons.
Suggestion: Change 600 gallons to cubic feet.
9. An iron cylindrical pillar with a diameter of 6 inches is 12

feet long. Find the weight, if a cubic foot weighs 440 pounds.
10. A cylindrical bar of cast iron is 3 inches in diameter and 10

feet long. Find the volume and weight if the weight of cast iron
is 450 pounds for a cubic foot.
11. Find the volume of iron in a pipe whose outside and inside
diameters are respectively 6 inches and 5 inches, and whose length
is 8 feet.
12. The external diameter of a water main is 4 feet and the pipe
is 1 inch thick. If a cubic inch of pipe weighs .26 pounds, what is
the weight of 10 feet of pipe?
13. Find the number of gallons of oil contained in a cylindrical
tank car 30 feet long and 6 feet in diameter.
14. The inside diameter of a cylindrical silo is 16 feet and the
height is 25 feet. How many tons of silage will it hold if a cubic
foot of silage weighs 45 pounds?
15. A cubic foot of copper is to be drawn into a wire yq- of an.

inch in diameter. How long is the wire when drawn?
Find the value of:

16. trr2h-\-rh-\-h, when r — 2, h = 2.5.
Solution: -irr2h+rh+h = (3.14)4(2.5)+2(2.5)+2.5
= 31.4+5+2.5
= 38.9.
17. 2x3+5a:2+3x when £ =1.2.

18. 3ra3+m2+7?ft when m = .5.
Multiply as indicated and check by substituting values for the

letters:
19. 5(z+2). 22. a2(a+6).
Solution: 23. x{x2-\-y2).
5(z+2)=5x+10.
24. x2(x+y).
20. 7(a+10).
25. a(2a2+3a + l).
21. x20+4).
26. 3x (T2+2.r+4).
Solution:
£2(:r+4) =rr3+4:c2. 27. p(2p+r+6s).
28. 3y(x+5y+2y2). 31. 2a(3a+46)+«2(«+36),

29. 2m{m-\-mn-\-n). 32. x(x2+ax)+a(a2+x).
30. a6(l+2a+6). 33. 4x(a:+2?/)+2/(3x2+7/).
Pyramids and Cones

62. Making models of
pyramids and cones. We
shall now make a study of
pyramids and cones (Fig.
77).
A model of a pyramid
may be made as follows:
Draw a regular polygon,
as A (Figs. 78, 79).
On one side of the polygon
PYRAMID CONE
draw an isosceles triangle,
Fig. 77
as B.
Construct triangles C, D, etc., con¬
gruent to triangle B, making as many
triangles as there are sides in the
polygon A.
Put on
flaps, crease,
Fig. 78 and fold the
paper.
Using polygon A for the
base and the triangles B, C, D,
etc., for the lateral surfaces,
paste the faces together until
the 'pyramid is formed (Figs.
80, 81). Fig. 79
Note that the base of the pyramid (Figs. 80, 81) is a

regular polygon and that the vertex is directly above
the center of the base. Such
pyramids are called right or
regular pyramids.
To make a model of a right
circular cone (Fig. 82), draw a
Fig. 80 circle, as o A (Fig. 83). With a
convenient, but larger, radius
draw a second circle B just touching circle A.
Roll circle A along B, circle B always touching A,
and mark off arc CMD equal in
length to the circle A.
Draw CB and DB. Put on flap
and cut along the solid lines. Fold
and paste, using circle A
for the base, and the sur¬
face CBDM for the curved
surface of the cone (Fig.
83).
Fig. 82
Make several drawings
of the pyramids (Figs. 80, 81) and the cone (Fig. 82).
63. A formula for finding the lateral area of a

regular pyramid. Denote the base AB of one of the
lateral faces ABC (Fig. 84) of a regular pyramid by
b and the altitude by s.
Then the area of AACB = \bs.
The altitude CB of triangle ACB is called the slant
height of the pyramid.
Similarly, the area of AB CD, and of each of the
other lateral faces, is ^bs.
If the pyramid has four lateral faces the lateral area

is 4Xtt&s which may be changed to the form i(4b)s.
If the pyramid has five faces the lateral area is f(5b)s.
What is the lateral area
of a pyramid having six
lateral faces?
Notice that 4b, 5b, etc.,
are the perimeters of the
bases of the pyramids.
We can now state the
principle for finding the
lateral area:
A T? rn Q
The lateral area of a right

pyramid is equal to one-half the perimeter of the base
multiplied by the slant height.
In symbols this may be expressed as follows:
L = ips,
where L is the number of square units in the lateral
surface, p the number of units in the perimeter of the
base, and s the number of units in the slant height.
The same formula is used for finding the lateral area
of a cone. In this case the perimeter of the base is the
circumference of a circle, and the formula changes to
L = ±(2wr)s,
which reduces to L = ?rrs.
Exercises
1. Find the lateral area of the pyramid and cone constructed in

§62.
For each of the exercises below make a sketch before solving, as
shown in Exercise 2:
2. Find the number of square feet of lumber which was used

in constructing the roof of a silo (Fig. 85) whose slant height is
8.5 feet and the diameter of whose base is 15 feet.
Solution: Computation:
L = irTS 3.14
85
r — 7.5 157
25 12
s = 8.5 26.69
7.5
\L— (3.14) (8.5) (7.5) 13 34
186 83
L = 200.2 approximately. 200.17
3. Find to three figures the lateral area L and the total area T
of a cone if the slant height is 24 inches and if the radius of the
base b is 12 inches.
Suggestion: T = L+b.
4. The slant height of a cone is 5.5 feet and the radius of the
base is 2.5 feet. Find the lateral area.
5. The base of a right pyramid is an
equilateral triangle whose side is 4 feet
and whose area is 6.8 square feet. If the
slant height is 8 feet, find the area of the
lateral surface; of the total surface.
6. The base of a right pyramid is a
regular hexagon the side of whose base is
4.2 inches. If the slant height is 5.7
inches, find the lateral area.
7. The slant height of a conical tent
is 12 feet. The diameter of the base is 14
feet. Find how many square yards of
canvas were needed to make the tent, not
allowing for seams and waste.
8. Find the lateral surface of a church spire, the side of whose
six-sided base is 10 feet long, if the slant height is 85 feet.
64. Formulas for finding volumes of pyramids and

cones. We may work out a formula as follows: Make
cardboard models, one of a pyramid and one of a
prism having the same height
and equal bases (Fig, 86). Fill
the pyramid with sand and
then pour the sand into the
prism (Fig. 87). With well-
made models and careful work
you will find that it takes
three pyramids full of sand to fill the entire prism. In
fact, it can be demonstrated by more advanced mathe¬
matical methods that the content of the pyramid is
exactly one-third that of the prism.
The same is true for a cone and cylinder (Fig. 88)
having equal bases and altitudes. Thus, it appears
that (1) the volume
of a pyramid is one-
third of the volume
of a prism having
the same base and
altitude; (2) the
volume of a cone is
one-third of the vol¬
ume of a cylinder
having the same
base and altitude.
Since the volume
Fig. 87 Fig. 88
of a prism, or of a
cylinder, is equal to the base times the altitude, it fol¬
lows that the volume of a ptjramid, or of a cone, is one-
third of the product of the base times the altitude.
In symbols we state:
V = ^-bh, for the pyramid
and V = Jbh = id1 for the oone.

J 3
Exercises
1. Find the volume of a cone whose altitude is 8 inches and

whose base is 6 inches in diameter.
2. The base of a pyramid is a rectangle 4 inches by 7 inches

and the altitude is 12 inches. What is the volume?
3. Find the volume of a square pyramid the side of whose base

is 12 inches and whose altitude is 16 inches.
4. A pile of grain has the shape of a cone. The diameter is 8

feet and the
height is 3 feet.
Find the vol¬
ume.
5. The great
pyramid of
Cheops was
originally 481
feet high, and
the side of the
square base was
764 feet long.
These dimensions are now 460 feet and 746 feet respectively. How
much coating has been removed?
The Sphere
65. What is meant by a sphere. A marble and a ball

are illustrations of a sphere. The earth’s form is approx¬
imately spherical. To be precise, we say that a sphere
is a curved closed surface all points of which have the

same distance from a fixed point within.
A drawing of a sphere usually represents the visible
boundary line ABCD (Fig. 89) and one or more other
circles drawn on the
A
surface, as DEFB.
The formulas for
finding the volume and
area of the sphere are
not so easily derived
C
as those for the other Fig. S9
solids studied in this
chapter. These formulas are worked out in an ad¬
vanced course in high-school mathematics.
66. The area of a sphere. It has been proved by

methods of geometry that the area, S, of a sphere may
be found from the formula
S = 47rr2
where r is the radius of the sphere.

One way of checking this formula is to wind a heavy
cord around
the surface of
a hemisphere
(Fig. 90) .
Show that this
cord covers the
surface of the
circular flat
part of the
hemisphere Fig. 90
just twice. Thus the surface of the hemisphere is equal

to 27rr2, and that of the whole spherical surface is 47rr2„
67. The volume of a sphere. The volume of a sphere

is found from the formula
V = |*rs.
Exercises
1. Find the area and volume of a sphere whose radius is 8

inches.
2. Find the weight of a brass ball 4 inches in diameter, assum¬
ing that a cubic inch of brass weighs of a pound.
3. Find how many million square miles there are on the sur¬
face of the earth. (Radius = 4000 miles approximately.)
4. An iron bar used as a weight in a self-regulating heating
plant is 4\ inches in diameter. Find the weight of the ball if iron
weighs 480 pounds a cubic foot.
5. The radius of a sphere is 6
inches. It fits exactly into a cube
(Fig. 91). By means of the ratio
compare the volume of the sphere
with the volume of the cube,
Find the value of each of the poly¬
nomials in Exercises 6 and 7:
6. x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3 when
Fig. 91
x = 2, 7/ = 1.5.
7. 2a3+4a26+3a62+63 when a = 3, 6 = 2.
In Exercises 8 to 13 multiply as indicated (§13) and check re¬

sults by substituting values:
8. y(3x2Jr3xy+y2). 11. (a-f-6+c) (m+n+t).
9. (3a-2+2x+l) (£+4). 12. (a2-\-o>b-\~b~) (a-f-6).
10o (4a2+10a+l) (2uT6). 13. (2T^~b^2) (^T4).
Formulas and Tables
68. Summary of formulas. The following table

summarizes important formulas studied in this chapter:
Area and Volume
Area Volume
Cube. L = 4e2, T = 6e2 v = e3
rO
r^
Prism. L = ep
Si
II
Cylinder .... L = 2-n-rh V — irT2h
Pyramid .... L = ^sp v = j^bh
Cone. L = irrs v = ^bh
7rrVi
3
CO
Sphere. S = 4-rr2
II
Table of Cubic Measure
1728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot

7.48 gallons = 1 cubic foot
27 cubic feet =1 cubic yard
69. What every pupil should be able to do. When

•you have completed this chapter, you should be able
to do the following:
1. To give the names of the common solids.
2. To make good drawings of each solid.
3. To state the formulas for finding areas and
volumes.
4. To state the meaning of such algebraic expres¬
sions as x2, x3, 3a;2, 5x3, and of combinations made up
a3 -\-2b-\-c
into polynomials such as 3x3 — 2x2JrAx — 1, or
3c — ab
5. To find the values of polynomials for given values

of the literal numbers.
6. To find products of given polynomials.
7. To solve simple cubic equations like 2x3 = 128.
8. To solve with ease simple verbal problems of
finding areas and volumes of solids.
70. Typical exercises and problems. The following

problems and exercises are typical of the work of this
chapter. Every pupil should be able to work them,
and others like them.
1. Make a drawing of each of the following solids:
cube hexagonal prism
rectangular solid cylinder
triangular prism circular cone
triangular pyramid sphere
square pyramid
2. State the formulas for finding the areas of the solids which
were studied in Chapter III.
3. State the formulas for finding the volumes of these solids.
4. Find the value of the diagonal of a cube whose edge is 3.5

inches.
5. Find the exact value of x3+3x2+3x—4 when x = 2.6.

ab2~\~ci2b “be
6 . Find the exact value of - when a = 1.4, 6 = 3.1,
o+6+c
7. Simplify: 3x*2x2; X'8x»^x] (2a)3; (2m)2-\-(3n)z.
8. Multiply as indicated: 3a(x2+2a+8); 2x(x-±-5y-\-Sy2).
9. Multiply (3a2+5a+l) by (a+2).
10. Solve the equation 2x3= 128.

11. Find the number of board feet in a beam 3 inches by 4

inches and 14 feet long.
12. Find to three figures the volume of a right prism whose

altitude is 13.4 inches and the area of whose base is 65.3 square
inches.
13. Find the volume of a cylindrical tank 50 feet m diameter

and 36 feet high.
14. The slant height of a cone is 5.5 feet and the radius of the
base is 2,5 feet. Find the lateral area.
15. Find the area and the volume of a sphere whose radius is
4 inches.

a. The use of algebra in problems of areas and volumes of
solids.
b. Mathematics used in various occupations, as fanning,
contracting, building.
CHAPTER IV
THE MEANING OF POSITIVE AND

NEGATIVE NUMBERS
Directed Numbers
71. Various types of numbers. In the very earliest

times people knew only whole numbers. They used
them in counting or in comparing a magnitude with a
standard unit very much as we do to-day when we find
the distance between two trees or other objects by
comparing it with the length of a foot.
W ith the development of the human race other kinds
of numbers have appeared, e.g., the fractions, as § and
-J, and numbers like V2 and V5. At first, these new
numbers were not understood and for this reason they
were at times called artificial numbers. Similarly, in
the study of geometry and of the physical sciences, and
in everyday affairs there arose a need for other artificial
numbers.
In this chapter we shall learn about a new kind of
number. One difference between the new numbers
and the numbers that you worked with in arithme¬
tic is that + or — sign is prefixed to the figure, as
— 2, or +8. When such numbers first appeared in
mathematical work, mathematicians rejected them be¬
cause they were unable to attach any meaning to
them. They called them fictitious or absurd numbers.
102
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE NUMBERS 103
We shall call them signed numbers. You will find

it interesting to read more about the development
of the number system in books on the history of
mathematics.
When the meaning of signed numbers became clear,
they were readily accepted. To-day they are employed
for many purposes. We shall see that signed numbers
are used in temperature readings, in designating oppo¬
site directions, and in business. We shall study them
until we understand them thoroughly.
72. Signed numbers are used in thermometer

readings. On a winter day the weather report published
in the newspapers gave the following table stating the
temperature for 24 hours:
Maximum.2 p.m. 7
Minimum.2 a. m.—5
3 A.M. .... -4 11 A. M. . .. . 5 7 P. M. ... 6

4 A. M. _-3 Noon. . . . . 6 8 P. M. ... 5
5 A. M. .-2 1 P. M. .... 6 9 P. M. ... 4
6 A. M. .-1 2 P. M. ... . 7 10 P. M. ... 1
7 A. M. . 2 3 P. M. . .. . 6 11 P. M. ... 0
8 A. M. .... 4 4 P. M. . . . . 6 Midnight. . . .. .-3
9 A.M. .... 4 5 P. M. . . . ... 5 1 A. M. . . .-4
10 AM 0 0pm 0 2 A.M. ... — 5
The numbers in the right-hand columns in this table

refer to the thermometer scale (Fig. 92). A certain
point on this scale is designated as the zero point. The
numbers —5, —4, —3, in the table mean, respectively,
5° below zero, 4° below zero, and 3° below zero. Thus
degrees below zero are denoted by numbers prefixed by
a minus sign ( —). The numbers 2, 4, 6, etc., in the table

mean: 2° above zero, 4° above zero, and
6° above zero. Sometimes readings above
zero are denoted by numbers prefixed by
a plus sign ( + ). Accordingly, the read¬
ings + 6°, +4°, +2° mean that the tem¬
perature is 6° above zero, 4° above zero,
2° above zero.
r Exercises
1. State the meaning of each of the follow¬

ing temperature readings: +60°, —3°, —8°, 0°,
+4°, -10°, +88°.
2. If the top of the mercury column in a ther¬
mometer is at 5°above zero and the temperature
then rises 4°, express the final reading by means
of the + or — sign. If the temperature then falls
11°, state the final reading.
3. State the final readings in the table below:
First reading 8° 6° 2°
Change rise of 2° fall of 10° fall of 6°
Final readings
O
CO
3° -8° 12° 0° -2°

1
rise of 4° fall of 6° fall of 12° fall of 8° rise of 10° rise 8°
4. Represent the readings in the table on page 103 graphically

as follows:
On the line OX (Fig. 93) lay off distances representing the
hours. Then at each hour point lay off, at right angles to OX,
the corresponding temperature reading. Connect the points thus
located, forming the temperature line.
Examine the graph and answer the following questions: When

was the temperature highest? When was it lowest? When was the
change in temperature greatest? What was the maximum tempera¬
ture? The minimum?
Fig. 93
The graph registers the variations of the top of the mercurial

column when hourly readings are taken. To get a continuous rec¬
ord, a self-recording ther¬
mometer is used (Fig. 94).
The instrument is called
thermograph because
it represents temperature
graphically. A thermom¬
eter is attached to a pen
.which rises and falls as
the temperature changes,
making a continuous line
on the cylinder, which is
turned horizontally by a
clock. The days and hours
are marked by vertical lines and the degrees by horizontal
lines.
Thermographs are used at Weather Bureau stations, in labora¬
tories, and in conservatories. When removed from the cylinder
of the thermograph the temperature graph appears as shown in

Fig. 95. It may be used to determine the average temperature for
the month.
Courtesy Tayl r Instruments Co.

Fig. 95
5. For a certain day the hourly temperature readings begin¬

ning at 8:00 a.m. were as follows: 10°, 12°, 14°, 18°, 20°, 22°, 21°,
18°, 14°, 8°, —2°, —4°. Make the graph and tell what it shows.
6. Represent graphically the following daily average tempera¬

tures for one week: +10°, 0°, —8°, —4°, +6°, +14°, +15°.
7. Make a graph for the following table:
Mid¬
Time night 1 A.'1. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Temperature -10° — 12° -15° -13° -10° -9° -8° -6° -3° 0°
Time 10 11 Noon 1 2 3 4 5 6
Temperature 2° 5° 7° 7° 9° 10° 8° 8° 7°
73. Meaning of the signs in directed numbers. In

arithmetic the + and — signs are used to indicate
addition and subtraction. We have just seen that
they may be used to denote opposite directions from

a fixed point, e.g., from the zero point on the ther¬
mometer scale. This explains why numbers preceded
by a sign, + or —, are called directed numbers. By
the introduction of directed numbers into the number
system the power and scope of mathematics was greatly
increased.
74. Directed numbers are used to denote above or

below water level. Heights of mountains and depths
of lakes are meas¬
ured in opposite
directions from the
surface of the
water. The height
of point A (Fig.
96) is +8', i.e., 8
feet above water
level. The position
of point Q is —5',
i.e., 5 feet below.
Exercises
1. By means of + and — signs state the position (height and

direction) of points B, C, D, P, R, S (Fig. 96).
2. In a certain survey heights and depths were measured at

intervals of 10 feet and recorded as in the table below. Make a
diagram like that of Fig. 96 representing the facts contained in the
table.
Horizontal
distances 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Heights
or depths -6 -12 -22 -20 -25 -20 -7 2 +4 +5 +7 +6 +3 0
75. Directed line-segments. The location of a place

may be denoted by means of a + or — sign. Thus
directions to the north are usually considered + and
directions to the south —.
Exercises
In the following exercises directions are to be denoted by + and

— signs, as shown in Exercise 1.
1. A boy riding a bicycle starts from home, rides 20 miles west,

i.e., in the negative direction, turns, and rides 14 miles in the oppo¬
site direction. How far is he from home?
Solution: -20
+14 -6
.*. -20+14=-6.
2. If a man travels 50 miles north one day and 76 miles south

the next day, how far is he from the starting point?
Arrange the solution as shown in Exercise 1.
3. An elevator goes up 128 feet (eight floors) and then down 32

feet (two floors). How far is it from the first floor?
An elevator goes up 56 feet and down 70 feet. How far is it

4.
from the starting point?
76. Directed angles. The rotation of a radius about

point B (Fig. 97) from the position of BA to that
of BC forms angle ABC.
Turning the radius the same
amount, a, from BA to BC'
forms angle ABC'. The
two angles have the same
numerical measure but the
directions of turning are
opposite. We shall denote
clockwise rotation by the — sign and counterclockwise

rotation by the + sign. Hence, LABC' = —a, and
l_AB C = -\-a.
In geography, navigation, and astronomy directed
angles are used to locate objects and places; e.g.,
latitudes are + or — according as they are north or
south of the equator.
Exercises
Use plus or minus signs in stating the results in the exercises

below:
1. Draw the following angles, starting in each case with the
initial line taken in the direction from left to right, as BA (Fig. 97):
+25°, —40°, —120°, 180°, —220°. Indicate in the drawing both
size and direction.
2. What sign should be prefixed to the latitude of each of the
following cities: New York City, St. Louis, Cape Town, Boston,
Rio de Janeiro, Galveston?
3. In what latitude is a traveler who starts in latitude —3°
and travels north 7°?
4. Find the latitude and longitude of your home city and ex¬
press each with a signed number.
77. Directed forces. The opposing forces in a tug-

of-war, the weight of a stone and the upward pull of a
balloon, the rate of a current and the rate of rowing up¬

stream are examples of forces acting in opposite direc¬
tions.
Exercises
Answer the following questions, using the + and — signs to

denote directions:
1. If the weight of a stone is denoted by the — sign, how should

we denote the weight (upward pull) of a balloon?
2. If a stone weighing 5 ounces is attached to a balloon pulling

upward with a force of 7 ounces, what is the magnitude and direc¬
tion of the combined weight?
3. A boy can row in still water at the rate of 4.5 miles an hour.
How fast can he go upstream against a current flowing at the rate of
2 miles an hour? How fast can he go downstream?
4. If the rate of a current is x miles per hour and the rate of

rowing y miles, how fast can a man go upstream? Downstream?
5. A carrier pigeon can fly at a rate of 55 miles an hour. How

fast can it fly against a wind blowing at the rate of 35 miles an
hour?
6. In a tug-of-war one side pulls to the north with a force of

320 pounds, the other to the south with a force of 312 pounds.
Express these forces and the resulting force with + and — signs.
78. Use of signed numbers in business. The follow¬

ing is part of a report of the New York stock transac¬
tions, taken
from a news¬
paper. The
plus and minus
signs in the last
column are
used to indicate
the daily rise
or fall of stocks.
New York Stock Transactions
Descriptions Sales Hioh Low Close Change
Adams Exp. 100 22^ 22 \ 22 + "2

Ajax Rubber. 900 25 24f 241 1
4
Am. Sugar. 2,600 90^ 88f 89 +1
Crucible Steel. 15,500 74i 7ii 71 — -3f
Gen. Motors. 7,500 15f 13| 13-| +¥
3
Peoples Gas. 500 33?r 32^ 32f 4
Western Union. 300 82^ 8li sii ....
From the last column tell the rise or fall of each stock.
Exercises
1. State the opposites of the following terms: gain, increase,

deposit, possession, export, asset, after Christ, north, forward, fall,
above zero. If either of two opposites is denoted by a + sign the
other should have a minus sign.
2. A man is in debt $300 and borrows $450. He then receives
$1000. How much is he worth?
Solution: — 300 — 450 = — 750
-750+1000 = +250.
In the following exercises arrange the solutions as in Exercise 1:
3. A man’s property is worth $8500 and his debts amount

to $3600. Express his financial standing by means of a signed
number.
4. A man’s account book contains the following items: salary
$416, rent $85, food $75, insurance $30, interest on bonds $22.
Denote these items with plus or minus signs, and determine his
financial standing.
5. The assets of a company are $38,328 and the liabilities are
$35,220. What is the financial standing?
6. A merchant gains $8115 one year and loses $1876 the next.
Find his net gain or loss for the two years.
7. A man’s monthly bank statement reads as follows:
Date Checks Date Deposits Date Balance
Balance brought f orward . . $124.0 7
Oct. 1 $35.00- $5.00- Oct. 1 $329.16 Oct. 1 $413.23

Oct. 2 10.00- Oct. 2 67.50 Oct. 2 470.73
Oct. 4 10.00- 30.00- Oct. 4 80.25 Oct. 4 510.98
Oct. 5 18.50- 19.25- - Oct. 5 473.23
Oct. 6 112.66- 50.00- Oct. 6 310.57
Oct. 8 40.00- 5.00- Oct. 8 237.07
Oct. 9 45.00- 28.50- Oct. 9 117.50 Oct. 9 309.57
The last amount in the last column to the right is the balance on
Oct. 9. For each date verify the correctness of the statement. Note
that instead of prefixing the — sign the bank places it after the
number, + signs in deposits are omitted but understood.
Positive and Negative Numbers
79. The number scale. A number preceded by a +

sign is called a positive number, and one preceded by
a — sign is a negative number.
We have read above (§71) that in early times nega¬
tive numbers were not approved because people were
not able to understand them. The first to see a real
meaning and use for signed numbers were the Hindus.
Aryabhatta (born 476 a.d.) recognized their value in
making distinction between assets and liabilities. Euro¬
pean mathematicians were exceedingly slow to ac¬
cept negative numbers. Some were willing to admit
them when they arose in problems in which they
could be given a meaning such as debts, but positive
and negative numbers were not fully accepted until

Descartes (1596-1650) used them systematically in his
famous geometry. He
represented them
graphically by means
of line segments.
It must be remem¬
bered that positive and
negative numbers are
composed of two parts,
the sign and the arith¬
metical value. The
latter is at times called
the numerical or abso¬
lute value. The + sign DESCARTES
is frequently omitted. Rene Descartes was born at La Haye,

near Tours, March 31, 1596, and died
A number without a at Stockholm, February 11, 1650.
In the year 1637 he wrote a book,
sign is, therefore, posi¬ Discourse on Methods, which contained
tive. an appendix on geometry. He showed
how to study geometrical figures by
To represent posi¬ means of algebraic equations. This
added much to his fame and mathe¬
tive and negative matical reputation. Read more about
numbers graphically, the life and work of Descartes in Ball’s
History of Mathematics, pp. 268-272.
arrange them along a
straight line (Fig. 98), the positive numbers to the right
of the zero and the negative numbers to the left. This
is the number scale. Any number in this scale is con-
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Fig. 98
sidered as less than all numbers to the right and as

greater than all numbers to the left. At whatever point
of the scale we may start, if we pass to the right the

numbers are increasing, and if we pass to the left they
are decreasing. Thus —4 is greater than —6, although
4 is numerically less than 6.
Exercises
1. Name the greater number in each of the following number

pairs: 0, +5; —3, 0; — 2, —5; +6, —4; —10, +10.
2. By how much is —8 less than —3? Verify your answer with

the number scale.
3. Locate the following numbers on the scale: +6, —9, — -f,

2^, C —6.3.
4. At a certain hour the temperature was +3°. Two hours

later it was —2°. What was the drop (difference) in temperature?
Verify your answer with the number scale.
5. Augustus lived from the year —63 to the year +14. How
old was he when he died?

do. Chapter IV has shown the meaning and uses of
positive and negative numbers. The pupil should now
understand the uses of signed numbers with the ther¬
mometer scale, angles, segments, forces, business terms
and the number scale.
81. Typical exercises and problems. The following

problems and exercises review the essential facts
taught in Chapter IV. Every pupil should be able to
do them.
1. Name uses for positive and negative numbers other than

those mentioned in Exercise 1, § 78.
2. Represent the following table graphically:
Mid¬
Time 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3
P.M.
night A.M.
Temper¬
OO
+
+
ature +8° +6° +3° 0° -1° -2° -2° -3° -4° -4°
For each of Exercises 3 to 6 write an equation stating the facts

of the problem and the result:
3. An automobile travels 22 miles east and then 45 miles west.

How far is it from the starting point?
4. A ship starts in latitude 5° north and travels 12° south. What

is its latitude?
5. The rate of a current is miles an hour. If a boy can row

in still water at a rate of 3.5 miles an hour, how fast can he go up¬
stream?
6. A man’s bank account is $400, but he owes $250. What is

his financial standing?

а. The development of the number system, including posi¬
tive and negative numbers.
б. The meaning and uses of positive and negative numbers.
CHAPTER V
THE OPERATIONS WITH POSITIVE AND

NEGATIVE NUMBERS
Addition
82. Why we should know how to work with positive

and negative numbers. In arithmetic, the statement
$6 — $4 has meaning but $4 —$6 has no meaning. On
the scale of numbers (Fig. 99), a6 — 4” means that
starting from zero we pass 6 units to the right and from
that point 4 units to the left. This takes us to a point
+2 .4 2 units to the right of zero.
Ot~~' ■ ~ * ■ )- Briefly we may say +6 — 4 = +2.
+6
By the same process we find that
Fig. 99
4 — 6 means that we pass 4 units
to the right of zero (Fig. 100) and then 6 units to the
left. The result is —2.
Briefly, +4 — 6=—2. —I ^ jl V" ■ 1 )-
With arithmetical numbers we -2 0+4
Fig. 100
are able to solve the following
problem: If a number is increased by 4 the result is 6.
Find the number.
Solution: Let x be the number.
Then £+4 = 6
4=4
•
•
•
/v»
it/ = 6-4,
or x = 2.
116
OPERATIONS WITH SIGNED NUMBERS 117
However, we need to understand positive and nega¬

tive numbers to solve the following problem, which is
similar to the one above: If a number is increased by
6 the result is 4. Find the number.
Solution: Let x be the number.
Then x+6 = 4
_6 = 6
;.x =4 — 6,
or x — —2.
Verify the result on the number scale.
In future work we are to meet many other problems
whose solution requires knowledge of signed numbers.
The interpretations and uses of positive and negative
numbers that were shown in Chapter IV have helped
us to understand signed numbers as readily as arith¬
metical numbers. However, we are not prepared to
take up problems involving signed numbers until we
know how to work with the?n, i.e., how to add, subtract,
multiply, and divide them. In this chapter we are
going to learn how to perform these operations.
83. How to add signed numbers graphically. To

add (+5) and (+3) lay off on the number scale (Fig.
101) first ( + 5) in the positive +5 +3
direction OA, and then (+3) in p ;~4
the positive direction. The dis- +s
tance and direction (+8) from Fig' 101
the starting point to the stopping point is the required
sum.
Thus we have the following equation:
(+5) + (+3) = +8.
This equation states briefly that 5 to the right and

then 3 more to the right gives 8 to the right or +8.
Similarly, (+5) -f ( — 3) = (+2). For, (+5) is laid
off first (Fig. 102) in the positive direction to B. Then
( — 3) is laid off from B in the negative direction BO,
and the direction and distance from the starting point
0 to the stopping point C is +2.
We may say that the statement (+5) + ( — 3) = (+2)
+2 means that 5 to the right and
—0; ‘ t ‘ ' _b a then 3 to the left gives 2 to the
+5” right
Fig. 102
The two preceding examples
show that two signed numbers may be added graphi¬
cally as follows:
Lei a and b be two numbers, positive or negative. To
find the sum of a and b lay off, on the number scale,
first a in its own direction and then b in its own direction.
The distance and direction from the starting point to the
stopping point is the required sum.
Exercises
Find the sums in Exercises 1, 2, and 3 graphically:
1. (—8) + (+3).
Solution: From 0 (Fig. 103) lay off A +3 B -5 0
— 8 in its own direction to A. From A —^ • Y ■ ■
' 1 ■' >*-
•^■ ■—
lay off +3 in its own direction to B.
Then OB, or —5, is the required sum. Fig. 103
Hence (—8) +(+3) = ( —5).
2. (+10) + (—4); ( — 6) + ( — 3); (—7) + (8); 12+(+3);

-10+(6).
3. 6+( —6); —4+4;5+( —5).

4. Show by means of several examples, as in Exercise 3, that

the sum of two numbers having the same arithmetical value and
opposite signs, as -a and —a, is always zero.
5. What must be added to each of the following to make the
resulting sum zero: +4; —6; +3; —1?
6. Add the following mentally, i.e., use the number scale with¬
out actually drawing the figure: +16+( — 3).
Solution: Pass 16 to the right and from there 3 to the left. The
result is 13 to the right, or +13.
+16+ ( — 3) = +13.
Similarly, add: +3+( — 6); +4+(+8); — 2+(+l);
—8+(+12); —5+ ( —7).
7. Add mentally:
—8+ (+4) + (—3); +3+ ( — 2) + (+4); —6+8+( —7);
4+8-4; 6+ ( — 61+2.
Solve the equations in Exercises 8 to 18 by adding the same

number to both members:
8. x — 8= —2.
Solution: x—8= —2
Adding 8 to both members 8=8
we have 3-8+8=-2+8
or x+8 —8= —2+8

or .r = 6.
The solution may now be written in the following simple form:
x — 8= —2
8= 8
x =6
9. 8—x= — 6+4o;.
Solution: 8—x = — 6+4.r
Adding x, 8 = — 6+5.c
Adding 6, 14 = 5a;
10. a-9=-3. 13. 4a; —8 = 6—3s. 16. 6£-10 = 8-5£.
11. y—4 = 9. 14. 3a —2= —7a+5. 17. 10 m—4 = 2m+7.
12. 3a; — 10 = a; —6. 15. 5a; —7 = 2—3a;. 18. 5r—4 = 9r—7.
19. Add mentally the lower to the upper;

+ 16 +8 +6 -4 -3 -7 2
+ 4 -3 -9 -6 +5 _3 -2
20. Add mentally the lower number to the upper:

—3a; —6a —6 y +12 m —5(a+6) 3(x+y)
—2a; — a +6y + 2m 2(a+6) — 7 (a;+2/)
84. Combining terms. The sum of two dissimilar

numbers, as a and b, is a+6. If two numbers are
similar, as 6x and 2x, the sum is 6x+2x, or 8x. The 8.x
is said to be obtained by combining, or collecting, the
terms 6x and 2x. Thus, similar terms can be combined,
but dissimilar terms cannot be combined.
Exercises
In the following combine similar terms:
1. 16a+ (46) + (— 3a)+ (— 5).

Solution: 16a+ (46) + ( — 3a) + ( — 6)
= 16a—3a+46 —b, by changing the order of the terms.
= 13a+36, by combining similar terms.
2. 10+3+(—4)+6 — 3.
3. 12+ (7) + (—3) +2.
4. 5+ (—2)+6+ (—3).
5. 7o;+2a;+5y+ (—?>y).
>
6. 8a + (— 6) + (— 3a)+ (— 56).
Solve the following equations:

7. —62'+15 = 32 — 30.
Solution: —62+15 = 32 — 30
Adding 62,15 = 92—30
Adding 30, 45 = 92
Dividing by 9, 5=2.
8. 2-3 = 5. 11. 52-12=-7. 14. 42-2=2+31.
9. 22+4 = 14. 12. 32 —20= —2. 15. -2-15=-18+22.
10. 72-8 = 20. 13. 22-3 = 18-2. 16. 10-52=-6+32.
85. A rule for adding numbers. We have learned to

add numbers by means of the number scale. We have
also seen that we may add numbers more rapidly by
making a mental picture of the graphical addition,
without actually making the drawing. A third way is
to use a rule in adding numbers. The following four
problems in addition illustrate this rule.
Add the lower number to the upper:
+7 -7 +7 -7
+5 -5 -5 +5
+ 12 -12 +2 -2.
Note (1) that in the first two problems the numbers

to be added have like signs; (2) that the arithmetical
value of the sum may be found by adding the arith¬
metical values of the two numbers; (3) that the sign of
the sum is the same as the sign common to the given
numbers. The three facts are stated in the form of a
rule as follows:
To add two or more algebraic numbers having like
signs, add the arithmetical values and prefix the common
sign to the sum.
In the third and fourth problems above, note (1) that

the two given numbers to be added have unlike signs;
(2) that the arithmetical value of the sum is equal to
the difference of the arithmetical values of the numbers;
and (3) that the sign prefixed is the sign of the num¬
ber having the greater arithmetical value. This is ex¬
pressed by the following rule:
To add a positive and a negative number, find the
difference of the numerical values of the numbers, and
prefix to it the sign of the numerically greater number.
Exercises
1. Find the following sums by rule and then verify each by

graphical addition:
+8+C+3); +9+( —3); 7+(+5); —5+2; —6+(—4);
+6+ ( — 3); —4+(+6); -2+4.
2. Show that 6+ (—2) = 6 —2; 8+ ( — 5) =8 — 5.

3. Collect the terms in each of the following polynomials:
6—2+( —8); — 8+ (— 3) —10; +3+(+2) +(+8);
—6+ (—4) + (—1).
4. Collect terms in the following:

3a; — 2x+6a:+4a;—x.
Solution: 3x — 2x+6a:+4a;—x
= 3a;+6a;+4a:—2a;—x, by changing the order of the
terms
= 13a; — 3a*, by combining terms
= 10a-.
5. — 8a;+17a;+4a; — 9a-. 8. 12.55 — 9.55 — 7.35+5.
6. 14a; — 10a; — 3a;+7x. 9. .04m — ,03?n+. 16m + .23 m
7. — 3a — 12a —5a+20a. 10. |a;+â;—fa'+^-a-.

11. 7a2-36+66-14a2.
Solution: 7a2 — 36-)-66 — 14a2 = 7a2 — 14a24-66 — 36
= — 7a2+36.
12. 2x2+3x-10x2-12x+4x2.
13. 3a; — 7^-f-62/+4?/-j-3^.
14. +16a6 — 17.4a6 — 1.6a6+2a6.
Add the following polynomials:
15. 6a; — 7y-{-3z; 4a;+3y—z.
Solution: Add the terms of one polynomial to the corresponding
similar terms of the other.
Thus 6a; — 7?/+3s+ (4x-\-Sy—z)
= 6x-\-4x—7y+3y-\-3z—z
= 10a; —4y+2z.
The solution may also be arranged as follows:
6x — 7y-{-Sz
4a-+3 y — z
10x-4y+2z
16. a+6+c; a — 6—c.
17. 2a—56+6c; —4a —66 —3c.
18. x2-\-xy-\-y2) x2-xy-\-y2.
19. 4m+6n —5+ (2m+4n+3) + (a — 6).
20. 3a;2+3a;-7+(2a;2+4a;+3) + (a--3).
21. — x2—2x+4+ (—x2 — 3a*+8) + (.r2—.r + l).
22. a-\-3(x—y)Jrb] 26 — 8(a; — ?/)+4a; — 5(a;—y)+66.
In each of the following exercises find the sum of the left members
of the equations and the sum of the right members:
23. x+7y = 2Q 26. .8x+.2y = 10.2
2x+3y = 16 4x - 3.5 y = 11.4
24. x—4y=\
4x+3y = 40
25. 3.r =8
2
—a1 —4 = 2
Subtraction
86. A clerk’s way of subtracting. John was sent by

his mother to make a purchase, for which she gave
him a two-dollar bill. The price of the article was
38 cents. To make sure that he would have the correct
change, he wrote on a piece of paper the following:
$2.00 John’s way of determining the correct change
.38 was to subtract $.38 from $2.00.
$1.62
The clerk placed the two-dollar bill in the cash

drawer and then laid on the counter the following
amounts: 2 cents, saying,
“38, 40,” a dime, saying,
“50,” a half-dollar, saying,
“one dollar,” a dollar bill,
saying, “two dollars.” John
counted the change and
found it to be correct,
$1.62. The clerk’s method
of making change apparently not only gave the same
amount as John’s method, but was very simple. John
first subtracted $.38 from $2 and later counted the
change to see if he had the correct amount. The clerk
just added enough money to $.38 to make $2. His way
of subtracting was to find how much he had to add to
the $.38 to get a sum equal to $2. He really avoided
subtraction by changing it into addition.
87. Subtracting by means of the number scale.

Since thermometer readings are signed numbers we
may subtract signed numbers by finding the differ¬

ence between two thermometer readings, i.e., by deter¬
mining the change in the position of the top of the
mercury column of a thermometer. If the first reading
(Fig. 104) is +16° and the
second +2° (Fig. 105) we
find the difference by
counting from the second
reading +2° to the first
reading +16°. Since in
passing from +2° to +16°
we are counting upward,
the difference is +14°.
ISO
Similarly, if the first read¬

ing is —3° and the second
...
.100
+5°, we find the difference
by counting downward.
Hence, the difference is
-8°.
It is customary to ar¬
range the written work of
subtracting in either of the
following two forms:
+ 16°-(+2°) = +14°,
or+ 16° 1^77777777 ml
+ 2° Fig. 104 Fig. 105
+ 14°
Similarly we write:
— 3°— (+5°) = —8°, or —3°
+5°
-8°.
The number to be diminished, as the +16° or —3°

above, is the minuend. The number to be subtracted,
as +2° or +5°, is the subtrahend. The result, as +14°
or —8°, is the difference.
The following examples illustrate further the process
of subtracting numbers:
1. A man who died in 1916 was born in 1876. His
age is determined by counting from the time of birth to
the time of death, which gives 40.
Thus 1916-1876 = 40.
2. It is said that Augustus was born 63 b.c. ( — 63)
and that he died 14 a.d. ( + 14). To find his age we
may lay off —63 (Fig.
63 *14
-
106) on a number scale
-70 -60 -50 -40 -30 ~ZO -10 ~d io 20
to the left of the zero
Fig. 106
point and +14 to the
right. Counting from the point —63 to +14, we have
the difference, 77.
This may be written +14—( — 63) =+77.
Thus, the difference between two numbers may be
found on the number scale by counting from the subtra¬
hend to the minuend.
Note that here, as in making change, subtracting is
really replaced by counting or adding.
Exercises
Solve the following exercises with the number scale:
1. On two successive clays the average temperatures were

+8° and —2°. Find the difference.
2. The famous ancient mathematician Archimedes was born

287 b.c. and died 212 b.c. Find his age at the time of his death.
3. The longitude of a prominent building in Paris is 2°20/ East,

and that of the City Hall, New York, is 74° West. Find the differ¬
ence in longitude.
4. A ship sails from a position in latitude 8°30' North to lati¬

tude 15°20' South. Through how many degrees of latitude has it
sailed?
88. A simple rule for subtracting numbers. We

have seen that subtraction is the process of finding
the number which added to the subtrahend gives the
minuend, and that we may subtract by counting along
the number scale from the subtrahend to the minuend.
We are now able to find a simpler method, which will
be shown from a study of the following four examples:
1. From +2 subtract +5.

+2 -3
Solution: On the number scale Ov
mark +5 and +2 (Fig. 107). 5
. Fig. 107
From +5 count to +2, i.e.,
count 3 units to the left. Hence, the difference is —3.
Thus,+2— (+5) = — 3
Comparing this with +2 + ( — 5) = —3,
We find that+ 2 —( + 5) = +2+( —5) . . (1)
2. From —2 subtract —5.

Solution: As before mark off —2
+3
■ ii
-2
•
-V-
-—0 and —5 (Fig. 108). Begin at point
-5 — 5 and count to —2, i.e., 3 units
Fig. 108
to the right.
Hence ( — 2) —( — 5) =+3
Comparing this with ( —2) + ( + 5) = +3,
We find that (-2) - (-5) = (-2) + (+5). .(2)
3. From +2 subtract —5.

Solution: Beginning at the
O point —5 (Fig. 109), count 7
+7 units to the right to the point
Fig. 109
+2.
Hence -}-2 — (— 5) — -f-7.
But +2+ (+5) =+7
Therefore +2— ( — 5) = +2+ (+5).(3)
4. From —2 subtract +5.- -2 +5
Solution: Beginning at +5 -2 to
-7
(Fig. 110), count 7 units to the
Fig. 110
left to —2.
This shows that the difference is
Hence -2-(+5) = -7
Since — 2+( — 5) = — 7
It follows that — 2 — ( + 5) = —2+( —5).(4)
Equations (1), (2), (3), and (4) show that in every

case a subtraction problem may be replaced by an ad¬
dition problem which gives the same result, by using
the following rule: To subtract a number, change the
sign of the subtrahend, and add the result to the minu¬
end. The changing of the sign should be done mentally.
Explain why it is possible in algebra to subtract a
number from a smaller one.
Exercises
In Exercises 1 to 13 subtract the lower number from the upper by

using the rule above, doing most of the work orally.
1. +6
-3
Solution: Change —3 mentally to +3, and then add +3 to +6.

The result is +9.
2. +28 5. -11 8. +36 11. -8
-10 +3 + 9 -8
3. -16 6. -13 9. +58 12. -9

-18 - 5 -13 +9
4. + 3 7. -18 10. +5 13. +24

15 + 4 +5 -17
In Exercises 14 to 20 combine similar terms, doing all you can

orally.
14. +8— (3) + ( —6) — (—4) + (+6).
Oral solution: +8 — (3) =5
5+(—6) = —1
-l-(-4)=3
3+6 =9.
15. 3+ (*—6) + (+5) — (+8) — ( — 10).
16. 15a—(— 6a) + (— 12a) + (+8a).
17. ( —7m) +(+15m) — (14m) — ( —6m).
18. — 32a:y+45jy —13xy+33x?/.
19. 12a2 —8a2+9a —6a —13.
20. I8x2y+16xyz — 20x2yJr2xyz.
In Exercises 21 to 24, subtract the terms of the lower polynomial
from the similar terms of the upper:
21. 17a2-6a+3 23. x2+12x-5
8a2—4a —6 -2.t2+ 7x-S
22. 2ab — 55c — 3ac 24. x2+2xy—y2

—4a5+66c —5ac x2-2xy-\-y2
Subtract the lower equation from the upper:

25. 8o:+5y = 44 26. 7x+3y= -36
2x— y= 2 — x+3?/ = 7
27. 2x-3y= 4 29. 9a-26 = 42

2x+5y = 30 6a— 6 = 31
28. 5z+3i/ = 26 30. 8m — 21?? =30

— 5x+3y = —14 6m+35?? = 17
Multipli cation
89. Multiplication of signed numbers by arith¬

metical numbers. If a boy deposits 4 dollars each
month for 3 months he changes his bank account by
3 (+4) dollars, which is an increase of 12 dollars.
Thus, 3(+4) = +12.
If a boy withdraws 4 dollars a month, the account
is changed by 3 ( — 4) dollars, or a decrease of 12
dollars.
Thus, 3( —4) = —12.
If the mercury rises 2° each hour, in 4 hours it changes
4(+2)°, which is a rise of 8°.
Thus, 4( + 2) = +8.
If the mercury falls 2° each hour, in 4 hours it changes
4 ( — 2)°, which is a fall of 8°.
Thus, 4( —2) = — 8.
The examples above show how to determine the sign
when we multiply a positive or negative number by
an arithmetical number. We must next learn how to
multiply a signed number by a negative number. This
will be shown below.
90. How to multiply signed numbers graphically.

The four examples on the next page illustrate the proc¬
ess of multiplying two signed numbers by means of
the number scale.
1. Multiply +2 by +3.
+2 +2 +2
This is interpreted to mean
that +2 is to be laid off three +6
Fig. Ill
times in its own direction (Fig.
111). The result is +6.
Hence (“P3) . m
9 . Multiply —2 by +3.
-2 -2 -2 This means that —2 is to be
30 laid off 3 times in its own di¬
-6
rection (Fig. 112). The result
Fig. 112
is —6.
Hence (+3) ( — 2) = —6.(2)
3. Multiply +2 by —3.
Whatever may be the meaning to be assigned to
( — 3) (+2), it must be in agreement with the laws of
algebra. In particular, it must not violate the law of
order in multiplication. Accordingly we must have
(-3) (+2) = (+2) (-3)
From Example 2 it foliows that the product (+2) (— 3)

is equal to —6. Hence the product ( — 3) (+2) must
also be —6.
The same result will be obtained graphically if we
interpret ( — 3) (+2) to mean that +2 is to belaid off 3
times in the direction opposite to that of the sign of +2.
Thus (-3) (+2) = -6.(3)
4. Multiply -2 by -3.
As in Example 3, the product ( — 3) ( — 2) should
mean that —2 is to be laid off 3 times in the direction
opposite to that of the sign of —2.
Hence ( — 3) ( — 2) =+6 (4)
91. A law for finding the sign of a product. By

examining equations (1), (2), (3), and (4) in §90 we ob¬
tain the following law for multiplying signed numbers:
a. The product of two numbers having like signs
is positive.
b. The product of two numbers having unlike signs
is negative.
Exercises
In performing the multiplications in the following exercises,

determine first the sign, using the laws stated above, and then the
arithmetical product. Do most of the work orally.
1. (-17) (-2).
Solution: The sign is +, the arithmetical product is 34.
Hence (-17) (-2) = +34.
2. 8( —2). 7. —8( —7). 12. 6(+5).
3- (-3) (6). 8. (+6) (4). 13. +8( —3).

4. (-4) (-7). 9. 2(—19). 14. (-15) (13).
5. (+3) (+6). 10. —5(+21). 15. (-6) (-4).
6- ( — 8) (+4). 11. (-3) (-15). 16. (+12) (+8).
17- (|) Tor)

2X 3 __ 1
Solution: (■§■)( — yg-) =
0XKJ 15‘
18. (-t2s) (+-!)• 21. (-4.8) (2.8).
19* (—■§■) (—tit)- 22. (6-3-) (— ~39g)•

20. (+6|-) ( — -§-). 23. (—y^r) ( — '2^1') •
24. (-2) (3) (-4).
Solution: (-2) (3) (-4) =+2X3X4 = 24.
25. —6(—2) (-5). 27. (+10) (-6) (3).
26. (-4) ( + 8) (-3). 28. (8) (-4) (-2).
29. (—3x2) (-2if) (+xy).

Solution: The sign is + .
The arithmetical product is 3X2X1.
The literal product is xhfxy, or x3y4.
Hence ( — 3a;2) ( — 2yz) (xy)=6x3yA.
30. a(-6) (-c). 35. (-5a;) (-3a;) (-76) (-36).

31. —a(26) ( — 3c). 36. (-2) (-fa) (a26) (-f).
32. mn( — 2m2) (3mn). 37. — (2rr) (— 2j/) (3iy).

33. x(-y2) (-2x2y).
38.
34. (4a) ( — 3n) ( — be).
39. — 2(x—3).
Solution: — 2 (x—3) = —■2x+6.
40. —a(a+5). 42. (5y2+3y+2) (-y).

41. —3x (x—y). 43. (3x2-7a;-4) (-6z).
44. (x+3) (a; —5).
Solution: (x+3) (x —5) =x2 —5x+3x —15
=x2 — 2x —15.
45. (a—8) (a—2). 47. (3x — 7y — 7z) (2x—3y+4z).
46. (2x+4) (3a; —5). 48. (2x2+5x-l) (-x2+x-4).
Find the value of each of the following:

49. 3a;3 — 2a;2—x+3 when x = — 2
Solution: 3x3-2x2-x+3 = 3(-2)3-2(-2)2-(-2)+3
= 3( —8) — 2(4)+2+3
= -24-8+5
= -27.
50. x3+5x2+2x — 8 when x= — 3.
51. 2x3 —6x2+3x—4 when x= —-J-.

52. —3x3+2x2 —8x —7 when x= —1.
53. —x3—8x2+2x+3 when x= —A.

Division
92. The law of signs in division. The process of

division is the opposite of multiplication, i.e., to divide
8 by 2 is to determine the number which multiplied by 2
gives 8. Thus, f = 3, because 3X2 = 6.
Applying this meaning of division to signed num¬
bers, we have the following:
+6
=+3, because (+3) ( + 2) =+6
+2
-6
= +3, because (+3) ( — 2) = —6
^2
+6
= — 3, because ( — 3) ( —2) = +6
-2
-6
= —3, because ( — 3) (+2) = —6.
+2
These four examples illustrate the following law of

signs in division:
a. The quotient of two numbers having like signs
is positive.
b. The quotient of two numbers having unlike signs
is negative.
Exercises
In performing the indicated divisions below, determine (1) the

sign, (2) the arithmetical quotient, and (3) the literal quotient:
144m4??6
1. —4m4?!2
36 rr
Solution: — 36?i4.
— A rprfy
21
2. 9. —275-K-25).
-3
3.
+ 10 10. ( — 24) -f- (8).
-5
625
4. 11. (90)4-( — 15).
-25
-34.3
5. 12. ( — 144) -s- ( — 72).
-0.7
6. ( — 90) -7- (+45). 13. (—o)-i-(—a).
7. 8(45)-f-( — 15). 14. (1.21) -r- ( —11).
8. 196( — 14). 15. ( — 2.25) -7- (4.5).
20+ 32-52»72 96 a464

16. 19. 22.
-by' — 52-73 ’ — Qab
—ar2 — 13p+ — 9a:6
17. 20. 23.
+a2r — 26/a ‘ -27a:4'
— a2y — 8m+2 (+2)3i/
18. 21. 24.
LO
r>5
+ay3 (+2)V
-v
1
25. (—M«)-
Solution: (— +i2) -f- (—-f-ya) = (-§-a2) X (-fy-a)
7
tXFSfX 5*
5
26. (-l)-(-f). 28. (-7f^2)^(lli+.
27. (—| a:2//) -s- (-•J-a;y) 29. ( — 3âb) -r- (y|-o26).
Solve the following equations and check each:

30. 6a:+12 = 3a: —3.
Solution: 6a:+12 = 3a:—3.
Subtracting 3a:, 3a:+12 = —3
Subtracting 12, 3a: =—15
Dividing by 3, x=— 5.
Check: Left Side Right Side

6(-5) + 12 3( —5) —3
-30+12 -15-3
-18 = -18.
31. 72 — 16=-100. 34. 18 — 32 = 62+81.
32. -42+8 = 20. 35. 5.2 — 3 = 82+15.
33. 5-22 = 19. 36. 102+20 = 92+16.
.
37 A square is to be changed into a rectangle having the same
area as the square by making one side 12 feet longer and the other
4 feet shorter. What are the dimensions of the rectangle?
Change the following fractions to the simplest form:
18m2n — 27 mn2
38 . -
9 mn
„ , . 18m2n —27ran2 Jbmf(2m — 3n) 0

Solution: -=-=2m—3n.
9 mn Sterrfl
49«63 —35a262 -Sa2y-\-27ay3

39 . 41 .
7 ab2 — Say
— a4b — ah'1 — 5a2 — 4??i3n+12m2n2

40 . 42 .
a2 — 2 m2n
93. What every pupil should be able to do. Having

studied Chapter V, you should be able to do the follow¬
ing:
1. To add, subtract, multiply, and divide signed
numbers with accuracy and a fair degree of speed.
2. To add numbers graphically and by rule.
3. To subtract numbers by changing the sign of
the subtrahend and adding the result to the minuend.
4. To use the laws of signs in multiplying and
dividing.
5. To solve any equation of the form — 3 = 2x — 7,

where any positive or negative number may be taken
as coefficient.
6. To add and subtract polynomials.
7. To multiply polynomials.
94. Typical exercises. The exercises below are

typical of the work of the chapter. Every pupil should
be able to work them.
Perform the following operations and explain each:

1. +6+( — 8). 3. (+3) (+2).
-5+(-2). (+5) (-3).
(-3) (-4).
2. —3— ( — 7).
(-6) (+5).
+5-(+3).
4. State the laws of signs and illustrate each with one example.
Perform the operations indicated below:
5. 15a— ( — 3a) + ( — 5a) — (2a).
6 . 12x2y-}~ ( — 3z) — (6z) — (8x2y).
7. (16a2-3a+5) + (10a2-2a-3).
8. (2xz+3yz — 8xy) — (6xz—4yz+Qxy).
9. (-8) (-5) (-2). 14. (2x2 — 17x)4x.
10. (-2) (-3) (+4). 15. (x2 — 3xy-\-y2) (2xy).
2 \ l 5
11. 16. (2a — b) (a+26).
15X; 8xy,
12. (4a) ( -- 17. (8a — 3y) (a—y).

2m, an,
13. (-625)-*-(-25). 18. (2a2-(-7a —9) (5a —1).
— 8 m4nj)2 4x4 .. 7a 14a2

19. 20 . + (2x2). 21. —^-.
— 26 m2n3p 15 20
In the following exercises first add the upper to the lower, then
subtract the lower from the upper equation:
22. 6x-3y= 14 23. 3x+ y— 1

—3x—2 y= — 8 —4x-\-3y — 7
24. 2z+16 = 4. 25. 19z-4= 12x-18.

CHAPTER VI
SOLVING SIMPLE EQUATIONS AND

PROBLEMS
What You Already Know about Equations
95. The importance of knowing how to solve equa¬

tions. We know from our former work in mathematics
that the equation is a useful tool for solving problems.
Let us recall several examples to illustrate this state¬
ment.
1. A triangle is to be constructed in which the first
angle is to be three times the second, and the third six
times the second.
The principle that the sum of the angles of a triangle
is 180° enables us to express the facts stated in the
problem in the form of the equation 3x-\-x-\-Qx = 180.
By solving the equation we can find the solution of the
problem.
2. If our boat runs 30 miles in 3A hours, how far
shall we travel in 8 hours?
We know that the distance is proportional to the
time. The relation between the distance and time can
be expressed precisely by the equation
30 x
3A = 8‘
The problem is solved by solving the equation.

139
3. John solved twice as many problems as James.

Mary solved three times as many as James. Together
they solved 48 problems. How many problems did each
solve?
In this problem the equation may be used to express
in two different ways the total number of problems
solved, i.e., x+2x+3x and 48. Equating these two
number expressions we have a;+2a;+3a; = 48, which
when solved determines the value of x.
4. In problems of perimeters, areas, and volumes
the formulas lead to equations from which we obtain
the solutions of the problems.
Many other examples could be given to show how val¬
uable the equation is in finding the solution of problems.
96. How equations are solved. Let us review briefly

some simple equations we have learned to solve.
We found the first equations when we studied per¬
imeters in problems of this type: Find the side of
an equilateral hexagon whose perimeter is 120. The
equation is 6a; = 120. This equation is very easily
solved. In fact, we can tell by inspection that x must
be 20. However, let us, in finding the result, call atten¬
tion to the algebraic laws that are used. The solution
in full should then be as follows:
6a; = 120
Dividing both members (sides) of the equation by 6,
we have
frr_120
0 “ 6
Changing the fractions to simplest forms,

a; = 20
SIMPLE EQUATIONS AND PROBLEMS 141
Using this method of solving, determine the unknown

numbers in the following exercises:
Exercises
.
1 1.23y = 532. 6. 1.06n = 530.
2. 7.5 m = 28.2. 7. 3.14d = 785.
3. 3.14d = 4.71. 8. .75n = 18.
4. .25p = 938. 9. .57a; = 24.2.
5. 3.5a: = 70. 10. .231a = 462.
11. Draw two lines (Fig. 113) making one of the adjacent angles
four times as large as the other.
Solution: Show that a;+4a; = 180
Combining similar terms we have
5a; = 180
Dividing both members by 5, 4-X
. ;r = 36 Fig. 113
and 4r = 144.
12. £+3# = 24. 15. 8y—2y = 12.

13. p+.45p = 43.5. 16. lkr-9z = 16.
14. 5a;+2a; = 28> 17. 76+86 = 45.
97. Directions for solving simple equations. We

have learned that in solving an equation like
50 — Qm = n — 20
we must first bring all terms containing the unknown

number n to one side of the equation. This is done by
adding, or subtracting, the same number to both sides
of the equation. In the equation above we may add
6n to both sides, which gives the equation
50 = 7n —20.
The next step is to bring all terms not containing the

unknown number to the other side. Adding 20 to both
sides, we have
70 = In.
Finally, divide both sides by the coefficient of n. The

result is
10 = ft, or ft = 10.
Exercises
Solve the following equations following the directions given in

97:
1. 16 — 9n = 9n — 2.
Solution: 16 — 9 n — 9?i — 2
16 = 18n —2, by adding 9 to both sides
18= 1 Sr, by adding 2 to both sides
1 =n, by dividing both sides by 18
Hence n = 1.
Check:
Left Member Right Member
16-9 9 — 2, by substituting 1 for n in

the original equation.
7 7, by combining terms.
2. 8.2 — 9 = — 2.2+11. 10. 52 — 25 = 3.t — 5.
3. — do = —2a—39. 11. 22+21 = 58-22.
4 . 62 + 40 — 11.2 = 0. 12. 2m— 17+m —34= —54.
5. -126+18 = 66. 13. 2s+3= — s+l+2s —5.
6. 4m—7 = 53—6 m. 14. — 2t/+1 = —4t/+3.
7 . 17 — 8s = 2.s—47. 15. 2 — 64?’= 144+7r.
8. 112—9 = 52+117. 16. 4a—15—a = 35 — 2a.
17.
4^
OO
o
4^
to
CO
9. 9.2+10 = 88+2.2-8.
B
B
II
1
1
Translating Verbal Statements into Symbols
98. How to derive equations from verbal problems.

Since many problems are solved by means of equations,
you must learn (1) how to derive the equation, or equa¬
tions, and (2) how to solve the equations. The second
part no longer offers a serious difficulty because you
have definite directions for solving equations (§97).
For the first, no general directions can be given, but
the following simple suggestions will be helpful as they
apply to all verbal problems. Additional special direc¬
tions, to be given later (§99 to 106), will apply to cer¬
tain types of problems designed to give you practice in
deriving the equation from a problem.
1. Read the problem carefully. The purpose of this
is to get general information as to the content of the
problem.
2. Read the problem again to determine what it asks
for. The number or numbers to be found are the un¬
known numbers.
3. Denote one, or several, of the unknown numbers
by letters. Make a definite statement as to what these
letters stand for. Thus, if the rate of motion is to be
found, write: “Let r be the number of miles per hour,’7
or “the number of yards per minute,” or “the number
of feet per second.” Do not say briefly “Let r be the
rate77 because this statement does not indicate the
unit. Similarly, if the price is called for, write: “Let
n be the number of cents77 or “Let n be the number of
dollars,77 not “Let n be the price.77
4. Read the problem again, one sentence at a time,
and express the various facts it contains in terms of the
unknown literal number, or numbers. For example, if

the first sentence reads “A sum of $5330 is to be divided
into two parts,” the facts are stated as follows:
Let x be the number of dollars in the first part.
Let y be the number of dollars in the second part.
Then x-\-y = 5330.
Note that this equation is obtained by equating two
number expressions x-\-y and 5330 which denote the
same sum.
If only one unknown number is to be used, we should
write:
Let x be the number of dollars in the first part.
Then 5330 — x is the number of dollars in the second
part.
5. When the data of the problem have been trans¬
lated into symbols, state the equation. The following
suggestions will usually help you to state the equation.
a. Translate the verbal problem into symbols. For
example, the statement: “A number diminished by 20
is equal to 50 decreased by 6 times the number,” when
translated into symbols, gives the equation
n — 20 = 50 — 6/i.
The equation is simply an abbreviated form of the

verbal statement.
b. State a formula, or a principle, relating the facts
given in the problem. To illustrate, let x, 2x, and 3x
denote the number of degrees in the angles of a triangle.
The principle that the sum of the angles of any tri¬
angle is 180° gives the equation
x+2x+3x = 180.
c. Equate two number expressions denoting the

same fact. Thus, if two trains traveling at different
rates are equally distant from the station from which
they started, and if they have traveled, respectively,
5a; and 8 (a; —6) miles, the equation is
8 (a; —6) =5a\
It states that both trains are the same number of miles
from the station.
Exercises
Translate the following statements into algebraic symbols:

1. A number decreased by 85 is equal to 99.
2. Four times a number decreased by 2 is equal to 3 times the
number increased by 6.
3. Five times a number diminished by the number is 10 greater
than 2 times the number.
.
4 Four times a number decreased by 3 exceeds 2 times the
number by 15.
.
5 One-third of a number increased by 8 is equal to 38 dimin¬
ished by 3 times the number.
6. One-fourth of a number added to one-fifth of the number
is one less than one-half of the number.
7. The base of a triangle exceeds the altitude by 4 inches.
In Exercises 8 to 11 find the equations from a general principle, or
a formula. Do not solve the equations.
8. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 10 feet and one of the
sides is 3 feet longer than the other.
.
9 A tree was broken
over so that the top
touched the ground 40
feet from the foot of the
stump. The stump was
12 feet high. Find the
height of the tree.
10. One angle of a triangle is 5° greater than 5 times another,

and the third angle is 20°.
11. A bird flies a distance of 90 miles in 2\ hours. Find the rate.
In Exercises 12 to 15 state the equation by equating two expres¬

sions denoting the same number:
x x
12. A man rows downstream - hours and returns in - hours,
o 3
using 9 hours for the complete trip.
.
13 A merchant lost $350 in an investment. His loss was 9 per
cent of the amount invested.
.
14 The sides of a rectangular field are x and 2x rods. By making
the rectangle 20 rods longer and 24 rods wider the area is doubled.
.
15 A freight train traveling x miles an hour is overtaken l-§-
liours after it started by an express train which left the station one
hour later than the freight train and which travels 40 miles an hour.
Practice Problems in Deriving and Solving

Equations
99 . Perimeter problems. The perimeter of a polygon

is the sum of the lengths of the sides. In each of the
following problems express all unknown numbers in
terms of one letter, derive the equation, and solve.
Exercises
1. To inclose a playground 200 rods of wire fencing are avail¬

able. If the length is to be lU times as great as the width, find the
dimensions.
Solution: Let w be the number of rods in the width (Fig. 114).
3w
Then is the number of rods in the length.
3w
and — -\-w is the half-perimeter.
Hence — 100, by equating two numbers expressing the
half-perimeter.
3w
21 +2u' = 2X100; by multiplying each term by 2.
5w = 200
ic = 40
3w
and — = 60.
2 Fig. 114
2. A triangular piece of ground is to be laid off with one side

twice as long as the second, and the third side 3 times as long as the
second. What must be the lengths of the sides, if the perimeter is
to be 72 rods?
.
3 Find the lengths of the sides of an isosceles triangle (having 2
equal sides) whose base is to be 60 feet, and whose perimeter is to be
240 feet.
.
4 The length of a rectangular field is 3 times the width. The
perimeter is 264 feet. Find the dimensions.
.
5 The width of a rectangle is to the length as 3 is to 5. The
difference between the length and width is 8 feet. Find the dimen¬
sions.
Suggestion: Let 3.r be the number of feet in one side.
Then 5x is the number of feet in the other side.
6. The length of a rectangle exceeds the width by 14 feet. If
the perimeter is 240 feet, determine the dimensions.
.
7 The perimeter of a rectangle is 184 feet and the width is 8
feet less than the length. Find the dimensions.
8. A rectangle is 4 feet longer than twice the width. Find the
dimensions if the perimeter is 13^- feet.
.
9 A rectangle is 8 feet longer than twice the width. If the
perimeter is 232 feet what are the dimensions?
10. A rug is 2 feet longer than it is wide. The sum of the length
and width is 14 feet. Find the dimensions.
100. Problems stating number relations. The fol¬

lowing exercises should be worked with one unknown
number:
Exercises
1. A man left $18,500 to his wife and son. The mother was to
receive three times as much money as the son. How should the
money be divided?
2. A man owns a lot and has saved $6000 with which to build a
home. He can borrow from a bank an amount of money equal to
one-third of the cost of the house. What is the largest amount of
money he can spend on the house?
.
3 Three men plan to buy a business costing $8600. One has
$1700. The remainder is to be furnished by the others so that one
pays twice as much as the other. How much money does each
furnish?
4 . Find two numbers whose sum is 23 and whose difference is 5.
5.
Find two parts of 90 so that one part exceeds one-half the
other by 20.
6. Find two parts of 240 so that twice the larger part exceeds 5
times the smaller by 11.
7. Find two numbers whose difference is 36, if one is 3 times as
large as the other.
8. A man has $320 to spend for repairs on his house. The
materials needed cost $50. How much per day will a carpenter be
able to earn, if it takes him and his helper 15 days to do the work
and if he is to earn 4 times as much as the helper?
101. Age problems. The following exercises should

be worked with one unknown number:
Exercises
1. If a boy’s age is 13 years, how old will he be in 3 years?

In five years? In x years? How old was he 4 years ago? y years
ago?
2. If a man’s age is x years, how old was he 8 years ago? How

old will he be in 5 years?
3. A is twice as old as B, but 7 years ago A was 3 times as old

as B. Find the present age of each.
4. A father is twice as old as his son. Ten years ago he was 3

times as old as the son. What is the present age of each?
5. Eight years ago A was 6 times as old as B. Seven years

from now A will be 3 times as old as B. Find the present ages.
102. Motion problems. Uniform motion depends

upon distance, time, and rate. If an automobile
travels 20 miles in one hour, it is said to travel at the
rate of 20 miles per hour. Rate is sometimes called
speed, or velocity, and means a distance passed over
in a unit of time.
Exercises
1. Find the distance passed over by an object moving at a uni¬

form rate and in a given time.
The numerical facts may be conveniently arranged as in the table
below:
20 mi. 18 ft. 3 yd. 25 mi. r mi.

Rate.
an hr. a sec. a min. an hr. an hr.
Time. 4 hr. 2-q- sec. 18^- min. 24 hr. t hr.

Distance.
2. In the table below determine the rates, having given the

time and distance:
Time. 3 hr. 1^- hr.

A
4 hr. 2 sec. t hr.
Distance. 10 mi. 26 mi. 15 mi. 90 ft. d mi.

Rate.
3. In the table below find the time, having given the distance
and rate:
Distance. 258 mi. 20 yd. 58 mi. 16 ft. d ft.
30 mi. 3 yd. 40 mi. 6 ft. r ft.

Rate.
an hr. a sec. an hr. a sec. a sec.
Time.
4. A carrier pigeon flew 70 miles in 1^ hours. How fast did it

travel?
.
5 The sound of a stroke of lightning was heard 8 seconds after
the flash was seen. How far away was the stroke if sound travels
at a rate of 1080 feet a second?
6. Two stations are 32 miles apart. Two trains leaving the

stations at the same time travel toward each other at the rate of
30 and 50 miles an hour respectively. How soon after starting will
they meet?
Solution: Instead of writing out in full the given facts of the
problem we may arrange them briefly in the form of a table as
shown below. The distances are derived from the given rates and
the unknown time.
First Train Second Train
Time in hours. X X
Rates in miles per hour. 30 50

CO
o
Distances in miles. 50.r
The equation is obtained by stating the fact that the stations are
32 miles apart (Fig. 115).
30x 50x
Thus 30x+50x = 32
80x = 32 32 miles
'
x=A Fig. 115

7. Two men starting from the same place travel in opposite

directions, one going twice as fast as the other. In 5 hours they are
300 miles apart. Find the rate of travel of each.
Suggestion: Arrange in the form of a table the given time, the
unknown rates, and the distances derived from them.
8. Two men living 96 miles apart travel toward each other at
rates of 18 miles and 20 miles an hour. If A leaves home an hour
earlier than B, when will they meet?
Solution: Verify the following table:
A B
Time in hours. X x—l

Rates in miles per hour. 18 20
Distances in mdes. 18x 20(x-l)
State the equation and solve.

9. A train traveling at the rate of 30 miles an hour is followed
by a second train traveling 35 miles an hour. If the second train
leaves a station 3 hours later than the first, in how many hours will
it overtake the first?
10. A freight train leaves a station and travels at a rate of 32
miles an hour. An hour later it is followed by an express train
traveling 60 miles an hour. When and how far from the station will
the express train pass the freight train?
11. A train leaves Buffalo for New York and travels at a rate of
30 miles per hour. Three hours later another train follows, making
50 miles an hour. When and how far from Buffalo will the second
train overtake the first?
103. Mixture problems. By a “5 per cent solution”

of water and salt is meant a mixture 5 per cent of which
is salt. The following exercises show how to determine
the amount of liquid needed to reduce a mixture to a
desired solution:
Exercises
1. A druggist wishes to dilute a 25 per cent mixture of water

and listerine to a 15 per cent mixture. How much water must be
added to 8 ounces?
Solution: Tabulate the facts as follows:
25% Mixture 15% Mixture
Number of ounces in mixtures. 8 8+x

Number of per cent of listerine. 25 15
25X8 . 15(8+3?)
Number of ounces of listerine.
100 100
15(8+3?) 25X8
Show that the equation is
100 100
Multiply both members of the
equation by 100.
Solve the resulting equation.
2. How much water must be
added to 8 gallons of milk containing
5 per cent butter fat to change it to
test 4 per cent butter fat?
3. How much water must be added to a quart of a 20 per cent
solution of ammonia to reduce it to a 10 per cent solution?
4. How much water must be added to 12 gallons of milk testing
5^- per cent butter fat to change it to a mixture testing 4 per cent
butter fat?
.
5 A druggist wishes to reduce 12 ounces of medicine containing
25 per cent alcohol to one containing 20 per cent alcohol. How
much water must he add?
104. Equations containing parentheses. In solving

the equations below consider carefully the operations
indicated. Then decide upon the correct order in
which to perform these operations.
Exercises

1. £ — 2(3—4*) = 12.
Solution: The parentheses in this equation indicate that 3 — 4* is
to be multiplied by —2.
Hence £ — 6+8* = 12
9* —6 = 12
£ = 2.
2. 6a—3(3a —1) —1 = 0. 5. 3a-2(a+5) =6a-20.
3. 2(£-l)=3£-6(2£+3). 6. 3(a-2) + 15 = 5a-3.
4. 2y—2(6y —17) =3(2y—6). 7 . 8(3-2?/)-2(5-?/) =28.
105. Interest problems. The interest formula is

pvt
i = —, where p is the sum invested, r the number of per
cent, and t the number of years. The percentage for-

vb
mula is p = where the number b denotes base, and p
percentage. Using these formulas solve the following

problems:
Exercises
1. At what rate will $8000 yield an interest of $910 in one year

and nine months?
Solution: The table below states the facts of Exercise 1.
Principal . 8000
Number of per cent. . . . £
1.3
Time. 14
S000X£Xlx
Interest.
100
SOOOXzXlf
Show that
100
Solve the equation.
2. In how long a time will the interest on $600 at 6 per cent

amount to $48?
3. Find the rate at which $3645 gives $340.20 interest in one
year and four months.
4. A boy’s parents plan to invest a sum of money at 6 per cent
interest to yield an income large enough to cover his expenses at
college. How large must this sum be if his expenses average $100 a
month for nine months?
.
5 What sum invested at 5 per cent will amount to $5500 in one
year and 10 months?
6. An amount of money invested at 5 per cent yields in one
year an income $300 less than twice as large a sum invested at 4 per
cent. Find the amount invested at each rate.
Solution: Verify the following table:
First Sum Second Sum
Principal. X 2x
Number of per cent. 5 4
5x Sx
Interest .
100 100
Show that -^- = -^— — 300.

100 100
Multiply each term by 100, reduce, and solve the resulting
equation.
.
7 A man has a yearly income of $54 from an investment of
$1000. If one part of the investment yields 6 per cent and the re¬
mainder 5 per cent, find the amount invested at each rate.
Suggestion: Let x be the sum invested at 6 per cent. Then
1000—x is the sum invested at 5 per cent.
8. A man invests part of $10,000 at 6 per cent interest and the

remainder at 5 per cent. The total yearly income is $570. Find the
amount invested at each rate.
.
9 A man invests two sums at 5 per cent and at 4 per cent
respectively. From this investment he has a yearly income of
$500. If the total sum invested amounts to $12,000, how much is
invested at each rate?
10. A sum of $1400 is divided into two parts. The total annual
income is $70, if one part is invested at 5 per cent and the other at
6 per cent. Find the two parts.
11. A sum of $1200 is divided into two parts. The first part,
invested at 5%, yields an income $39.10 greater than that of the
second part, invested at 4.5%. How much money is invested at
each rate?
106. Work problems. To determine the amount of

work done within a given time, we must know the
amount done in the unit of time, as a day, an hour, or
a minute. Thus, if a machine does a complete piece of
work in four hours, it does one-fourth of it in one hour.
From this it is possible to find the amount done in any
given number of hours. This principle may be used in
the solution of the following exercises.
Exercises
1. A machine
can print the issue
of a paper in two
hours, and another
machine can do it
in three hours. In
how many hours
can an edition be
printed with both
machines?
Solution: The ffacts involved in this problem are tabulated as
follows:
First Second
Machine Machine
Number of hours it takes to do all the
work. 2 3
1 l
The amount done in one hour. 2 3
X X
The amount done in x hours.
2 3
Denoting the whole piece of work done by 1, show that
2+3_1
In solving this equation, multiply first every term by the least
common denominator 6.
2. If a man can plow a field in 10 days, and another man can
do it in 8 days, how long will it take them if they work together?
3. A carpenter can build a fence in 6 days, and his apprentice
can do it in 10 days. In how many days can they do it together?
4. A can do a piece of work in 8 days and B can do it in 12
days. In how many days can they do it together?
5. One pipe can fill a tank in 11 hours. Another can fill it in
3 hours. How long will it take both to fill it?
107. How to solve fractional equations. When some

or all of the terms in an equation are fractions, the solu¬
tion is usually simplified by multiplying every term
of the equation by the least common multiple of the
denominators.
Exercises
Solve the following equations and problems:
1. x~)— = 60.
3
X
Solution: xH— = 60.
3
SOLVING EQUATIONS AND PROBLEMS 157
Multiplying each term by 3, 3x+a; = 180

Combining terms, 4x = 180
Dividing by 4, x = 45
Check: Left Member Right Member
' 45+— 60
3
45+15 60
60 60
2. x-— =21 4. —b# = 96.

50 2
3. a — -= 27. 5. 2x-8=—.
2 3
6. -+- = 35.
2 5
Solution: -+-=35.
2 5
Multiplying by 10, 5x+2x = 350

Dividing by 7, z = 50
„ xx n
7. -+- = 21. 9. —— = 3.
3 4 4 8
x x
8. - = 9+-. 10. —-=
3 6 3 10
ii
4x 3x
11.-= 50.
5 10
Solution: — — — = 50
5 10
Multiplying by 10, 8x —3x = 500

Dividing by 5, x = 100.
3x x 2Qy by
12 . -=x — 3. 13. = 67.
4 8 3 ' 2
2m 3 m 3 m 2m 3m
14.-h— =23. 15.--=3o-.
3 4 5
3 ci -(- 68
16. The angles 2 (a + 10) and ——— are supplementary. Find
each angle.
17. Two opposite angles formed by two intersecting lines are
denoted by and 18-j--. Find b and the angles.

"36 4
XX
18. The acute angles of a right triangle are x-\— and— -F17tt.
8 12
Find x and each angle.
19. One angle of a triangle is 15° larger than the second. The
third angle is one-sixth as large as the second. Find each angle.
2.r+3 x—2 7
20. —-= -•
5 3 5
3 5 3
C , >5"(2*+3) y5(x-2) }S(7)
solution:-----= —-—
$ t i
6a; T9 — ox T10 — 21.
Note especially that the sign of the fourth term is T- It is a very

common error to overlook the fact that both terms in the number
(x — 2) are multiplied by —5. The product is — 5.rT10 and not
— 5x —10.
3a; — 2 1 —4a* aT13 6—3 a
21. — —-= S-2 T- 24.
7 3 13 65
22. i(5y-3)+i(5y-2) = 5.
3v 1 — 2x_x+n 3.r — 6
23. --J-(xT6)=^ 25.
31 62 o
12T y 12T2 y
26. -=-.
2V 3y
Suggestion: Multiply both members by 6y.
x 3x
27.
£+1 x+2
Solution: The least common multiple of the denominators is
($+1) (x+2).
Hence,('r+2)'*'= ('r+1) ix*T>Zx- {x+l) (x+2)2

_x+T .X+-2"
x2+2x = 3x2+3x — 2x2 — 6x—4.
x+3_x+5
28. 30.
3—x 1+x x—2 x—4
x+1 x
29. 31. = -l.
x—4 x—3 x+6 2(x+6)

do. This chapter summarizes previous discussions re¬
lating to the solution of verbal problems. You should
now be able to do the following:
1. To translate numerical facts stated in words
into arithmetical and algebraic symbols.
2. To derive the equation which when solved gives
the answers called for by the problems.
3. To solve equations in one unknown of the form
42 — 3x = 4(8 — 9x.
4. To solve equations containing parentheses, as
3a —2(a+5) = 6a —20.
5. To solve fractional equations which reduce to
equations of the first degree.
109. Typical problems and exercises. The following

exercises are of the types that you should be able to
solve. Work them and others of similar types if you
need the practice.
1. Solve for a and check: 4n —15—a = 35 — 2a.

2. Solve for y: 8(3 — 2y) — 2(5—y) =28.
a+13 6 — 3a
3. Solve for a:
"13 65~
4. Select one typical problem out of each of the following sets
and solve: §§ 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106.
5. Prepare a paper or a brief talk on one of the following
topics. Select examples to illustrate your discussion.
a. How to derive equations from verbal problems.
b. How to solve simple equations containing one unknown
number.
c. How to solve fractional equations.
CHAPTER VII
PROBLEMS LEADING TO SIMPLE EQUATIONS

IN TWO UNKNOWNS
Graphical Solution
110. Problems containing several unknowns. The

problem: “If one angle of a triangle is twice as large
as the second, and the third is three times the second,
find the angles,” calls for three unknown angles. Ex¬
pressed in terms of one letter they are 2x, x, and 3x.
They may be found by solving the equation
2x-\-x-\-3x = 180.
Frequently problems call for several unknown
numbers. In all previous work, when we solved prob¬
lems containing several unknowns, we denoted one of
them by a letter and expressed the others in terms of
that letter. Sometimes the task of expressing all un¬
knowns in terms of one letter is not simple, and it
saves time and effort to solve the problem by using
several letters,
each denoting
one of the un¬
known num¬
bers, as will
be shown in
the problem
following.
161
Two boys were making purchases for a picnic. One

bought 60 cents worth of oranges and apples, the other
bought 50 cents worth. The first received 6 oranges
and 10 apples, the other received 7 oranges and 5 apples
of the same kind as the first. Later they found that
they needed to buy more fruit, and thereupon wished to
know the price of one orange and of one apple. They
worked the problem as follows:
Solution: Let x be the number of cents paid for an
orange.
Let y be the number of cents paid for an
apple.
Then 6x+10y = 60
and 7x + 5y = 50
Thus the problem led to two equations containing

two unknown numbers. To find the answer, the bovs
had to know how to solve this pair of equations.
In this chapter we shall learn several methods of
solving such pairs of equations. One is called a graphi¬
cal solution because graphs are used, the other is called
an algebraic solution, because the values of the un¬
knowns are found by means of algebraic processes.
111. How to use graphs in solving a pair of equa¬

tions. If in the equation 7x + 5?/ = 50 we assign to x a
value, as x = 2, the equation takes the form
7*2+5?/= 50.
From this we have
14+5?/= 50
5?/ = 36
y = 7.2
EQUATIONS IN TWO UNKNOWNS 163
The number pair (2, 7.2) satisfies the equation, for
(7) (2) + (5) (7.2) = 14+36 = 50
For this reason the pair of numbers (x, y) = (2, 7.2)

is called a solution of the equation 7:r+52/ = 50.
Similarly, other solutions may be found by assigning
other values to x:
If £ = 0, then (7) (0)+52/ = 50

0+52/ = 50
'•V = 10
If x=l, then (7)(1)+5// = 50
52/= 43
:.y = 8.6
If x = 3, then (7) (3)+52/= 50
52/ = 29
.‘•2/= 5.8.
In a similar way verify the correctness of the other

pairs of values tabulated in Table 2 (Fig. 116).
Note that the equation has an unlimited number of
solutions.
The number pairs in table (2) may be represented
graphically as follows:
Draw two reference axes, OX and OY (Fig. 116).
Values of x are laid off on the rc-axis and values of y are
laid off at right angles to the x-axis. Thus, to plot the
pair (2, 7.2) pass from 0 two units to the right and
then 7.2 units upward, locating point A. When all
number pairs given in the table have been plotted as
points, draw the line AB passing through these points.
This line is said to be the graph of the equation
7x+52/ = 50.
Verify the following two characteristics of this line:

1. A solution of the equation, when plotted, locates
a point on the line.
Fig. 116
2. Any point on the line determines a pair of num¬

bers satisfying the equation.
For example, for the point B we have x= 10 and y= — 4.
Substituting in the equation, we have
(7) (10) + (5) (- 4) = 70 - 20 *= 50,
which shows that the equation is satisfied.
Because the graph is a straight line, equations like

7x+5?/ = 50 are called linear equations. A pair of such
equations is called a system of equations.
Verify table (1), which gives solutions of the equa¬
tion 6x+10?/ = 60.
Plot the points and make the graph of the equation.
The two straight lines intersect at C. To this point
corresponds the pair (x, y) = (5, 3).
Since a pair of numbers corresponding to a point on
a graph is a solution of the equation represented by the
graph, it follows that the pair which corresponds to the
point of intersection of two graphs is a solution of both
equations.
Therefore the solution of the equations is the num¬
ber pair (x, y) = (5, 3).
This is also the solution of the original problem.
Hence, the price of an orange was 5 cents, and the
price of an apple was 3 cents.
112. Summary of the steps in the graphical solution of

a system of equations. Let Qx+1 Oy = 60 and 7x+by = 50
be the system of equations to be solved. The following
is a summary of the steps in the process of solving:
1. Assume values of x and find the corresponding
values of y. Since the lines are straight lines, two or
three points are sufficient to determine the line. For
convenience, always
First let x = 0. Then (6) (0) + 10?/ = 60, and y = 6
Next, let y — 0. Then 6x+ (10) (0) = 60 and x = 10.
Finally, choose a third value for x not too near the other
two values, as £ = 4. Then 24 +10?/= 60 and y = 3.6.
Similarly for the second equation,

Let x = 0. Then y = 10.
Let y = 0. Then £ = 7.1.
Let £ = 3. Then y = 5.8.
2. Tabulate the number pairs, as in tables (1) and
(2) (Fig. 116).
3. Draw the axes, select a convenient unit, and plot
the number pairs given in the tables.
Fig. 117
4. Draw the graphs and locate the point of intersec¬

tion C.
5. Starting from 0 and passmg along the x-axis,
count the number of units to the foot of the perpendicular
from C to the x-axis. This is the required value of x.
Count the number of units contained in the perperidicu-

lar. This is the required value of y.
6. The pair of numbers (x, y) = (5, 3) thus de¬
termined is the required solution.
The written work may be conveniently arranged as
in Fig. 117.
Exercises
Solve the following equations graphically:

1. x—y = 4 5. x + y = C)
x+y= IS.' Sx — 2 y — — 2.
2. y=6 6. 2x+3t/ = 4
2x—3y = 2. 5x — 2y= —9.
3. :r-|- y = 5 7. 3x — 2y=—l
2x—5 y= —11. • ■ 2x-\- y = 11.
4. 6;r — 5y = 15 8. 3x — 2y = 8
3x+2y = 21. 4.r — 3 y— 10.
Algebraic Solution of Equations in Two

Unknowns
113. How to solve a pair of equations by alge¬

braic methods. The graphical method explained in
§§111, 112 has several disadvantages. The process
is long, and it is difficult to determine accurate so¬
lutions when the unknown numbers are not whole
numbers. The algebraic method avoids both of these
difficulties.
Let it be required to solve the system
bx-\-2y = 34
lx — ?>y = 7
Multiply all terms of the first equation by 7 and of the

second by 5. Then
we have 7 5x-\-2y = 34
and 5 7x — 3y= 7
or 35x+14?/ = 238
and 35x —15y= 35
By subtracting the last equation from the one above we

eliminate (remove) x. This gives
29y=203
• • y = t.
Instead of eliminating x, we might have eliminated y
by multiplying the first equation by 3, the second by 2,
and adding the resulting equations.
Having determined the value of one unknown (x, or
y), we may substitute it in one of the given equations.
Thus, when y = 7, the first equation changes to
5x+2-7 = 34
5^+14 = 34
x = 4.
Hence the solution is (x, y) = (4, 7).
The check consists in verifying both of the given equa¬
tions.
5X4 + 2X7 34
20 + 14 34
34 34
7X4 —
3X7 7
28 — 21 7
7 7
Exercises
Solve the following systems algebraically:

1. 3x — 7 y = 40 11. .r+3y = 7
Ax -3 y = 9 x-2 y = 2
2. 9 a -46 = 3 12. x+2 y = 4
7 a-+26 = 33 3x — 2 y -= 2
3. 3x -2 y= 8 13. 3x — 2y = -l
4x -3 y = 10 2x-\- y= 11
4. 2x —3y = -11
14. .r+4 y = 4
5x -2 y = 6
x — 2 y =: 16
5. 3 a -136 == 41
15. x = 2y
8a+116 == 18
3 x—y = 15
6. 13x+3y = 14
7x — 2y = 22 Suggestion: Eliminate x by
substituting 2y for a: in the sec¬
7. 5a+26 = 36
ond equation.
2a+36 = 43
8. 2.r+3r/ = 27 16. 3x = y
5x — 2y — l lox —4y = 27
9. 3m+2n = 23 17. 5x = 36 — 2?/

2m+3n = 27 2x+3y —43 = 0
10. x+y =12 18. 2x+6y —28 = 0

x—?/ =4 2.r — y — 7 = 0
114. Problems leading to equations in two un¬

knowns. The following problems lead to two equa¬
tions in two unknowns. Solve them by the algebraic
method.
Exercises
1. Two pencils and 3 tablets cost 24 cents. Three pencils and

5 tablets cost 39 cents. Find the cost of each.
2. A boy bought 8 apples and 6 oranges for 98 cents. His sister
paid 82 cents for enough to make a dozen of each. What was the
price of one orange and of one apple?
3. Walnuts selling at 35 cents a pound are to be mixed with

other nuts selling at 25 cents so that a mixture of 8 pounds can be
sold for $2.20. How many pounds of each are to be used?
4. A grocer wishes to mix 5 pounds of coffee, worth 39 cents
per pound, by mixing two other grades, one worth 48 cents and the
other 36 cents per pound. How
much of each must he use?
5. Tea selling at 40 cents
a pound is to be mixed with a
grade selling at 60 cents a
pound. How many pounds of
each must be used to make 60
pounds selling at 54 cents a
pound?
6. A boy can row 5 miles
downstream in 1 hour and re¬
turn in if- hours. What is his rate of rowing in still water, and
what is the rate of the current?
Suggestion : Let x be the rate of rowing in still water, and y the
rate of the current.
Then x-\-y is the rate going downstream, and x—y is the rate
returning.
7. A man rows 10 miles downstream in 2 hours. Find the rate
of the current and the rate of rowing in still wa-ter if it takes him 2
hours and 30 minutes to return.
Solution:
Going Down Returning

Distance. 10 10
Time . 2
10
Rate. 5
V-=-
Z2
x-\-y = 5
and £ — ?/ = Q“•
° 1
Solve this system of equations.

8. In 50 minutes a man rows 50 miles downstream and in 1

hour and 30 minutes 12 miles upstream. Find the rate of the cur¬
rent and how fast he can row in still water.
9. The larger of two numbers is 17 greater than 4 times the
smaller, and twice the larger number is 48 greater than 7 times the
smaller. Find the two numbers.
10. The sum of $6000 is to be divided among three partners so
that the first receives twice as much as the second, and the third as
much as the first two together. How much does each receive?
11. A grocer wishes to make a 5-pound mixture of coffee selling
for $2.20 from two kinds of coffee, one selling at 40 and the other
at 50 cents a pound. How much of each kind must he use?
Solution: The unknown and the given facts of this problem are
as follows:
Let x be the number of pounds in the 40 cent mixture
Let y be the number of pounds in the 50 cent mixture
5 is the number of pounds in the required mixture
40 is the price per pound of the first mixture
and 50 is the price per pound of the second mixture
220 is the total price of the required mixture
40x is the total price of the first mixture
and 50y is the total price of the second mixture.
To avoid repetition and to make the facts of the problem stand
out clearly, it is convenient to arrange them in tabular form as
follows:
40c 50c Required

Mixture Mixture Mixture
Number of pounds. x y 5
Price per pound. 40 50
Total price. 40x 50?/ 220
Show that the equations are:

x-\-y = 5, expressing the number of pounds in the required mixture.
40x+50?/ = 220, expressing the total price of the required mixture.
Solve this system of equations.
12. A grocer wishes to make a mixture from two kinds of coffee,

one selling for 35 cents a pound and the other for 25 cents a pound.
The mixture is to contain twice as much of the first coffee as of
the second and is to sell for $9.50. How much of each is to be
used?
13. A farmer has two qualities of milk, one 3% and the other
5%. How much of each shall he use to make 10 gallons of 4.5%
milk?
14. A farmer wants to send an order for 48 bags of cement to a

wholesale house and is puzzled to know how much money he must
enclose. He has no catalog but his son remembers that in making a
cement walk costing $26 they had used 8 bags of cement and 2
cubic yards of sand, and in making a reservoir for water they had
used 24 bags of cement and 5 cubic yards of sand at a total cost of
$73. Can you determine how much money to send?
15. A man invests two sums at 5 per cent and at 4 per cent
respectively, and from this investment he has a yearly income of
$500. If the total sum invested amounted to $12,000, how much
did he invest at each rate?
16. A man invests part of $10,000 at 6 per cent interest and the
remainder at 5 per cent. The total yearly income is $570. Find
the amount invested at each rate.
17. A man has a yearly income of $54 from an investment of

$1000. If one part of the investment yields 6 per cent and the
remainder 5 per cent, find the amount invested at each rate.

do. It is expected that at the end of Chapter VII you
should be able to do the following:
1. To translate the facts contained in verbal prob¬
lems into algebraic symbols.
2. To derive the equation, or equations, from which
the solution may be obtained.
3. To solve a pair of simple equations in two un¬

knowns.
a. By the graphical method.
b. By eliminating one of the unknowns.
116. Typical problems and exercises. Every pupil

should be able to solve the following equations and
problems:
1. Using the method of §112, solve graphically the system:
3x* — 2y = — 1
2x+ y = 11.
2. Solve by eliminating x:
3x — 7 y = 40
4x — Sy = 9.
3. Solve by eliminating y:
13a*+3?/ = 14
7x-2y = 22.
4. Eliminate y by substitution:
Sx =y
15x —4y = 27
5. Select at random from pages 169 to 172 one problem in
each of the following sets and solve it:
1 to 5; 6 to 8; 9 to 13; 14 to 17.
6. Prepare a talk or write a paper on one of the following

topics:
a. How to solve a pair of equations graphically.
b. How to solve a pair of equations algebraically.
c. How to solve verbal problems.
CHAPTER VIII
PROBLEMS LEADING TO QUADRATIC

EQUATIONS
What We Have Previously Learned about

Quadratic Equations
117. Quadratic equations were found in studying

areas and volumes. Our first quadratic equation
appeared in §22 in the following problem: “A field of
the form of a square has an area of 100 square rods.
Find the length of the side.” The equation for solving
the problem is a2 = 100. The method of solving is to
extract the square root of both members, which gives
a = 10.
A similar equation occurred in studying the area of a
circle. We have seen that the area of a circle is found
from the formula A = ttr2. To find the radius when the
area is 164 we have to solve the quadratic equation
7rr2 = 164.
Solution: irr2 = 164
Dividing both members by the coefficient of r2, we have
, 164
T~ =-
7T
Taking the square root of both members,
174
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS. PROBLEMS 175
To complete the solution, use 7r = 3.142, find the

quotient 164 to three figures, and extract the square
root.
The following exercises give practice in solving prob¬
lems which lead to equations similar to those explained
above.
Exercises
1. Find the radius of a circle whose area is 37.5 square inches.
2. We learn in science that the number of feet, s, through

which an object falls in t seconds is given by the formula s — ^gt2,
where $ = 32.16 approximately. How long will it take a stone to fall
850 feet?
3. The volume of a cylinder is 24 cubic inches. The altitude is

6 inches. Find the height.
4. The area of the surface of a sphere is 28 square inches. Find

the radius.

5. a:2 = 25. 7. 2x2-30 = 0.
6. x2-121=0. 8. 6a2 -72 = 0.
9. Solve the equation s = ^gt2 for t.

Solution: s — \gt2.
Dividing both members of the equation by the coefficient of t2,

we have
<7
Taking the square root, we have
10. Using the result of Exercise 9 as a formula, find t when s = 8;

24; 16; 48.
11. The area of an equilateral triangle is given by the formula
where a is the length of the side. Find the side of an
equilateral triangle whose area is 620 square feet.

Q|2
12. Solve the equation A = — 3 for a, using the method ex-
plained in Exercise 9.
13. The volume of a right circular cylinder is given by the for¬
mula V = irr-h. Solve the equation for r.
14. The area of the surface of a sphere is found from the formula
S = 4?rr2. Solve the equation for r.
mv2
15. Solve the equation / = — for v.
r
118. The relation between the sides of the right

triangle. The following problem shows how we use
the quadratic equation when it
is required to find a side of a
right triangle having given the
other two sides.
The dimensions of a room are
12 feet and 9 feet. How far
IZ
apart are two diagonally oppo¬
Fig. 118
site corners?
Solution: Let d be the number of feet in the diagonal
(Fig. 118).
Then by the theorem of Pythagoras we have
d2 = 92+122 = 81 +144 = 225
.*. d2 = 225
:.d =15.
Exercises
1. One side of a right triangle is 18 inches and the hypotenuse

is 30 inches long. Find the length of the remaining side.
2. If the equal sides of an isosceles triangle are 60 inches and
the altitude 36 inches, find the base.
Suggestion: Draw the altitude dividing the given triangle into
two right triangles. Use the theorem of Pythagoras with the sides
of one of the right triangles.
Graphical Solution of Quadratic Equations
119. Equation of motion of an object thrown ver¬

tically upward. When a ball is thrown upward, its
velocity decreases. It becomes zero when the greatest
height is reached. Then, as the ball drops back,
the velocity increases. The greatest height
reached by a ball thrown upward depends upon
the velocity with which the ball is thrown.
Experiments in science have shown that the
ball rises and falls according to a law which can
be expressed mathematically. If we denote by
v the velocity with which the ball is thrown,
and by t the number of seconds in which it
reaches a height d, then d can be found from
qt%
the formula d = vt-
2
The number g is approximately 32.16. It
denotes the velocity acquired by an object
falling unresisted for one second under the action of
gravity.
The equation shows that the height d depends on
the time t and the initial velocity v. If we substitute
for g the value 32.16, the equation changes to the form:

d = vt —16.08£2. The equation may be used (1) to de¬
termine the height d for a given value of t, and (2) to
find the time t in which the ball rises to any given
height d.
Suppose a ball is thrown vertically upward with a
velocity of 100 feet a second.
Then d= 100£— 16.08U
Let t= 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., and find corresponding values

of d.
Tabulate the corresponding values of d and t (Fig.
119).
Plot the number pairs in the table and draw the
graph.
From the graph we are able to determine approxi¬
mate values of t for given values of d.
Fig. 119
Exercises
1. Using the graph (Fig. 119) answer questions a, b, and c below:

a. When will the ball be 50 feet from the ground?
b. When will the ball be 75 feet from the ground?
c. When will the ball be 125 feet from the ground?
2. By means of the graph find t when d=140.
3. Show that the two values of t found in Exercise 2 are the

solutions of the equation 140= 100£ — 16.08U
120. Quadratic equations. An equation like

16.08t2 —100 £+140 = 0 (Exercise 3)
is of the second degree in t, because it contains the second
power of t and no higher power. It is a quadratic equa¬
tion. Show similarly that the equations x2 — 5x+6 = 0;
2x2 — 3x = 0; 5x2 = 16 are quadratic equations.
121. How to use the graph to solve a quadratic

equation. The exercises of §119 indicate a way of
solving a quadratic equation graphically. The method
may be summarized in the following steps:
1. Bring all the terms to one side of the equation,
7naking the other side equal to zero. For example, the
equations 4a:2 —4a; =15 and 4a;2 = 4a;+15 are changed
to Ax2 —Ax —15 = 0.
2. Tabulate corresponding pairs of values of x and
4a;2—4a; —15.
Thus, if x = 0, Ax2 — Ax —15= —15

if x = l, Ax2 — Ax —15 = 4—4 —15 = —15
if x = 2, 4a:2 —4x —15 = 16-8-15= -7
if x = S, Ax2 — 4x —15 = 36 —12 —15 = 9, etc.
3. Plot these pairs, and make the graph by drawing

a smooth curved line through the points (Fig. 120).
4. Measure the distances from the origin to the points
of intersection of the curve with the x-axis. These are
the values of the unknown, for which 4x2 — 4x —15 is
equal to zero. If we denote these values by aq and x2,
it follows that xx= —1.5 and x2 = 2.5 are the required
solutions.
The numbers —1.5 and 2.5 are called the roots of
the quadratic equation 4x2—4x —15 = 0. Note that
a quadratic equation has two roots corresponding to
the two points of intersection of the curve with the
x-axis.
Fig. 120
Exercises
Solve the following quadratic equations graphically:
1. m2 —4m—12 = 0. 4. 22 —82+12 = 0.
2. if+y = 56. 5. 422-122 + 5 = 0.
3. y2=4y—S. 6. 22 —342+145 = 0.
Algebraic Solution of Quadratic Equations
122. Every quadratic equation has two roots. The

graphical solution of the quadratic equation (Fig. 120)
shows that the equation 4x2—4x —15 = 0 has two roots.
This is true of every quadratic equation. For example,
the equation x2 — 25 = 0 is satisfied by two values of
x, i.e., +5 and —5. This is easily verified by substi¬
tuting in the equation the numbers +5 and —5 in
place of x.
The complete solution of the equation x2 — 25 = 0
may now be arranged as follows:
> x2 = =*= V 25 (read: + or — square root of 25)

Xi = +5
x2 = —5
By arithmetic we were able to find only one square

root of a number. We have just seen that there is
always a second square root. Thus, the square roots
of 36 are +6 and —6, because (+6)2 = 36 and
(—6)2 = 36.
Exercises
Solve the following equations as shown in Exercise 1:
1. (x4-l)2 = 16.
Solution: Extracting the square root we have

x-\-l = ±4
*’• x-j-l = +4,
and x+1 = —4
xi = 3,
and x2 — —5.
2. (x+3)2 = 4. 6. (x-4)2 = 18.
3. (x-8)2 = 25. 7. (?/+6)2=lQ.

4. (x+2)2 = 16. 8. (a4-8)2=12.
5. (x-5)2 = 26. 9. (m —11)2 = 20.
123. Solving quadratic equations in which one mem¬

ber is a quadratic trinomial square. The quadratic
equations in §117 were all of a simple form, the first
degree term being missing. Before taking up the solu¬
tion of the complete equation, let us consider further
equations which reduce to the form shown in Exercises
1 to 5 above.
Squaring both members of the equation
x-\-l =4
we have (x 4-1)2 =16.(1)
or x24-2^4-1 = 16.(2)
Equations like (2), in which the left member is a per*

feet square, can always be solved by first changing
than to form (1), and then using the method shown in
Exercise 1 (§122).
Exercises
Exercises 1 and 2 below show how to change a trinomial square

into the square of a binomial.
1. Change ^2+2x+l into a square of a binomial.
Solution: Show by multiplying cc+1 by x-\-l that
x‘1-\-2xJrl = (x+1)2. The binomial x+1 may be obtained from
.t2+2x+1 by.inspection as follows:
a. Extract the square root of the first term, x2.
b. Extract the square root of the third term, 1.
c. Add the results, which gives x+l.
2. Change x2—14^+49 into a square of a binomial.
Solution: Extract the square root of the first term, x2.
Extract the square root of the third term, 49.
State the difference of the results, which gives x — 7.
Test the answer by multiplying x — 7 by x—7.
Change each of the following trinomials into a square of a bino¬
mial. Then verify the result by multiplying the binomial by itself.
3. x2+6.r+9. 6. m 2— 12m+36.
4. x2-\~4j:-\~4:. 7. cl2 — 10uT25.
5. y2+8y+16. 8. r2-4r+4.
The left members of the quadratic equations below are perfect
trinomial squares. Solve each as shown in Exercise 9.
9. z2-b8x+16 = 9.
Solid ion: x2+8.x+16 = 9
Change the left member into a square of a binomial, by taking
the square root of the first term and the square root of the third
term and adding the results. Thus we have
(.r+4)2 = 9.
Extracting the square root, we find that
z+4 = ±3.'.
x2+8x+16 9
(-l)2+8(-l) + 16 9
1-8+16 9
9 = 9
( —7)2+8( —7) + 16 9
49-56+16 9
9 9
10. x2+6x+9= 16. 14. x2+8x+16 = 7.
11. x2—4x+4 = 25. 15. x2 — 10x+25= 11.
12. x2+8x+16 = 49. 16. x2-\——+"5'=16.

3 9
13. x2 —x+-j = 9. 17. x2—^+1^6=25.
124. Solving a quadratic equation by completing

the square. In §123 we have learned how to change a
x+3 perfect trinomial square into
a square of a binomial. Thus,
:r2+6:r+9 may be changed to
2 (:r+3)2. Geometrically this
X 3x
x means that the whole square
+
Co (++3)2 (Fig. 121) is equal to
the sum of the parts x2,
3x, 9. The third term, 9, of
3x 9 the trinomial (x2+6x+9) is
related to the linear term,
Fig. 121
6+ and may be found from
it by taking one-half of the coefficient of x and then
squaring it.
Similarly, to form the square whose first two terms
are x2+16x, take \ of 16 and square the result, which
gives 64. Add 64 to x2Jr 16x and the result x2+ 16x+64
is a perfect square.
We are now able to solve any quadratic equation
containing one unknown. The solution is illustrated
in the following example. Let it be required to solve
the equation
x2-\-Qx — 55 = 0.
Add 55 to both members. This gives

x2J,-6x = 55.
Find one-half of the coefficient of x in 6x and square it.
The result is 9.
Complete the square on the left side by adding 9 to
both members:
x2-h6x-j-9 = 64
Change the left member to a square of a binomial:

(:r+3)2 = 64
Extract the square root:

£+3 = ^8
Solving for x, we have xv = 5
x2= — 11
State the five steps in the solution of the preceding
equation.
Exercises
To each of the binomials in Exercises 1 to 9 add the term needed

to make a complete trinomial square:
1. x2-\-Qx. 4. x2 — 3x. 7. x2—j^x.
2. x2—8x. 5. x2-\~x. 8. x2-\~^x.
3. x2+4x. 6. x2+7x. 9. x2+-§-x.
Solve the following equations in Exercises 10 to 19 by completing

the square:
10. x2-\-8x-\-2— 0. 15. x2+4x = 21.
11. x2 — 8x—48 = 0. 16. x2+6x+5 = 0.
12. a2+8a-20 = 0. 17. z2+4:c —32 = 0
13. 7/2+4t/+3 = 0. 18. SJr2x = x2.
14. x2+6x —16 = 0. 19. x2 = 3x+4.
The equations in Exercises 20 to 28 differ from those above in

the coefficient of x2. To solve these equations divide first by the
coefficient of x2 and then proceed as in Exercises 10 to 19.
20. 3x2 —2x —3 = 0.

Solution: Divide every term by 3.
Then x2-1=0
3
2x
Add 1 to both members: x2-= 1
3
Add the square of -J- of — •§-:
2x
a;2_~+l5'-l+'9
1_0
(*—3)2=~ 9
V 10
x~i=
V io l ± V 10
Solve for x: x = i±
3 3
State the steps in the solution of the equation above.

21. 3x2 —7:r —20 = 0. 25. x2+18x-15 = 0.
22. 4x2—4.r —79 = 0. 26. 5a2+25a=-9.
23. 3a2 —7a = 6. 27. 6a:2 = 3a;+45.
24. 4?/ = l-4y. 28. 2x(.t+4) =42.

125. Problems solved by means of quadratic equa¬

tions. The following problems lead to quadratic
equations which may be solved by the methods ex¬
plained above:
Exercises
1. The sum of two numbers is 42 and the product is 416. Find
the numbers.
2. The sum of the squares of two consecutive numbers is 421.

Find the numbers.
Suggestion: Let x be one number. Then x+1 is the consecutive
number.
3. The sum of the squares of two consecutive numbers is 1013.

What are the numbers?
4. Three times the square of a number if increased by the num¬
ber is equal to 16. Find the number.
5. The perimeter of a rectangle is 84 rods and the area is 432
square rods. Find the dimensions.
6. The length of a rectangle exceeds the breadth by 4 inches.
The area is 140 square inches. Find the dimensions.
7. The base of a triangle exceeds twice the altitude by 4 inches,
and the area is 63 square inches. Find the base and altitude.
8. The base of a triangle exceeds the altitude by 4 inches. The
area is 30 square inches. Find the base and altitude.
9. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 9 feet longer than one
of the other sides and 2 feet longer than the third side. Find the
three sides of the triangle.
10. The hypotenuse of a right triangle is 10 inches and the
sum of the other two sides is 14 inches. Find the lengths of the
sides.
11. The sum of the areas of two squares is 61 square rods. A
side of one is 1 rod longer than a side of the other. Find the sides of
the squares.
12. Find the side of a square whose area is doubled if the dimen¬
sions are increased by 9 feet and 6 feet respectively.
13. Find the dimensions of a coal bin holding 6 tons of coal
whose depth is 6 feet. The length is equal to the sum of the width
and depth and one ton of coal takes up 32 cubic feet of space.
14. An automobile travels 160 miles. Returning, it increases its
speed by 4 miles an hour. Find the rate if the round trip takes 9
hours.
15. Two men starting from the same place and at the same time
walk at rates of 3 and 4 miles an hour respectively. If the first walks
east and the other north, how soon will they be 15 miles apart?
16. The radius of one circle is 7 inches longer than that of an¬
other, and the area of the first is 770 square inches greater than that
of the second. Find the radii.
17. By lengthening the radius of a sphere by 2 feet, we double
its surface. Find the original radius to 2 figures.
18. Proportion in design means a relationship between measures
of different parts of a whole. For example, in a rectangle it might
mean a relation between the measures of two adjacent sides. Much
effort has been devoted in the search for guiding principles in design
practice. The approximate ratio of two parts to three has been
used widely and successfully. Another ratio is determined as follows:
Let point C (Fig. 122) be deter¬
A x C 100-X B mined so that
Fig. 122 AC CB
CB~ AB
This division of AB is known in geometry as division in mean and
extreme ratio, or as the golden section. Thus, if AB be divided into
100 equal parts, we have
x 100—x
100—x 100
Multiplying both members of this equation by 100(100—x)

we have lOOx = 1002 — 200x-\-x2'
or x2 — 300x -f -10000 = 0
Solve this equation, and show that the approximate ratio of

AC .
is ff = .61.
CB
Since the ratio -§- is approximately .62, designers have found it
very helpful to use the ratio -§■ upon the large proportions of a
design and in making subdivi¬
sions. Thus, in the rectangle
PQRS (Fig. 123) the dimensions
are in the ratio and the diag¬
onal is used to subdivide the
rectangle, i.e., to locate corners
of other rectangles of the same
proportions as PQRS.
19. An open box is to be made

from a square piece of tin (Fig.
124) by cutting out a square from each corner and turning up the
sides. If the box is to contain 180 cubic inches and is to be 5 inches
high, how large a square of tin is to be used?
Suggestion: The facts of the problem can be expressed by means
of a quadratic equation. This equation will be found to have two
-;-1- roots. Both roots are not necessarily an¬
swers to the problem. A root of the equa-
■.' ’. tion which does not satisfy the conditions
of the problem is to be discarded.
20. From each corner of a square piece

of tin a square is cut whose side is 8 in-
.1 f. ches. By turning up the sides a box is
formed containing 1152 cubic inches.
Find the length of the side of the square
Fig. 124 . » ,.
piece ol tin.
21. In using an old plan for a new house an architect must

reduce it in size. The original plan is made for a piece of ground 30
feet wide and 40 feet long. If the new house is to cover a piece
of ground containing 925 square feet, by what amount must the
dimensions of the plan be reduced?
22. A rectangle is twice as long as it is wide. If it were 20 rods

longer and 24 rods wider, the area would be doubled. What are
the dimensions?
126. What every pupil should be able to do. It is

expected that you should be able to do the following:
1. To solve equations of the forms ax2 = b, where
a and b are arithmetical numbers.
2. To solve the equation ax2-\-bx-\-c = 0, where
a, bj and c may have any given values, using either
the graphical method or the method by completing the
square.
3. To solve verbal problems leading to quadratic
equations.
127. Typical exercises. The following exercises

indicate types of problems you should be able to do:
1. Solve for r: v = tt\r2h.
2. Solve for x by means of the graph: x1 — 5x — 6 = 0.
3. Solve for y by completing the square: y2Jr&y —16 = 0.
4. Solve several problems of the list of problems given in

§125.
5. Prepare a talk or paper on one of the following topics:

a. How to solve a quadratic equation graphically.
b. How to solve a quadratic equation by completing the
square.
CHAPTER IX
COMMUNITY ARITHMETIC
Taxes
128. Why taxes are necessary. The graduating

class of our school decided by vote to have a class
picnic. A committee has been appointed to make all
arrangements for transportation, entertainment, and
refreshments. The committee has made a study of all
expenses and found out exactly how much money
would be needed. The total sum is $102.50. Since all
members of the class have the privilege of enjoying the
outing, each has been asked to pay his share of the
expense. There are 82 pupils in the class. How much
will each pupil have to pay?
People living in the same community enjoy many
privileges which individuals living alone cannot secure.
In a city we find public schools, libraries, parks, and
good roads. We have police and fire departments to
protect us against lawlessness and fires and a health
department to see that sanitary conditions prevail.
All of this costs the government a great deal of money.
Teachers, firemen, policemen, and librarians must
receive salaries for their services. Good streets, parks,
school buildings, courthouses, and city halls cost money.
Since all the people who live in the city have the benefit
of the comforts and conveniences provided by the
191
COMMUNITY ARITHMETIC 193
government, they must be willing to pay for them.

Each person will have to pay his share of the expenses.
We say that the people pay taxes in return for the con¬
veniences received from the city government. If they
want more and better schools, parks, and streets, they
must expect to pay more taxes.
Exercises
1. Name some things which a city government provides and

which have not been mentioned above.
2. Tell why taxes are necessary and why they differ for various
localities.
3. List the things which the state and national governments

supply and pay for, such as harbors, canals, courts, asylums, pris¬
ons, universities, highways, army and navy.
4. John lives with his parents in a little cottage in a small

village. They have no telephone, gas, electric light, city water,
street cars, sidewalks, or even a paved street. William’s parents
also have a little cottage. It is located near the city. They enjoy
all the advantages which life in the village may offer, and also the
conveniences just mentioned and many others. William’s father
pays S85 taxes each year more than John’s father, but he says it
costs less to live in the city than in the village where taxes amount
to almost nothing. State some of the probable advantages which
William derives from city life.
5. Make a list of taxes people pay for special privileges such as

keeping a dog or an automobile, conducting a business, etc.
129. How the government secures the money to

pay expenses. Not all people have to pay taxes. Those
who own a certain amount of personal property (house¬
hold goods, clothing, jewelry, horses, cattle, automo¬
biles), and those who own real estate (land and build-
ings) pay for those who have no property. A govern¬

ment official known as the assessor, or someone from
his office, makes a list of all personal property and real
estate.
The value of personal property is as a rule deter¬
mined by the owner, who fills out a schedule and then
swears to its accuracy.
"V
1
P. J. CARR, TREASURER. JACOB LINDHEIMER. AssflQTREA*..?
COUNTY COLLECTOR'S OFFICE—COOK COUNTY-STATE OF ILLINOIS. C£> *
DATE---Ha
PERSONAL PROPERTY TAX BILL-DUE NOW -
omm ******* --
x YOUR ATTENTION 19 CALL® TO THE LAW GOVERNING THE COLLECTION
OF PERSONAL PROPERTY TAXES WHICH IS AS FOLLOWS:
- SEC. 156. REVENUE LAW:-IN CASE ANY PERSON. COMPANY OR
CORPORATION SHALL REFUSE OR NEGLECT TO PAT THE TAXES IMPOSED
ON HIM OR THEM WHEN DEMANDED. IT SHALL BE THE DUTY OF THE
COLLECTOR TO LEVY ON THE SAME TOGETHER WITH THE COSTS AND
CHARGES THAT MAY ACCRUE BY DISTRESS AND SALS OF PERSONAL I
PROPERTY OF THE PERSON. COMPANY OR CORPORATION WHO OUGHT
TO PAY THE SAME. j
received in full for the annual state, county, city, school, drainage, park an!
CORPORATION TAXES DUE FOR THE YEAR 1924. ON PERSONAL PROPERTY SITUATES IN THE TOWN l«j
BELOW TO-WIT:
a««E««eD m
TOWN Q*
...
TsitKC
.... . ..
«SsitSf« votuMt trum no.
VII
- * A, Jones , Hyde Park m
«• 43 University ftv. 41-18!
Chicago,III.
?“-- r - A*#****® VALUATION

: total tax now m>t
MAKE ALL CHECKS PAYABLE TO
P. J. CARR, COUNTY collector.

153 12«8
’personal PROPERTY TAXES ' ■ o. '
FOR
REMITTANCE BY MAIL. MUsf*Se
1924
* *• , 7 •* « .
AMOUNT
RECEIVED
SY DRAFT ON CHICAGO; MONEY
ORDER OR CERTIFIED CH “ "
ORIGINAL RETURN THIS BILL WITH YOU

tance. do hot detach
DO NOT DETACH
--——-
The value of real estate is fixed by the assessor. The

assessed value is usually lower than the real value.
Land and buildings owned by churches, schools, and
government are not taxable. By comparing the amount
of money the government needs with the total assessed
value of property, the assessor computes a rate per cent
(tax rate). The individual taxes are then determined
from this rate.
Exercises
1. A man owns real estate assessed at $9500. The tax rate was
$.00643 on each dollar. Find the tax.
Solution: Tax on $9500= ($9500X.00643) =$61.09.
2. At the rate given in Exercise 1, find the taxes on the follow¬
ing assessed values: $5350; $16,480; $35,400.
3. Find the amount of the taxes on a piece of real estate
assessed at $1550 at $2.75 on each $100 of assessed valuation.
Suggestion: Divide $1550 by 100 and multiply the result by $2.75.
4. Find the taxes on the following assessed values at the rate
given in Exercise 3: $6850; $15,450; $11,360.
5. In a certain city the tax rate is $22.42 on each $1000 of
assessed valuation. Find the tax of a man whose property is
assessed &t $13,000.
6. Find the taxes of a man whose real estate is valued at $9825
and whose personal property is $485, the tax rate being 1.5 per cent.
7. If the tax rate in a city is 1.4 per cent of the assessed value,
find the tax on property valued at $18,450.
8. Compute the taxes on a piece
Interest on debt. $ 9.50
of real estate assessed at $8925 at
Library. 1.25
$8.25 per $100 on one-half of the as¬
Pensions. 2.00
sessed value.
Sanitarium. 1.50
9. Find out what method of de¬ Parks. 10.00
termining the value of property is School buildings. 10.00
used in your city and how the tax Education. 19.00
rate is computed. Sanitary district. 5.50
10. Find out for what purposes County. 9.75
the taxes are spent by your govern¬ State. 14.25
ment. The adjoining table shows City. 17.25
how the taxes are divided in one of
our great cities. Tell what per cent of the tax is given to each item.
11. Show that a tax rate of $1.30 per $100 is the same as 1.3
per cent of the value.
12. Find the tax rate used in your city and compute the taxes
of people whose real estate valuations are as follows: $13,420,
$9460, $22,510, $32,850.
13. A village is to be annexed to an adjoining city. State some

of the advantages the people of the village are going to gain. Should
their rate of taxation be increased?
14. In a small city the total assessed valuation of all property is

$2,321,600. It is necessary to raise a tax of $38,074. Find the tax
rate.
Suggestion: Divide the amount to be raised by the assessed
value.
15. A man’s tax was $122.57 and his property was valued at
$8072. What should be his neighbor’s tax who owns property
valued at $12,450?
16. The assessed value of property in a city is $5,160,000 and

a tax of $64,500 is to be raised. Find the tax rate.
17. Sometimes tax rates are expressed as so many mills on each

$1 of assessed valuation. Thus we have the following ways of
expressing tax rates:
A tax rate of $16.40 on a $1000,
which is equal to
a tax rate of $1.64 on a $100,
which is equal to
a tax rate of 1.64 cents on a $1,
which is equal to
a tax rate of 16.4 mills on a $1, since 1 cent is equal to 10
mills.
Express a tax rate of $1.86 on $100 of assessed valuation in each

of the ways given above.
130. Special assessments.Some improvements,

such as laying cement walks, paving alleys and streets,
and putting in sewers, are of direct benefit to the ad-
joining property. The owners must then pay a special

tax to help pay for those improvements. Such a tax is
called a special assessment.
Exercises
1. A man purchased a vacant lot in an undeveloped neighbor¬

hood. Two years later the street was paved, for which the property
owners were charged $4.25 a front foot. A sewer was built costing
$2.40 a front foot, and sidewalks were constructed for which each
was charged $1.35 a front foot. If the lot is 50 feet wide and if its
original cost was $1100, what is the total cost of the lot not counting
real estate taxes and interest, after the improvements were put in?
2. Why do the owners of the adjoining property have to pay
the cost of paving the street?
3. Why do the owners of the adjoining property not have to
pay the cost of a library or park?
131. How the national government collects money.

There are several ways in which the national govern¬
ment collects money:
1. One of the sources of revenue is the income tax.
As the name suggests, it is collected on net incomes
above a certain amount. Those who have large incomes
pay more than those whose incomes are small. In
computing the income tax certain deductions are
allowed: $1,000 to a single person; $2500 to a head of a
family whose net income is not more than $5000;
$2000 to a head of a family whose income is $5000 or
more; $400 for each person in the family under 18
years of age or incapable of self-support. In the year
1924 the government also allowed a reduction on the
taxes which was equal to 25 per cent of the income
actually earned.
2. Another way for the government to raise a con¬

siderable amount of money is to charge a tax on im¬
ported articles. This is known as import duty, tariff,
or custom. Goods that are purchased in other coun¬
tries and brought into the United States are subject
to this tax. The rates are fixed by the tariff law. Be¬
sides deriving an income from the tax on imports, the
government uses it to protect certain industries. It
may be possible to buy in England for $26.50 a suit
of clothes costing $35.75 in the United States. A
tax of $9.25 on suits of that type enables the cloth¬
ing industry in this country to compete with that of
England.
The rate of tax may be determined according to the
value of goods (ad valorem duty). This is done by tak¬
ing a rate per cent of the purchase price of the goods.
Or the rate may be fixed regardless of value, a cer¬
tain amount per pound, or per piece. The tax is paid
to the customs collector when the goods are brought
into this country.
3. A national revenue is obtained from taxes on
certain articles made in this country, as cigars, medi¬
cines, playing cards, and drugs.
Exekcises
1. Find the duty on a fur coat valued at $285 if the rate is 25

per cent ad valorem.
2. How much duty was paid on 205 bushels of barley bought

in Canada, if the rate is 20 cents per bushel?
3. What is the duty on a brussels rug if the original cost was

$45 and the duty 55 per cent ad valorem ?
4. Find the duty on each of the following:
Purchase
Article Rate
Price
A watch. $41.25 45% ad valorem

1 dozen nairs of hose. 5.80 35% ad valorem
Sugar, 500 pounds. 30.00 2.2c per pound
60 vards of lace. 25.20 90% ad valorem
16 dozen of ladies’ gloves. $4 per dozen
500 pounds of butter.. . 8c per pound
5. Who is benefited when potatoes are imported without being

taxed? Who loses by it?
6. If the duty on automobiles is 25 per cent ad valorem, what
will be the duty on a French automobile costing $2300?
7. If the duty on horses is 20 per cent ad valorem, what will be
the cost of six horses purchased in Canada for $150 each?
Insurance
132. How property owners are protected against loss

by fire. Mr. Olson’s house was destroyed by fire, and he
lost overnight
what has taken
him many
years to save.
It may cause
him to suffer
hardships and
even ruin him
financially. If
all the property
owners of his city would join and pay back to him
his loss, it would cost them a very small sum of money.
For his $7000 building each of the 35,000 property

owners would have to pay only 20 cents. The property
owners could then make an agreement to reimburse any¬
one whose property should be destroyed or damaged
by fire in the future. It would be necessary to hire
somebody to estimate the value of the property and
the amount of damage done, to collect the money, to
turn it over to the proper person, and to make out a
full statement of all the money transactions.
To relieve the property owners of this responsibility
companies have been formed that make it a business
to guarantee protection against loss by fire. They are
called insurance companies. They give the owner a
contract, called an insurance policy, in which the com¬
pany* agrees to pay for losses from fire a sum of money
equal to an amount agreed upon. For this protection
the insured pays a fixed sum of money, called the
premium. Since the total of the premiums must be
more than the sum of all losses, the premiums are made
sufficiently high to enable the company to pay all
expenses in conducting the insurance business, to pay
all losses, and to make a profit. Thus, through the
insurance company the many who have no loss through
fire pay the losses that actually occur.
The rate of insurance is determined by experts. It
depends on the quality of the building, the purpose for
which it is used, its location, the kind of water system
and fire department, and other conditions. The rate of
insurance for a building in a city with a good fire depart¬
ment is lower than the rate for the same kind of build¬
ing in the country. The rate for a brick building is
lower than that for a frame dwelling.
Fire insurance not only protects the owner against

loss, but adds to the value of the property. For ex¬
ample, it enables the owner to borrow money by offer¬
ing the property as security, since the risk of loss
through fire has been removed.
Exercises
1. Why is it that an insurance company can pay $6000 to the

owner whose house is destroyed by fire, when he pays only a yearly
premium of $25.00?
2. A house valued at $10,000 and insured for $8000 was dam¬

aged by fire to the extent of $3000. How much will the insurance
company pay the insured? Give reason for your answer.
3. Is it necessary to insure a house for its full value?
4. For which of each of the following pairs of property would

the rate be lowest under otherwise equal conditions: frame house,
brick house; frame apartment, brick apartment; frame garage,
brick garage? In each case give your opinion as to reasons for the
lower rate.
5. Name all the different factors which will be considered in

determining the rate of insurance on a building.
133. Other kinds of insurance. Property losses

may be incurred in ways other than through fire. A
tornado sometimes destroys a whole section of a city.
Hail, frost, floods, or insects may ruin our crops.
People can get insurance against losses from any of
these causes.
A copy of a standard fire insurance policy for insur¬
ing city and village dwelling property against losses by
fire is shown on page 202. Try to secure a copy of
such a policy and study it.
Exercises
1. Mr. Johnson insures his property for $8000 for 3 years. The
insurance rate is $.16 per $100 for 1 year. For 3 years it is 2^ times as
great as for 1. Find the premium.
2. Fred’s father insures his
frame garage for $460 for 5 years.
The insurance rate is $3.00 per
$100 for 1 year. For 5 years it is
4 times as much as for 1 year.
Find the premium.
3. The rate of insurance on a
$12,000 brick flat is $.24 per $100.
Find the premium for 3 years, if
the amount for 3 years is times
as great as for 1 year.
4. A $6000 house is insured
for 80 per cent of its value. The
rate of insurance is $.50 for each
$100. How much is the premium?
5. Mr. Black’s house is worth
$8000. It is insured for 75 per
cent of its value at a rate of $.50
per $100. What is the premium?
6. If the rate for 3 years is 2^-
as much as for 1 year, and if the
rate for 5 years is 4 times as much
as for 1, complete the following
table of rates per $100:
Type of Structure 1 Year 3 Years 5 Years

House, brick. $0.16
Frame. .50
Apartment, brick. .24
Frame. .75
>
Garage, brick. .28
Frame. .78
7. Why does the insurance company hesitate to insure prop¬

erty for its full value, thus making the owner bear a portion of
the risk?
134. How life insurance protects the family. Wil¬

liam’s father lost his life in an automobile accident.
The family was left without income, as he was the
only one earning money. Fortunately, several years
ago he had made provision for the support of his wife
and children after his death, and they received a check
for $12,000 from a life insurance company.
Any person whose family depends on him for sup¬
port should carry life insurance in an insurance com¬
pany. By making contracts with a large number of
people who pay a small sum of money each year, the
company is able to pay a large sum to each of the
families of those individuals who die during the year.
Some of the companies insure as many as a half million
people. Statistics show fairly well how many individ¬
uals out of 500,000 ordinarily die during one year.
From these facts the company can determine the rate
which must be charged for insurance to enable them
with certainty to pay all claims, pay expenses, and
have a profit left over. Life insurance in a good insur¬
ance company is, therefore, a safe investment.
135. Kinds of life insurance. The simplest of the

different kinds of policies issued by life insurance com¬
panies is the ordinary life policy. The insured agrees
to pay a fixed premium annually during lifetime, and
the company to pay a definite sum upon the death of
the insured to the person designated in the policy.
A limited payment life policy is one in which the in¬

sured stops paying premiums after a limited time, e.g.,
10 or 20 years. The premium is, of course, larger than
that of a straight life policy because the payments on a
- -—. limited payment life policy
1 are all made in a few years
of the life of the insured.
0 Eajrmmt Ufa }*oik'y -NafrP&ftieiwm
Protect km in Event of Total and Pemawsat
Ubrabffity
Many would rather pay
Waiver of l Yeaiiums—Monthly Incotao
L
IWlcyla —-— a little more each year for
a few years than keep on
Life faswmoa Co«fM^r paying a smaller premium
into old age.
Finally, there is a policy
for those who like to have
LIFE OF
insurance protection for the
John l)ot:.
family and at the same time
derive some personal bene¬
Amounts 10,000 fit from it. This policy is
Date MwcH /*r^ /? — known as endowment policy.
Annual Pkkmium $ ‘ » —
The insured pays a pre¬
mium yearly for 10, 15,
or 20 years. The company
agrees to pay a certain sum
of money at the time of his
death or at the expiration
of the period agreed upon.
The good feature of this
policy is that it induces people to save some money each
year while they might otherwise spend it thoughtlessly.
The following table is taken from the rate book of a
good insurance company. It gives the rates for $1000
for three kinds of life insurance:
TABLE OF ANNUAL PREMIUMS PER $1000 OF

POLICY
20-Payment 20-Year
Age Ordinary Life
Life Endowment
20 $13.48 $31.22 $40.85

21 13.77 31.44 40.89
22 14.08 31.68 40.94
23 14.41 31.97 40.99
24 14.75 32.25 41.04
25 15.10 32.54 41.10
26 15.48 32.90 41.16
27 15.88 33.27 41.23
28 16.29 33.63 41.31
29 16.73 34.07 41.39
30 17.19 34.52 41.49
31 17.72 35.04 41.63
32 18.26 35.60 41.79
33 18.84 36.20 41.94
34 19.45 36.87 42.13
35 20.11 37.58 42.33
36 20.84 38.36 42.54
37 21.60 39.24 42.78
38 22.42 40.14 43.04
39 23.29 41.14 34.32
40 24.21 42.18 43.65
136. Cash value of a policy. If the insured is un¬

able to keep his contract and to pay the premiums on
his policy, he does not have to lose all of the money
paid in before that time. The company pays to him
at the surrender of the policy a fixed sum, known as
the cash surrender value. The following table gives the
rates, per $1000 of insurance, and the respective cash
surrender values of the policies:
SCHEDULE OF ORDINARY LIFE INSURANCE

RATES AND CASH VALUES PER $1000
Cash Value
Annual
Age
Rate
Three years Five years Ten years
15 $15.97 $10 $22 $54

16 16.26 11 23 56
17 16.54 11 24 59
- IS 16.86 12 25 61
19 17.19 12 26 64
20 17.52 13 27 67
21 17.88 14 28 70
22 18.25 14 30 73
23 18.65 15 31 76
24 19.06 16 32 79
25 19.48 16 34 82
26 19.92 17 35 86
27 20.41 18 37 90
28 20.90 18 38 93
29 21.43 19 40 97
30 21.97 20 42 102
31 22.56 21 43 106
32 23.17 22 45 111
33 23.81 23 47 115
34 24.50 24 49 120
35 25.22 25 52 125
36 25.99 26 54 131
37 26.79 27 56 136
38 27.65 29 59 142
39 28.57 30 61 148
40 29.53 31 64 154
137. Dividends. The premium paid by the insured

is large enough to enable the company to meet all pay-
ments and to have a profit left over. Some policies

entitle the insured to share in the profits. They are
called participating policies. Each year a sum of
money is returned to the insured, thereby reducing
the premium which he has to pay. These refunds are
called dividends.
Exercises
1. Find out what you can about the following kinds of insur¬
ance:
Sickness and accident insurance, tornado insurance, employers’
liability insurance, unemployment insurance, fidelity and surety
insurance.
2. By means of the table (page 205) tell the annual premium
for a 20-year payment life policy to be paid by a man 30 years old;
25 years; 32 years.
3. What kind of insurance gives the greatest protection for a

given premium?
4. Find the yearly premium on an ordinary life insurance
policy of $5000 for a man 32 years of age; 26 years; 30 years.
5. A man carried a 20-payment life participating policy for
$3000 which he took out at the age of 27. The premium was
$149.02. He received 19 dividends averaging $26.20 per year.
How much did he actually pay for his insurance?
6. A man 32 years old takes out $5000 of 20-year endowment
insurance. Find the difference between the amount of the policy
and what he will pay in during the 20 years.
7. A man took out a 20-year endowment policy at the age of
26. The company declared dividends averaging 16 per cent of the
premium. Find the difference between what he paid in premiums
and what he received from the company.
8. Find the cost of the premium of an insurance policy for a
farm house, barn, and several other buildings valued at $12,000 if
insured for -§• of the actual value and at a rate of 75 cents per $100.
Banks and Banking
138. Why banks are needed. People who save

money find it not safe to carry the money around with
them or to hide it away. There is too much danger of
being robbed. One of the several things banks do is to
accept money
and to keep it in
a safe place.
This service to
people who have
money relieves
them of a great
deal of anxiety
and concern.
Banks also rent
safety deposit boxes in which valuables, such as securi¬
ties, important papers, or jewelry, may be kept for safe
keeping.
The money intrusted to them, together with capital
of their own, makes it possible for banks to loan money
to people and to pay all business expenses with the
profits derived from the payment of interest on loans.
Exercises
1. Name some of the banks in your city.

2. The business manager of the school annual takes in several
hundred dollars the day the Annual is sold to the pupils. He may
lock the money in his desk, or take it home with him, or take it to a
bank. Which should he do? Give your reasons.
3. Find out how banks are protected against robbers or loss by
fire.
139. Different kinds of banks. To protect people

against losses when they put money into banks, the
government supervises the banks carefully. In organiz¬
ing and conducting their business bankers must obey
laws made especially for that purpose.
The name indicates the character of a bank. Nation¬
al banks are under the supervision of the national
government and are inspected by national officers.
State banks are organized under the laws of the state
and examined by state officers. There are a few central
banks in the national banking system, called federal
reserve banks. The government requires a very large
capital before such a bank can start to do business.
Federal banks are authorized to issue paper money.
Private banks are not under government inspection.
They are owned by individuals or companies. Trust
companies generally do a banking business. As the
name suggests, they furnish services that are in the
nature of a trust, as settling estates and acting as
guardians of minors.
Two of the most important departments of a bank
are the savings department and the commercial depart¬
ment. We shall learn more about them.
Exercises
1. Examine some paper money to see if you can find bills

issued by a bank.
2. Find out how many federal reserve banks there are and
where they are located.
3. Why do people put money into private banks when there

are other banks in the city?
140. How the business of a bank is conducted. We

have seen that banks receive money for safe keeping
and lend money, and that some issue money. The re¬
sponsibility for conducting the affairs of the bank
rests with the president, the cashier, and the receiving
and paying tellers.
SAVINGS DEPARTMENT They, in turn, work
TRANSPORTATION BANK OF CHICAGO
under a board of di¬
CHICAGO
rectors.
Pass Book No.--
CREDIT SAVINGS ACCOUNT OF
Name ...... - . ■ —
141. Opening a
bank account. When
opening an account
with a bank the new
192
1!
1 customer is asked to
DOLLARS J CENTS
fill out a card giving

his signature, address,
references, or other
matters of details.
This card is filed for
the purpose of later
identification. The
customer then receives
a bank book on which the teller of the bank enters the
various amounts (deposits) given to him from time to
time by the customer (depositor). The bank book is
the depositor’s receipt for the money deposited, and is
kept by the depositor. To make the deposit a special
slip has to be filled out. This, together with the money
and bank book, is given to the teller who enters the
date and amount on the page of the book, which is
then returned to the customer.
There are two kinds of accounts, the checking

account and the savings account.
Exercises
Write the following deposit slips for H. Jones:
1. Monday, June 6,
Right ta reserved and the bank la authorized to forward item* for collection mt pay¬
1925: Checks $18.60, $10.50, ment ilir.*ct to the drawee er p-yoe bank or through any ather bank at its discretion
and to receive payment In oa*h or In check* or draft* drawn by the drawee or other
banks, and eicept for negligence, this bank shall not be liable for dishonor of the
drafts or chocks so received in payment nor for losses thereon.
$9.75, $15.00; currency $85; Transportation Bank

gold $15; silver $6.70. OF CHICAGO
2. Tuesday, June 7,
1925: Checks $5.40, $22.67,
$13.25, $12.50; currency
$114; gold $25; silver
$18.60.
142. Checking ac¬

counts. If a depositor
wishes to keep his
money in a safe place,
so that he may draw
from it at any time,
he opens a checking
account. The teller en¬
ters the various depos¬
its on the bank book,
and the bank keeps a
record of all deposits and withdrawals so as to know
each day how much money the depositor has. For this
service the bank has the use of the money, usually with¬
out paying interest, and frequently requiring that the
depositor keep a fixed balance in the bank.
Money is withdrawn by checks. They come in the
form of check books. In some check books each page
contains a check blank and a stub. After filling out

both, one tears the check off while the stub remains
as a memorandum of the check. The stubs show the
money deposited and withdrawn and the purposes for
which money has been spent. The following is a sample
stub and check.
; No
Date- '1k.LYXPOHT,mm iUXKm'i'MUlAGtt «-to
To .
Mr (jnji;.UiA,I(j,., _ !»3 So.__'
OOtWRS CERTS Vxrr

TO-rrCK
OKUMffiW «>*»
. ...n
Ssteirfissf fojwd_
CHICKS m J3KYWAV W *
. HGttQW - t
The check may be made payable to any person to

whom a payment is to be made. He may deposit it at
his bank like money, or cash it at any bank, provided
he identifies himself and endorses the check by writing
his name across the
|<Jwv J(fcUL t* (Asdtn/ left end of the back
erf % 7{. of it, as shown at the
^v4vn 'IfôuLoc left.
Checks may be
made payable to self
or cash. In the last
case no endorsement
is necessary if the
signer himself pre¬
sents the check for payment at the bank.
A person receiving a check may give it to another,
making it payable to him.
Exercises
1. Fill out a bank deposit slip; a withdrawal receipt.
2. Make out a check and fill in the blanks of the stub. Find out
what precautions are used in filling out a check blank to prevent
another person from changing the amount.
.
3 Find out the minimum balance your neighborhood bank
requires on checking accounts.
.
4 Endorse a check made out to you. Why should the endorse¬
ment be always at the left end of the check?
.
5 Why should a check not be endorsed until it is time to
deposit it?
6. Why is it not necessary to endorse a check payable to

“cash” or to “bearer?”
.
7 Why is the sum of money on a check written both in figures
and in words?
8. Why is it best to deposit or cash a check as soon as possible?
143. Paying bills at a distance. The use of checks

makes it convenient for people to pay their bills by
sending checks through the mail. The checks are de¬
posited or cashed in the various banks in the city. It
then becomes necessary for each bank to return to the
others the checks drawn upon them. Since this is not
a practical thing to do, all the banks of the city form
a clearing house association. Every day the checks re¬
ceived are sent to the clearing house. Each bank is
given credit for the total amount of the checks sent in
and at the same time charged with the checks made
out upon them.
At the beginning of the month all the paid checks

of the previous month with a complete statement of
deposits and withdrawals are returned by the banks to
the persons who wrote them. These paid checks are
preserved because they show that the bills have been
paid and may therefore be used as receipts.
An arrangement similar to the clearing house exists
between banks for checks sent from one city to another.
Merchants sometimes do not like to accept personal
checks coming from a great distance. In that case bills
may be paid by sending money orders issued by the
post office or by express companies.
Exercises
1. Why is a canceled check accepted in place of a receipt?
2. To whom is the express money order above payable?
3. Why are bills at a distance not always paid by checks, but

by money orders?
144. Savings accounts. Amounts of money may be

placed on interest by opening a savings account. The
savings bank makes it possible to keep sums of money
in a safe place and at the same time earn a little money
with it. The rate of interest is usually low, about 3

per cent or 4 per cent. Money can be withdrawn only
if the pass book is presented.
Some people put part of their earnings into the sav¬

ings bank until they have an amount large enough to
invest where it will bring greater returns. Interest
on savings deposits is paid according to rules, which
should be studied carefully by those who open a savings
account. The following rules are copied from a bank
book:
“Twice each year interest is paid on all savings

deposits then in the bank, which have remained on
deposit for one month or more.
“No interest is paid for parts of a month, or part of a
dollar, or for any part of the half year included between
the first days of January and July, or July and January,
as the case may be, on sums withdrawn between these
periods.
“Interest is not paid on average balances; and all
withdrawals between the interest days are deducted
from the first deposits.
“On deposits made during the first ten days of January
and July, and during the first five days of every other
month, interest is allowed from the first day of the
month in which the deposit is made. On deposits made
after the above-named days of each month interest is
allowed from the first day of the month following the
deposit.”
It should be noted that the interest rates of savings
banks are low, and that the interest will be reduced
considerably if the rules above are not clearly under¬
stood. There are good reasons why a bank cannot
pay more than 3 per cent or at most 4 per cent in¬
terest. To make a profit, the bank reinvests the
deposits in high-grade securities usually not paying
more than 5 per cent or 6 per cent. Banks also loan
money to individuals or to business houses charging
them as much as 7 per cent interest. However, not
all of the deposits can be invested, as a large part
must be kept on hand to conduct the business of the
bank.
Exercises
1. Compute the interest at 3 per cent on the following savings

account, observing the rules stated above:
With¬
Date Teller Deposits Balance
drawals
July 8. B $ 60.00 $ 60.00
Aug. 26. CM 42.00 102.00
Sept. 4. MJ 25.75 127.75
Oct. 1. CM 48.60 176.35
Nov. 17. B 50.00 226.35
Nov. 28. B $ 72.00 154.35
Dec. 3. CM 45.00 199.35
Interest, Jan. 1.
2. Make an account similar to that of Exercise 1, using

the following deposits and withdrawals and compute the interest
at 3 per cent. On January 1, Mr. Carr deposited $28, and on
January 18 he withdrew $5. On each of the following months he
deposited respectively $13, $8, $22, $19.50, $25. He withdrew $10
on July 1.
3. Starting with a balance of $83 in a savings bank Eliza¬

beth's mother made the following deposits:
Jan. 12 $ 9.00 April 5 $13.00
Feb. 5 15.00 May 1 29.00
March 4 8.00 June 16 10.00
Compute the interest coming to her on July 1.
Investments
145. Using money to earn more money. We have

seen that a savings bank offers a safe place for keeping
sums of money and pays some interest to the depositor.
As soon as one has accumulated a considerable amount

of money the way is open for finding an investment
where it will earn more than 3 per cent or 4 per cent
interest. It now becomes necessary to make a study
of ways of investing money without running too
great a risk of suffering losses. Before making an in¬
vestment it is always well to get the advice of a
reliable banker or broker. For many people are de¬
frauded each year by loaning money to enterprises
which fail. One should be especially careful about all
investments that offer too high a rate of interest. They
are usually uncertain and speculative, while invest¬
ments paying a fair rate of interest as a rule involve a
small risk.
146. Investing money in a mortgage. When people

who own property are in need of money they can borrow
money by offering the property as security. The in¬
vestor who lends the money receives a mortgage as
security. Mortgages usually yield interest at the rate
of 6 per cent. Good mortgages are considered a safe
investment. The loan must be paid back on time or the
lender can have the property sold and retain his money
out of the money received from the sale. When buying
a mortgage one should take several precautions. The
loan should not exceed one-half of the value of the
property offered as security. All taxes on the property
must be paid. The insurance on the buildings must
be made out in favor of the holder of the mortgage.
There should be no other mortgage on the property.
The mortgage should be officially recorded in the
bureau of records.
Exercises
1. What is the semi-annual income derived from a $1300

mortgage on property worth $8000 at the rate of 6 per cent?
2. A man wishes to borrow $4000, offering as security a piece
of property valued at $7000. He will give the lender a mortgage
paying 7 per cent interest. Is this a safe investment? What per
cent of the value of the property is the mortgage?
3. Why is it necessary before buying a mortgage that the in¬
surance be in the buyer’s favor, and that all taxes be paid for?
4. Why is a good mortgage considered a better investment
than a savings account?
5. Find the yearly income on the following: a mortgage for
$1300 at 6 per cent; one for $2500 at 5 per cent; one for $1800 at
5^- per cent.
147. Corporations. When a number of men wish to

go into business as a group, they may organize a cor¬
poration. They apply to the secretary of state for a
charter which defines the conditions according to which
the corporation is to carry on business. Many large
business enterprises, such as running railroads, manu¬
facturing, and mining, are managed by corporations.
148. Bonds. The charter permits a corporation to

borrow money if capital is needed. The required sum is
divided into $500 or $1000 amounts, known as bonds.
Bonds are really promissory notes with the property of
the corporation as security, promising to pay a fixed
sum of money at a given time with interest at a given
rate. Interest has to be paid to holders of bonds before
the profits of the business are distributed. Good bonds
are therefore considered a safe investment. If the cor¬
poration should become bankrupt, bond holders may
demand the sale of the corporation’s property and be

reimbursed from the proceeds. The market value of
bonds varies comparatively little. Interest on bonds
is always paid promptly.
The following advertisement of the bond department
of a bank calls attention to matters of interest to the
prospective investor:
BUY THE BONDS YOUR BANKER BUYS

The bond described below is issued by a company long estab¬
lished in a sound, basic industry vital to the country’s business and
domestic needs.
In our opinion, the issue constitutes a high-grade investment.
Bonds are available in denominations of $1000 and $500.
Prices, to which interest should be added, are subject to change.
PENNSYLVANIA COLLIERIES COMPANY

First Mortgage 6s
Price 98-J-, to yield 6.12%
These bonds, of which $5,000,000 are outstanding, are secured
by a first mortgage on properties valued at over $17,000,000 and esti¬
mated to contain over thirty-seven million tons of recoverable coal.
Situated in the heart of the rich Pennsylvania anthracite coal
field, the company’s holdings consist of six properties, the oldest of
which has been in operation for over sixty-five years. The mines
are served by the Philadelphia & Reading, Lehigh Valley, and
Delaware & Hudson railroads.
Throughout the East the laws prohibit the use of other than
anthracite coal, so that the Pennsylvania Collieries Company serves
an exclusive market.
A sinking fund per ton of coal mined will, it is estimated, retire
the entire issue by maturity. After meeting the sinking fund re¬
quirements, the bond interest was earned nearly four times in 1924.
The bonds mature November 1, 1944. Interest is payable May
1st and November 1st of each year.
Interest does not depend on the market value of the

bond. The bonds above are to yield 6.12 per cent
interest on the par (face) value. If a $1000 bond is
sold for $985, the interest of $61.20 is greater than
6.12 per cent of the investment. When payment of the
bond is made in 1944, it will bring $1000, or $15 more
than the original cost.
Coupon bonds have small slips (coupons) attached.
There is a coupon for each interest date, calling for the
interest ac¬
cumulated
since the
preceding
date. On
the date
given the
coupon
may be clipped and presented for payment or deposited
in a bank on account.
A registered bond contains the name of the purchaser.
Before such a bond can be transferred to another per¬
son it must be endorsed by the owner and the name
must be changed on the books of the company which
issued it. The interest is sent directly to the owner.
Bonds are sold and bought by bankers and brokers
not only for themselves but also for others. For this
service they are entitled to a commission, which is
usually one-eighth of one per cent of the par value of
the bond. Many bankers and brokers buy back bonds
sold by them, charging a small commission or they
accept them as securities if the owner borrows money.
This makes it possible to convert bonds into cash.
Exercises
1. Why should the investor before buying a bond consult a

disinterested person, who is well informed about investments, e.(j.,
a banker or broker?
2. If a man buys one of the

Pennsylvania Collieries Company
bonds on dates other than May 1
or November 1, he must pay the
interest earned since the preceding
interest date. This will be re¬
turned to him on the following
interest elate. How much interest
will he have to pay if the bond is
bought on January 18?
3. Give several reasons why

good bonds are considered a safe
investment.
4. A man bought some 4-^

per cent bonds which yielded 5.3
per cent interest on the money in¬
vested. How much did he pay for
a $1000 bond?
5. What is the rate of income

on a $1000 seven per cent bond
bought for 102.6?
6. Find the rate of income on

the following $1000 bonds:
6% bond bought at 87.5
3^-% bond bought at 104.3
5% bond bought at par.
7. A man deposits $15,000 with which his banker is to buy

certain 4 per cent railroad bonds at 98.5, allowing a brokerage fee
of per cent. How many bonds can be bought for the sum and how
much cash will be left over?
8. When a bond is bought below par, is the rate of income

greater or less than the rate of interest paid on the par value?
What is the comparison when the bond is bought above par?
9. How many $100 bonds sold at par and bearing 5 per cent
interest secure an income of $1400?
10. A Board of Education in a city sold $30,000 worth of $500

bonds paying 4 per cent interest. Find the annual interest paid
on these bonds.
11. What is the cost of thirteen $100 bonds quoted at $98.10,

if the brokerage is -g- per cent and if they are bought 10 days after
the interest date?
149. Stocks. The capital used in carrying on the

business of a company is called stock. The stock is
divided into a number of equal parts, called shares,
and the owners of stock are stockholders. The owner of
stock receives a stock certificate which states the num¬
ber of shares held and the face value of each. He is
really a part owner of the stock company and, there¬
fore, entitled to his share of the profits. The distributed
profits are called dividends. They are computed as a
certain per cent of the par value of the stock. Two
kinds of stock are issued, the common stock and the
preferred stock. Dividends on the preferred stock,
which are usually determined according to a fixed rate,
are paid before any dividends on the common stock
are paid. After dividends on the preferred stock have
been paid the holders of the common stock share in the
remainder of the earnings in proportion to their hold¬
ings. If a corporation is very successful, owners of
common stock may receive more than owners of pre¬
ferred stock. When a corporation is not making a
profit, no dividends are distributed. If it loses money,

the stockholders may even be assessed a per cent of the
par value of the stock to supply more funds.
When the business of a corporation is profitable,
people may be willing to pay more than the par value
for the stock. On the other hand, stocks may sell below
par value when business is poor. Thus, prices of stocks
0000
Hint
fj f/tt- ///'//// // //tf//rj////*/'
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///- ' rrir, rs/K /<
Sv/ //> ////A/ 'r/j/'f/ t//wsJ *//"//£.> Syrr/st Vf/fr^'Sjr' r fifrs'i/t//'
ft . • fell® S fiBBaK£
are very changeable, depending on dividends paid,

business conditions, the security of the business and
other factors.
An immense amount of business is carried on by
stock companies. When a corporation expands its
business, it may issue and sell additional stock to secure
the necessary money. Stocks and bonds are therefore
constantly bought and sold.
The stock exchanges in the large cities are places

where stocks and bonds are bought and sold.
Exercises
1. What is the difference between stocks and bonds?
2. State the difference between common stock and preferred

stock.
3. What are the advantages and disadvantages of common

stock over preferred stock?
4. Why are people willing to pay more than par value for
some stocks?
150. Some comparisons between stocks and bonds.

Good government and municipal bonds are considered
a safe investment because they are backed by the gov¬
ernment or the property of the community.
The bonds of a coiporation are safer than its stocks.
For even a business enterprise which does not yield a
profit or paying dividends on stock must pay interest
on bonds.
If a company becomes bankrupt the bondholders
may be reimbursed partly or entirely, while there may
not be enough of a surplus to pay the stockholders.
Furthermore, stockholders may be liable for the debts
of the company to an amount equal to the par value of
the stock they own.
The market value of bonds does not change greatly.
If the owner has to sell, he can generally get a price
nearly equal to what he paid. But since the values of
stocks change, the owner cannot be sure as to the
amount he may receive. A person who buys unsafe
stocks must keep in mind that he is speculating with

his money.
The comparisons above show that an investor buying
stock must be very careful, especially as to unsafe
stocks promising very high returns. On the other hand,
there are many corporations that pay regularly the
dividends on their stocks, and some bonds that are
not a safe investment.
Exercises
1. Find the annual income on 18 shares of stock paying 8 per

cent dividends and purchased at $121.50 a share.
2. What is the annual income from 35 shares of National Bank
stock, purchased at 120 and paying a quarterly dividend of 7 per
cent?
3. A man bought some stocks at 135 which pay 8 per cent
dividends, and invested the same amount of money in mortgages at
5 per cent interest. Find out which is the better investment.
4. The following table is a part of a report of the New York
stock transactions given in the daily paper:
Net
Description Sales High Low Close
Chg.
Adams Exp. 1,700 102 99-1 100 -2

3
Am. Loco. 5,200 121 119i 119$ “ 8
3
Gen. Motors. 37,100 78 76-g- 77$ — 4
Mack Truck. 20,300 148f 144$ 145 _9L
“8
Pacific Gas. 1,200 lOSrf 106$ 108$ -2
Peoples Gas. 7,600 121 115 118$ ^8
The first column gives the number of shares sold, the second
gives the highest price paid for stock, the third gives the lowest
price, the fourth gives the price at the close of the market, and the
last shows the increase or decrease in the price since the day before.
Give the meaning of each line in the table above.
5. If the broker charges 12\ cents a share for buying the stock,
how many shares of General Motors stock could he have bought
for you for $578 as the market closed?
6. What is the rate of income on 8 per cent preferred stock
purchased at 94?
7. A corporation has issued $60,000 of common stock, $60,000
of 6 per cent preferred stock, and $30,000 of 5 per cent bonds. Dur¬
ing the year the corporation has earned $7000. Find the interest
on bonds, dividends on preferred stock, and the per cent dividend
that may be paid on the common stock.
8. Find the cost of 60 shares of stock selling at 122 if the broker
charges ^ of 1 per cent.
9. A man bought 100 shares of stock at 96 and sold them at 102,
paying -g- per cent brokerage. Find his profit.
10. If at the end of the year a railroad company declares a 10
per cent dividend on stock whose par value is $100, how much does
the owner of seven shares of stock receive?
CHAPTER X
EFFICIENT METHODS OF COMPUTATION
Short Methods of Multiplication
151. What you are going to study in this chapter.

The purpose of Chapter X is to present various meth¬
ods of computing that are valuable because they save
time and effort. Many of these methods are employed
by people who do a considerable amount of number
work in practical business. You have previously seen
the value of the abbreviated processes of multiplication
and division. It will be to your advantage to study the
devices taught in this chapter until you are able to
make use of them with ease.
152. Multiplying by a power of 10. Examine the
following examples and state how to multiply a num¬
ber quickly by 10, 100, 1000, etc.
647X10 = 6470. 54.1X100 = 5410.
3.7X10 = 37. .84X100 = 84.
.036X10 = .36. 12X100 = 1200.
The preceding illustrations show:
1. That a whole number is multiplied by 10, 100,
etc., by annexing zeros;
2. That a decimal fraction is multiplied by 10,
100, etc., by moving the decimal point to the right.
Since in a whole number the decimal point is under¬
stood to be to the right of the unit digit, we may say
228
EFFICIENT METHODS OF COMPUTATION 229
that in both cases the number may be multiplied by 10,

100, 1000, etc., by moving the decimal one, two, three, or
more places to the right, annexing zeros if necessary.
Exercises
Multiply as indicated, doing all work orally:

1. 85.4X10. 5. .0042X1000 9. 2.364 X10'2.
2. 4.003X100. 6. 24X100. 10. 64.30 X103.
3. 42.75X10. 7. .183X1000. 11. 1.257 X102.
4. .00826X100. 8. 250X10. 12. .004286 X103.
153. Multiplying by a multiple of a power of 10.

Since the numbers 20, 30, 40, etc., may be written
2X10, 3X10, 4X10, etc., we may multiply by these
numbers by first multiplying by 10, as shown in §152,
and then multiplying by 2, 3, 4, etc.
For example, 14.62X30 = 14.62X10X3 = 146.2X3
= 438.6
Similarly, we may multiply by 200, 400, 500, etc., by
first changing these multipliers to 100X2, 100X4,
100X5, etc.
Exercises
Perform the following multiplications:

1. .75X200. 4. .50X300. 7. 2.03X400.
2. 1.44X30. 5. .12X4000. 8. 10.6X70.
3. .24X2000. 6. 293.5X60. 9. 9.12X200.
154. Arranging the factors in convenient order

before multiplying. We have seen (§8) that the factors
of a product, as 2X4X5, may be arranged in any
order without changing the result, i.e., the product

2X4X5 = 2X5X4 = 4X5X2. Rearranging the order
of the factors sometimes simplifies the work of multi¬
plying. This is seen in the following illustrations:
1. 2X685X5 = 2X5X685 = 10X685 = 6850.
2. 4X7X25 =4X25X7 =100X7 =700.
3. 250X7X2 = 250X2X7 = 500X7 =3500.
Exercises
Arrange the factors in the products below in convenient order

and state the result, doing as much as you can orally:
1. 50X84X2.
Solution: 100X84 = 8400.

2. 25X16X4. 5. 15X8X4. 8. 50X13X2.
3. 14X10X3. 6. 5X75X6. 9. 3X16X30.

4. 5X218X3. 7. 16X5X4. 10. 8X94X5.
155. How to multiply by a number differing by a

small amount from a power of 10. The numbers 9, 99,
999, may be written 10 — 1, 100 — 1, 1000 — 1. Similarly,
98, 998 may be written 100 — 2, 1000 — 2. This sug¬
gests a method of multiplying which is illustrated in
the following examples:
1. 325X9. Solution: 10X325 = 3250

1X325= 325
Difference = 2925
2. 9.72X99. Solution: 100X9.72 = 972

1X9.72=>
9.72
Difference = 962.28
3. 3.64X97. Solution: 100X3.64 = 364

3X3.64= 10.92
Difference = 353.08
Exercises
Using the method above, find the following products:

1. 8.56X999.
Solution: 8560
8.56
8551.44
2. 9X47. 6. 19X14. 10. 29X25.4 14. 996X235.

3. 9X32. 7. 99X25.1. 11. 39X1.38. 15. 997X.324.
4. 9X81. 8. 99X16.5. 12. 59X.75. 16. 998X15.7.
5. 19X25. 9. 99X14.2. 13. 98X1.23. 17. 999X25.
156. Multiplying by 5, 25, 50, 75, 125. Simple

methods of multiplying by 5, 25, 50, 75, 125 are ex¬
plained below.
1. Since 5 = —, the product of a number by 5 may
be found by first multiplying the number by 10 and

then dividing the result by 2.
3.42X10 34.2
Thus, 3.42X5 = 17.1.
2 ~Y
Briefly, we proceed as follows:
3.42X5 = —= 17.1
2
2. Since 25 = —, the product of a number by 25
may be found by first multiplying by 100 and then

dividing by 4.
384
Thus, 3.84X25---96.
4
3. Since 50 — ^^, we may multiply by 50 by first
multiplying by 100 and then dividing by 2.

720
Thus, 7.2X50 — -360.
4. Since 75 — -|X100, we may multiply by 75 by

first multiplying by 100 and then by -J.
Thus, 16 X 75 — 1600 Xf = 400 X 3 —1200.
1000
5. Since 125- , we may multiply by 1000 and
8
divide by 8.
56000
Thus, 56 X125 = = 7000.
IT
Exercises
Perform the following multiplications, using the methods ex

plained above:
1. 96X25. 6. 72X25. 11. 36X25. 16. 48X25.
2. 72X125. 7. 64X125. 12. 28X75. 17. 608X50.
3. 98X50. 8. 36X50. 13. 506X50. 18. 48X125.
4. 32X75. 9. 72X5. 14. 576X125 19. 284X5.
5. 64X75. 10. 24X5. 15. 642X5. 20. 36X75.
157. How to multiply quickly by 11. The two

examples below illustrate short processes of multiply-
ing by 11. The multiplier 11 is changed to 10+1.

1. 236X11.
Solution: Multiplying by 10, we have 2360
Multiplying by 1, 236
Adding, 2596
From the results we derive the following:
To multiply 236 by 11, write first the right-hand
digit, 6. Then, passing from right-hand digit to the
left, write the sums of the adjacent digits as 6+3 and
3+2. Finally write the left-hand digit.
2. 2569X11.
Solution: Multiplying by 10, we have 25690
Multiplying by 1, 2569
Adding, 28259
As in example 1, the result may be obtained directly
as follows:
Write the right-hand digit, 9.
Passing from the right-hand digit to the left, write
the sums of the adjacent digits, carrying if necessary.
Thus 9+6 = 15. Write 5 and carry 1.
6+5 are 11 and 1 are 12. Write 2 and carry 1.
5+2 are 7 and 1 are 8. Write 8.
Finally, write the left-hand digit 2.
Exercises
Find the following products by the short method explained above:

1. 523X11. 5. 857X11. 9. 3285X11.
2. 708X11. 6. 423X11. 10. 4172X11.
3. 324X11. 7. 906X11. 11. 6498X11.
4. 134X11. 8. 637X11. 12. 28357X11.
158. Multiplying by parts of 100. We have previ¬

ously learned how to change multiplication by a whole
number, as 5, 50, 125, to multiplication by parts of
10, 100, or 1000. Goods to be sold are frequently
marked at fractional prices which are even parts of
100. Articles are sold 2 pounds for 25c, or 3 for SI.00.
Everybody should know the short methods for multi¬
plying by such prices. They are explained in the fol¬
lowing examples:
1. To multiply by 12±, change 12-1- to 4-XlOO, i.e.,
multiply first by 100 and then divide by 8.
2. To multiply by 33^-, change 33^- to ^Xl00, i.e.,
3. To multiply by 16f, change 16§ to TxlOO, i.e.,
The table below gives a list of multipliers and their
equivalents which are commonly used. They will be
found very helpful in problems which involve buying
and selling articles. For example: John’s father bought
5 collars that were sold 3 for SI. How much did he
pay for them? This problem may be solved as follows:
5X33
He paid $1.67.
12i = TX100
33^ = 1X100
16f = iX100
66§ = f X100
62i = fXl00
3?i = fXl00
87i = |Xl00
Exercises
Using the table above, find the following products by the short
method:
1. 64X12-J-. 8. 56 X.624- 15. 20% of 75.
2. 18X66f. 9. 72 X.874- 16. 75% of 72.
3. 96X374- 10. 128X.12J. 17. 25% of 68.
4. 32X624- 11. 252X.66f. 18. 10% of 85.
5. 45X334- 12. 14 X.374- 19. 80% of 85.
6. 88 X 874- 13. 216X.33^-. 20. 50% of 98.
7. 36X16|. 14. 246X.16f. 21. 30% of 57.
159. Finding the square of a number which ends

in T .5? or 5. Show that 64X64= (6+4) (6+4)
-62 + 2X6X^ + (i)2 = 62 + 6X1 + (|)2
= 6(6 + 1) + (-^)2 = 42+x = 42T. To obtain the result,
briefly multiply the 6 of 6-^ by the consecutive inte¬
ger 7 which gives 42. Then add the square of
Similarly, 6.5X6.5 = 6X7 + (.5)2
= 42.25
To multiply 65X65 proceed as with 6.5, leaving out
the decimal point.
Exercises
1. 3^-X3^. 4. 6ttX6^. 7. 9.5X9.5. 10. 45X45.

2. 4^X4^. 5. 7^X7^. 8. 12.5X12.5. 11. 75X75.
3. 5|-X5-|. 6. 11^-Xll^. 9. 8.5X8.5. 12. S5X85.
160. A quick way of finding the product of two

mixed numbers. The product of 6y by 4f may be
found in two ways:
1. Write 6|-X4J- = (6+A) (4+-|) and multiply the

two binomials, arranging the work as follows:
6X4 = 24
6X|= 2f
4Xy = If
27ff = 28f
The method should be used when the numbers are
large.
2. Change the mixed numbers to fractions:
45X22 9X22 198
6yX4^ -= 28+ This method is
7X5 7 7
to be used when the numbers are small.
Exercises
Find the following products:

1. 4|X6^. 4. 15|-X2^. 7. 24^X9^. 10. 15^X5^.
2. 8-fx5f. 5. 8^X9f. 8. 18fx7-J. 11. 22^X6f.
3. 16yX6^. 6. 7^X83-. 9. 25-g-X8§-. 12. 24JX7-J-.
161. How to multiply two two-figure numbers.

Since 38X26 = (30+8) (20+6), we may multiply the
two numbers like two binomials. Thus,
6X 8 = 48
6X30 = 180
20 X 8 = 160
20X30 = 600
/. 38X26 = 988
Briefly, we may write the product 988 as follows:

6X8 =48. Write 8 and carry 4.
4+ (6X3) + (2X8) =38. Write 8 and carry 3.
3+(2X3) =9. Write 9.
Exercises
Write the following products, doing all the work orally.

1. 29X76. 5. 18X35. 9. 61X64. 13. 69X95.
2. 84X43. 6. 75X82. 10. 45X38. 14. 26X28.
3. 36X92. 7. 53X59. 11. 87X12. 15. 34X79.
4. 72X25. 8. 97X94. 12. 52X46. 16. 13X36.
162. A quick way of finding successive discounts.

To take two successive discounts, as 15% and 10%,
we may proceed as follows: Suppose we wish to take
two successive discounts of 900.
1. The given sum = 900
15% of 900 =135
Difference = 765
10% of 765 = 76.5
Difference =688.5
2. The same result may be obtained by first add¬

ing the two discounts and then subtracting the product.
Thus, 15%+10% = 25%
15% X10%= 1.5%
Difference = 23.5%
.-.23.5% of 900 =211.5
$900—$211.5 = $688.5.
Exercises
Find the following successive discounts:
Sums $460 $850 $264 $740 $375

Discounts 20%, 10% 40%, 15% 15%, 15% 10%, 5% 60%, 20%
Division
163. Tests of divisibility. In changing a fraction, as

42
—, to lowest terms we divide numerator and denomina-
72
tor by the same factor. It is therefore necessary to be
able to find the factors of the numbers 42 and 72. The
following rules help us to tell easily some of the factors
most commonly found in numbers.
1. A number ending in 5 or 0 is divisible by 5. A
number ending in 0 is divisible by 5 and 10.
2. Even numbers are divisible by 2.
3. A number is divisible by if the two-figure num¬
ber formed by the ten and unit digits is divisible by +
. The reason for the third rule may be seen as follows:
Write the number 4632 in the form 4000+600+32.
Since the numbers 1000 and 100 are divisible by 4, the
number 4600 is also divisible by 4. Therefore if the
number formed by the last two digits is divisible by
4, the whole number must be divisible by 4.
Which of the numbers below are divisible by 4?
348, 562, 491, 872, 4180.
4. A number is divisible by 8 if the number formed

by the last three digits is divisible by 8.
This may be shown as in the preceding case. Since

1000 or any higher power of 10 is divisible by 8, it
follows that a number is divisible by 8 if the number
formed by the last three digits is divisible by 8.
5. A number is divisible by 3 or 9 if the sum of the
digits is divisible by 3 or 9.
To show this, write a three-figure number in the form
100a+106+c. Dividing by 3 we have
100a+10b+c = 33xa+3i6+ic.
3
= 33n-f'3&-|-Tj(n_l-fr_l-c)
which is a whole number if the sum aA-b-\-c is divisible
by 3.
Exercises
Test the following numbers for divisibility by 2 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, and
1. 64 642 523 465 428 641 460
2, 78 231 274 406 693 624 342
3. 92 325 724 827 852 412 784
4. 65 910 947 215 426 318 386
5. 72 736 211 712 232 945 364
6. 86 912 512 390 825 432 625
7. 70 603 275 326 924 306 280
8. Make tests of divisibility by 6; 12; 15; 18.
164. Simplifying division by dividing common fac¬

tors into dividend and divisor. Long division may often
be simplified or changed to short division by dividing
out common factors. Thus, in 7384-15 we may divide

the factor 3 into dividend and divisor, changing the
problem to 2464-5.
Exercises
Simplify the following division exercises:

1. 624-r-16. 4. 8884-24. 7. 75204-48. 10. 16294-36.
2. 5124-32. 5. 25564-63. 8. 34054-25. 11. 3048^56.
3. 8374-39. 6. 44884-27. 9. 40864-30. 12. 56404-54.
165. Division by a power of 10. A number may be

divided by 10, 100, or 1000 by moving the decimal point
one, two or three places to the left.
Thus, 3614 4- 10 = 361.4; 361.4 4- 100 = 3.614;
3.614 -f- 1000 = .3614; .3614 4- 10 = .03614.
A number may be divided by .1, .01, .001, by multi¬
plying the number by 10, 100, or 1000. Thus, 84.624-. 1
= 84.62 X10 = 846.2.
When the divisor ends in one or several zeros, the
zeros may be left off and the decimal point in the
dividend moved to the left one place for each zero left
off. Thus, 51394-80 = 513.94-8.
Exercises
Divide in the simplest way:

1. 54=10. 4. 764-.1. 7. 5244-40.
2. 8.64-100. 5. 944-.01. 8. 1234-300.
3. 22.34-1000. 6. 824-.001. 9. 3504-500.
166. How to divide by 5, 25, and 125. Since 5 =—,

2
any number divided by 5 may be divided by —, or

2
multiplied by —. Hence, to divide a number by 5
multiply it by 2 and divide the result by 10.
Similarly, since 25 = to divide by 25 multiply

4
1000
by 4 and divide by 100. Since 125 = we may
8 ’
divide by 125 by multiplying by 8 and dividing by
1000.
Exercises
Divide as indicated, doing all you can orally:
1. 715 + 5. 4. 2525-7-25. 7. 1670 + 25. 10. 7255 + 125.
2. 1580 + 125. 5. 225-7-5. 8. 8575 + 125.11. 2565 + 25.
3. 2135 + 25. 6. 1325 + 125. 9. 175 + 5. 12. 3135 + 5.
167. How to divide by 12^, 16f, 334-. These three

numbers divide into 100 without remainder, and are
. 100 100 . 100
equal to-,-, and-. Hence to divide by them,
H 8 6 3
we may multiply by 8, 6, and 3, respectively, and then
divide by 100.
Exercises
Divide as indicated, doing all you can orally:
1. 96 + 12^. 4. 364 +16f. 7. 3.68+16|.
2. 98+333-. 5. 250+12-^. 8. 184+33^.
3. 84+16§-. 6. 356+12|-. 9. 84.2 + 12^.

168. A short way of dividing by 34, 64, 62^, 87T.

From the facts that 3|- = ^- = J^-, 6-J- =
62T = = J-Eoo.^ 871. = J_|_5 = T|_o it is easy to derive
rules for dividing by these numbers. Formulate the
rules and use them in the following exercises:
Exercises
1. 46-^3^-. 4. 14-S-6J. 7. 12 h-6^. 10. 61-7-3^-.

2. 22^6^. 5. 21-r-3^. 8. 14-7-87^. 11. 28-^87-J-.
3. 21^87^-. 6. 18^-62^. 9. 16-^3|-. 12. 36-r-6y.
Square Root
169. A short method of approximating the square

root of a number. For practical purposes it is often
sufficient to find the approximate value of the square
root of a number to one or two decimal places only.
The following examples explain the method:
1. Find the square root of 87.
a. First approximation: Since 92 = 81, and
102 = 100, the square root of 87 lies a little less than
midway between 9 and 10. Let us suppose it to be 9.4.
b. Divide 87 by the first approximation, 9.4.
This gives the first quotient 9.25.
c. Second approximation: Find the average of
the first approximation 9.4 and the quotient 9.25.
This is 9.31.
d. Divide 87 by the second approximation, 9.31.
This gives the second quotient, 9.34.
e. Third approximation: Find the average of
the second approximation and the second quotient.
This is 9.315.
/. Continue the process as far as it seems

desirable.
2. Find the square root of 1'49'06.

a. The square root lies between 120 and 130.
Let us suppose it to be 123.
b. Divide 14906 by 123. The quotient is 121
approximately.
c. Find the average of 123 and 121. This is 122.
d. Divide 14906 by 122. This gives 122.1, the
approximate square root of 14906.
Exercises
Find the approximate square root of each of the following

numbers:
1. 34. 5. 9215. 9. 16312.

2. 23. 6. 5202. 10. 25484.
3. 56. 7. 1525. 11. 91324.
4. 98. 8. 9147. 12. 76518.
Interest
170. How to compute interest with interest tables.

Bankers, loan and insurance agents, and other business
men who compute interest frequently and wish to do it
quickly and accurately, use interest tables. The tables
are usually bound into book form and so arranged
that interest can be computed for various amounts,
days, and rates. The method of finding interest by
means of a table can be understood by using the short
table following.
6% Simple Interest Table
Days $100 $200 $300 $400 $500
1 0.0167 0.0333 0.0500 0.0667 0.0833

2 0.0333 0.0667 0.1000 0.1333 0.1667
3 0.0500 0.1000 0.1500 0.2000 0.2500
4 0.0667 0.1333 0.2000 0.2667 0.3333
5 0.0833 0.1667 0.2500 0.3333 0.4167
6 0.1000 0.2000 0.3000 0.4000 0.5000

7 0.1167 0.2333 0.3500 0.4667 0.5833
8 0.1333 0.2667 0.4000 0.5333 0.6667
9 0.1500 0.3000 0.4500 0.6000 0.7500
10 0.1667 0.3333 0.5000 0.6667 0.8333
11 0.1833 0.3667 0.5500 0.7333 0.9167

12 0.2000 0.4000 0.6000 0.8000 1.0000
13 0.2167 0.4333 0.6500 0.8667 1.0833
14 0.2333 0.4667 0.7000 0.9333 1.1667
15 0.2500 0.5000 0.7500 1.0000 1.2500
16 0.2667 0.5333 0.8000 1.0667 1.3333

17 0.2833 0.5667 0.8500 1.1333 1.4167
18 0.3000 0.6000 0.9000 1.2000 1.5000
19 0.3167 0.6333 0.9500 1.2667 1.5833
20 0.3333 0.6667 1.0000 1.3333 1.6667
21 03500 0.7000 1.0500 1.4000 1.7500

22 0.3667 0.7333 1.1000 1.4667 1.8333
23 0.3833 0.7667 1.1500 1.5333 1.9167
24 0.4000 0.8000 1.2000 1.6000 2.0000
25 0.4167 0.8333 1.2500 1.6667 2.0833
Days $100 $200 $300 $400 $500
26 0.4333 0.8667 1.3000 1.7333 2.1667

27 0.4500 0.9000 1.3500 1.8000 2.2500
28 0.4667 0.9333 1.4000 1.8667 2.3333
29 0.4833 0.9667 1.4500 1.9333 2.4167
30 0.5000 1.0000 1.5000 2.0000 2.5000
Days $600 $700 $800 $900 $1000
1 0.1000 0.1167 0.1333 0.1500 0.167

2 0.2000 0.2333 0.2667 0.3000 0.333
3 0.3000 0.3500 0.4000 0.4500 0.500
4 0.4000 0 4667 0.5333 0.6000 0.667
5 0.5000 0.5833 0.6667 0.7500 0.833
6 0.6000 0.7000 0.8000 0.9000 1.000

7 0.7000 0.8167 0.9333 1.0500 1.167
8 0.8000 0.9333 1.0667 1.2000 1.333
9 0.9000 1.0500 1.2000 1.3500 1.500
10 1.0000 1.1667 1.3333 1.5000 1.667
11 1.1000 1.2833 1.4667 1.6500 1.833

12 1.2000 1.4000 1.6000 1.8000 2.000
13 1.3000 1.5167 1.7333 1.9500 2.167
14 1.4000 1.6333 1.8667 2.1000 2.333
15 1.5000 1.7500 2 0000 2.2500 2.500
16 1.6000 1.8667 2.1333 2.4000 2.667

17 1.7000 1.9833 2.2667 2.5500 2.833
18 1.8000 2.1000 2.4000 2.7000 3.000
19 1.9000 2.2167 2.5333 2 8500 3.167
20 2.0000 2.3333 2.6667 3 0000 3.333
Days $600 $700 $800 $900 siooo

21 2.1000 2.4500 2.8000 3.1500 3.500
22 2.2000 2.5667 2.9333 3.3000 3.662
23 2,3000 2.6833 3.0667 3.4500 3.833
24 2.4000 2.8000 3.2000 3.6000 4.000
25 2.5000 2.9167 3.3333 3.7500 4.167
26 2.6000 3.0333 3.4667 3.9000 4.333

27 2.7000 3.1500 3.6000 4.0500 4 500
28 2.8000 3.2667 3.7333 4.2000 4.667
29 2.9000 3.3833 3.8667 4.3500 4.833
30 3.0000 3.5000 4.0000 4.5000 5.000
Exercises
1. From the interest table find the interest on $400 at 6% for

15 days; on $700 for 28 days; on $500 for 21 days.
2. Find the interest on $350 for 15 days.

Solution: Interest on $300 for 15 days =$0.7500
Interest on $3^(100) for 15 days= 0.1250
Total = $0.8750 or $0.88
3. Find the interest at 6% on the following:

$450 for 20 days. $1000 for 18 days.
$350 for 22 days. $3000 for 16 days.
$850 for 12 days. $3550 for 27 days.

$80 for 10 days. $75 for 20 days.

$2360 for 30 days. $2530 for 1 year 360 days.
$1640 for 20 days. $1350 for 1 year 5 months.
$350 for 90 days. $1275 for 2 years 8 months.
6. Using the 6% table find the interest at 2% and at 3% on

each of the following:
$2500 for 17 days. $3680 for 26 days.
$8465 for 21 days. $9360 for 27 days.
7. Explain how the 6% table may be used to compute interest

at 1%, 4%, 5%, 8%.
CHAPTER XI
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES
The Fundamental Operations
171. Practice and review. In Book Two are taught

many important algebraic processes. To help you gain
the skill necessary to perform them with ease, this
chapter provides numerous exercises. They may be
worked in addition to the problems given in the text
whenever there seems need for practice, or they may be
used to help you review your work from time to time.
172. Combining similar terms. In the following

exercises perform the indicated operations and change
each result to the simplest form:
Exercises
1. 4x T 3x T 2x. 10. 7z—3-12X+7 —12.

2. 2m+5m+m. 11. 3p —8 — 5p+4 —4p.
3. 16a+3a6 —5a. 12. 6p—3p+5+2—8p —10.
4. 106 — 66+36. 13. 3x2+5+7x2 —8—4x2.
5. 2R^+|t 14. 6a3-36+10a3+56-16a3.
6. 21 x 4^. x 1 g^ . 15. 3 m4 — 8t — 7 m4 — 3/+4m4.
3x , x 2x 16. 5a—3£5+4a — 7a+4£5 — 7 tb.
7. --.
5 6 3 17. —4xy — 2z-\-§xy-\-8z-\-3xy—z.
x 2x 6x 18. 8.r+ (+4.x) T (— 3x) — (lOx).
8# --#
3 7 5 19. 14a- (2b) -03b) + (-7a) -8.
9. 5w~j~ s —6iy+4+12w?. 20. —3m — (4a) + (5 m) + ( — 2/a)+6a.
248
SUPPLEMENTARY EXERCISES 249
173. Finding the values of algebraic expressions.

Letting a = 3, b = 2, e=1.5, d=l, and x=—2, find the
value of each of the following:
Exercises
1. 2 a-b. abc
15.
2. 5 c-Sd. 100'
3. a2-{-ax. 16. jjrax2.

4. 2ad—3bx. 17. 2a6+2ac+26c.
5. 3 a6+a62. 18. â-\-^b — \c.
6. b2 — 4ac. 19. 3.46 —1.4a+6.8+
7. 2 acac2. 20. 2^>x — 4^-a — 5 \d.
8. 6c?2+3a26. 21. 3.1c+6.5a —10.16.
9. 7T+ 22. 4^rx — 3^6+b\d.
10. 23. 3.4a —3.16+4.2c.
11. faTa3. 24. 5.3a+5.66—3.2x.
12. 7ra2b. 25. a3+3a2—6a—4.
13. 1a(6+c). 26. 3z3—5x2-\-x — 6.
14. 7ra2x. 27. 2a2 - 362+ 8c- +
174. Addition and subtraction of polynomials. Add

or subtract as indicated and combine similar terms:
Exercises
1. 9a— (8+2a). 7. (6^- (3^+4/? ).
2. —8n+ (5 — ‘hi). 8. 2a+(-4a+66).
3. 3a— (2a+6). 9. 26—(6 —2a).
GO
iO
4. 10. (5.t — y)-\- (7x 2y).

d
1
5. 2m — (Sn — Qm). 11. (8a —96) — (4a + 56).

6. 3r+ (5r+4i). 12. (3-J-a+4^-6) + (4-|-a — 3§6).
13. (5m - 10n) - (m+2n). 18. (86 - 6/) + [76 - '3c -/)].
14. (a-f-6-fc) — (or —6—c).

2 —3a
15. (2x2+:r-4) + (3.r2+4x).
19. 4 T3a.
16. (5c—d) — [8-f (12c—6d)]. 4 — 2x .r-j-3
20. 3x
17. (a—26; —[(l+3or) —86].
175. Multiplication of monomials. Multiply as in¬

dicated and change all results to the simplest form:
Exercises
1. 3 • 5x.
2. 6c?2,36. i2- 3
(- a)(D-
3. 2a-7ab2. 13. (~^xy)(6x2y2).
4. 3c( —4orc2). 14. 4or( —5ci62).
5. 5a-2a2bc. 15. 10c? (3.r) ( — 2ax).
6. (6m2)( —3mft). 16. or6( — 362) (2ab).

7. (m2)3. 17. a6(—362) (2a6).
8. 3(-p2,2. 18. a(62) ( —2c?26).
9. (or62U-
10. ( — 2mn2)3.
11. 2x-16xy2.
20. 3.r
176. Multiplication of a polynomial by a monomial.

In the following exercises carry out the multiplications
and combine similar terms:
Exercises
1. a(3.X+2). 8. 2x(3y— 4) ~h5(ic-E3).
2. — 6(6+4c). 9. —y(3y2—'±y-\-G).
3. 10. (a+6)m+ {x-\-y)n.
4. 3p(4a —6). 11. x{x2-\-bx) — a(a2 —x).
5. —ab(3a2—ab). 12. a(a2 —4a-f3) — 5a2.
6. -(12a-f6&). 13. 9x(2x2—x — l) + 16x.

6
„ (mn\ 771 717
7. 3m ( —— ). 14. — (6x-2)-(4.x — 1).
V6
9/ 3 2
177. Multiplication of a polynomial by a polynomial.

Multiply as indicated and change each product to the
simplest form:
Exercises
1. {x-3y)2. 11. (3.x2-2x+4)(5x-3).
2. C~|-7)(x — 3). 12. (m2-M4n2)(m-n).
3. (2a+6)(a-4). 13. (x3+x —4 —3x2)(x2+x).
4. (6x —1) (3.x+2). 14. (a-f-6)(a2 — a6+62).
5. (2a — 6-f-3c)2. 15. (x-y)(x2—xy-\-y2).

Q'YYl
6. (— -4)(6m+2). 16. (a3 — 3)(a3Ta2 — a+1).
7. (a-f2x)(x — a). 17. (m2 — 2)(m3+2m2 — 6m+4).
8. (2r+l)(x3 — 7r). 18. (2a2 — b-\- c) (a — 2b — c).
9. (2a —5) (a2+3a —2). 19. (x2+xy+y2)(x2+xy-y2).
10. (-J-a+3-6) (12a —66+18c). 20. (3-a2+-|-a+^)(12a2+6a-|-24).

The Formula
178. Solving formulas. Solve each of the following

formulas for the required literal number:
Exercises
„ W -rn- i
1. i = —. Find (. 8. s =—. I md w.
100 L
C>7
2. A =7rr2. Find r.
9. M . Find 7.
3. V = abc. Find c. T
4. V— rr3. Find r. Mv2
10. K =-. Find r.
5. L=tts. Finds. 2
6. V = ~$irr2h. Find r. P
11. C= Find R.
R+r
7. C=~. Find R.
R 12. A=^(a+6). Find a.
179. Finding the values of formulas. In the follow¬

ing exercises find the values of the unknown numbers:
Exercises
1. p = 20a; a = 4.23.
2. l — 2ab-\-2ac; a = 5, b = %, c = 4.
3. c = 2irr; c = 98.
4. A =7rr2; A = 50.
5. A — -^bh) A = 20, b — S^.
6. A=-g-A'(a+6); A_ = 120, A = 6, a = 2.
7. F =Trr2h; V = 140, /i = 10.
8. L = 2irrh\ L = 60, /i = 8.
9. V= l-bh) F = 27, /i=6.
10. F = 32+-|C; F = 34.
11. s=^gt2m, s= 110, <7 = 32.
12. A = P+PPP; A = 200, P = 180, P = 2.
The Equation
180. Linear equations with one unknown. Solve

the following equations:
Exercises
1. 2x = 8. 10. 2(x+3)=21-x.
2. 12x+4x= -15+35. 11. —3(9a+17) = —14a—7.
3. .5m = .2m+1.2. 12. a —2(4 —5a) = 14.
4. 4x = 6x+10. 13. ll(13m-4) = -9m+35.
5. .4x+.3 = .5 — .7x. 14. 2a —20 = 3 (2a —5).
6. 7a- 13a = 18-42. 15. 6 (a — 3) — 4(a-f 2) = — a-f-4.
7. 12a-10-15a = 7. 16. 4(2a:-5) + 15 = 3(x+10).
8. 13m+18= —9 m —17. 17. 2(m-3)+3(m-2)=8.
9. 9a; —7 = — 13.x+6. 18. 8(lla—4) = 7(13a —3).
181. Linear equations with two unknowns. Solve

the following equations by algebraic methods:
Exercises
1. 3m+n = 5 5. 5x — 2y = 0
2m+n = 2. 3x+5i/= 13.
2. l\x — 7y = 15 6. 4x+5?/ = 76
2xJr7y = 11. 5a;+4?/ = 13.
3. x+6?/ = — 3 7. 3x = 2i/-H0
2x — 3y = 9. 7x+3i/ = 31.
4. 2x+y=l0 8. 7a+26 = 8
Sx-\-2y—l. 8a+36 = 9.
182. Quadratic equations in one unknown. Solve

the following quadratic equations:
Exercises
1. 9. a2—4a--45 = 0.
©
II
H
10.
cs1
LO
2. 262 = 64. -40 == 0.
a.
3. £2 — 36 = 0. 11. £2 + 9x == 10.
4. 1U2 —99 = 0. 12. a2 —5a == 50.
5. ifft2 = 100. 13. a2+5 = 6a.
6. £2+64 = 100. 14. 2x2-h5x+2 = 0.
7. 20a2+8 = 28. 15. 5a2 = 2a+7.
8. 2.r2 —125= —27. 16. 9x2 —6x -4 = 0.
183. Fractional equations. Change each of the

equations below to the simplest form and solve:
Exercises
m—6 m+4
1. —^—=12. 8 .
5 m—2 m+5
2+x 2 ■x
a —6 a-f-3
2 . 9.
a —2 a-(-4
5
£+3 £+2
3. -§-a =-3-0+2. 10 .
£ —4 £—7
11a —4 13a —3 ?/+5 ++3
4.
7 8
11.
y-4 y—2
5.
4a+2 a —3
= 0. 12 . “U6=-8.
3 4 2 5
6a —56 = 26.
7a—8 a+6
6 . 0.
13. —+- = 7.
6 4
4x — 5 3x — 3
7. -3 = 0. 14. -—- = 3.
2 4 3 8
184. Adding, subtracting, multiplying, dividing, and

reducing fractions. Change each of the following ex¬
pressions to the simplest form:
Exercises
1. -V.
7 7
16a262
— 27 a;3?/2
_ 8a62
9a;2?/
^ 20a;?/3 _ 4a;2?/
2. M.
c c —21a4c 3ac2
o 6a 5a+76 9a6c — 18a26

3• • 13. -
56 56 — 9a6
x 2x x , 8a2 — 20a6
4.-—. 14. -.
4 3 2 4a
a 5 5a;2?/ —15a;?/2
3a; 2a; — 5 xy
a+6 a —6 , 9a;?/2-f 6a;?/2+3a;?/2

6. + 16. -.
c 2c 2>xy
1t7 6ma~h6mb
7. —[-6. !/• •
X 2>mc
c 35a262—49a63
8. —\-a. 18. -.
y 7a62
7a;2 15 y —a462—a262+5a263
9. — • —. 19.-.
3 y2 —x — a2
, . 2a2a; 56 — 12?n3?i+4w2?i2
10. • - 20. -.
3 bhy 4ax2 — 4m
TABLES AND FORMULAS
Measure of Length
12 inches (in.) = 1 foot (ft.)

3 feet = 1 yard (yd.)
5^- yards or 16-J- feet = 1 rod (rd.)
320 rods = 1 mile (mi.)
1 mi. = 320 rods =1,760 yards = 5,280 feet
= 63,360 inches
Measures of Surface
144 square inches (sq. in.) = l square foot (sq. ft.)

9 square feet = 1 square yard (sq. yd.)
30^ square yards = 1 square rod (sq. rd.)
160 square rods = 1 acre (A.)
640 acres = 1 square mile (sq. mi.)
36 square miles = a township (tp.)
An acre = a square approximately 209 feet on
one side, or 4840 square yards, or
43,560 square feet
Measures of Volume
1728 cubic inches (cu. in.) = l cubic foot (cu. ft.)

27 cubic feet = 1 cubic yard (cu. yd.)
16 cubic feet = 1 cord foot (cd. ft.)
128 cubic feet = 1 cord (cd.)
1 board foot = 1 foot long, 1 foot wide, and 1 inch thick
Equivalents
1 bushel = -§- cubic feet, or 2150.42 cubic inches

1 gallon = 231 cubic inches
1 cubic foot of water = 62.5 pounds (approx.)
1 ton of hay =500 cubic feet (approx.)
1 ton of hard coal =35 cubic feet (approx.)
1 ton of soft coal =38 cubic feet (approx.)
256
TABLES AND FORMULAS 257
Liquid Measure
4 gills (gi.) =1 pint (pt.)

2 pints =1 quart (qt.)
4 quarts =1 gallon (gal.)
231 cubic inches = 1 gallon
1 cubic foot =7.48 gallons
31-^ gallons = 1 barrel (bbl.)
4.27 cubic feet = 1 barrel
Dry Measure
2 pints (pt.) =1 quart (qt.)

8 quarts =1 peck (pk.)
4 pecks =1 bushel (bu.)
- cubic feet =1 bushel (approx.)
1 bushel wheat or potatoes = 60 pounds
1 bushel corn or rye = 56 pounds
1 bushel oats =32 pounds
1 bushel barley =48 pounds
1 barrel of flour =196 pounds
Standard Weights
16 ounces (oz.) =1 pound (lb.)

100 pounds (lb.) =1 hundredweight (cwt.)
2000 pounds =1 ton
2240 pounds =1 long ton
Measures of Angles
60 seconds (") =1 minute (')

60 minutes =1 degree (°)
360 degrees =4 right angles
90 degrees of angle = 1 right angle
Measures of Arcs
90 degrees of arc. = 1 quadrant

360 degrees of arc. = 1 circumference
Paper Measure
24 sheets = 1 quire 20 quires = 1 ream

Measures of Time
60 seconds (sec.) = 1 minute (min.)

60 minutes = 1 hour (hr.)
24 hours = 1 day (da.)
7 days =1 week (wk.)
12 months = 1 year (yr.)
360 days = 1 commercial year
365 days = 1 common year (yr.)
366 days = 1 leap year
10 years = 1 decade
100 years = 1 century
METRIC UNITS
Measures of Length
10 millimeters (mm.) = 1 centimeter (cm.)

10 centimeters =1 decimeter (dm.)
10 decimeters =1 meter (m.)
1 meter =39.37 inches
1 yard = .9144 meter
Measures of Surface
100 square millimeters (sq. mm.) = l square centimeter (sq. cm.)

100 square centimeters = 1 square decimeter (sq. dm.)
100 square decimeters =1 square meter (sq. m.)
Measures of Volume
1000 cubic millimeters (cu. mm.) = l cubic centimeter (cu. cm.)

1000 cubic centimeters =1 cubic decimeter (cu. dm.)
1000 cubic decimeters =1 cubic meter (cu. m.)
1 cubic meter =1.308 cubic yards
1 cubic yard =.765 cubic meter
Measures of Capacity
1 liter (1.) =.908 dry quart

1 dry quart =1.1012 liters
1 liter = 1.0567 liquid quarts
1 liquid quart = .94636 liter
TABLES AND FORMULAS 259
Measures of Weight
10 milligrams (mg.) = 1 centigram (eg.)

10 centigrams = 1 decigram (dg.)
10 decigrams = 1 gram (g.)
10 grams = 1 dekagram (Dg.)
10 dekagrams = 1 hectogram (Hg.)
10 hectograms = 1 kilogram (Kg.)
1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds
1 gram = weight of 1 cubic centimeter
= .0022 pounds
1 pound = 453.59 grams
Formulas
Area of a rectangle A = bh
Area of a square A = s2
Area of a parallelogram A = bh
Area of a triangle A=ibh
Area of a trapezoid A = Tjr(biA'b2)h
Circumference of a circle c = ird or 2irr
22 or 3.14159 ap-
where
7 proximately
Area of a circle A = 7T?’2
Area of surface of a cylinder S = 2 irvll
Area of surface of a cone S = Trrl
Area of surface of a sphere S = 47i-r2
Area of lateral surface of a right prism S — pe
Area of lateral surface of a regular pyramid S = ^ps
Volume of a block V = Iwh
Volume of a cube V = e3
Volume of a prism y=bh
Volume of a pyramid V=%bh
Volume of a cylinder V = tt r%
Volume of a cone V = ^7T rVi
Volume of a sphere V = fxr3
INDEX
(References are to pages)
Abbreviated division, 57; ab¬ Banks, 208; account in, 211;

breviated multiplication, kinds of, 209; why needed,
55. 208.
Account, checking, 211; sav¬ Base of cone, 96; of cylinder,
ing, 215. 86; of parallelogram, 42; of
Accuracy, degree of, 54. prism, 83; of pyramid, 91;
Adding, polynomials, 123; of rectangle, 2; of trape¬
positive and negative num¬ zoid, 44; of triangle, 50.
bers, 116. Bills, paying, 213.
Ad valorem duty, 198. Binomial, square of, 23.
Age problems, 148. Block, rectangular, 75.
Algebraic solution of equa¬ Board foot, 79.
tions in two unknowns, Bond, 219.
167.
Ahmes, 59. Cash value of a policy, 205.
Altitude of a-cone, 93; cylin¬ Center of sphere, 97.
der, 86; parallelogram, 42; Centigrade thermometer, 47.
prism, 83; pyramid, 93; Check, 212.
rectangle, 2; trapezoid, 44; Cheops, pyramid of, 96.
triangle, 49. Circle, area of, 53; sector of,
Angle, directed, 108. 53.
Approximation in measure¬ Circular cylinder, 84.
ment, 54. Circumscribed sphere, 98.
Archimedes, 59. Clearing house, 213; coeffi¬
Area, meaning of, 4; of circle, cient, 54.
53; of parallelogram, 42; Combining terms, 120.
of polygon, 4; of rectangle, Cone, 67; circular, 91; base
5; of sphere, 97; of square, of, 92; lateral area of, 93;
18; of surface, 66; of model of, 91; volume of,
trapezoid, 44; of triangle, 96.
50. Corporation, 219.
Assessment, 196. Coupon, 221.
Assessor, 194. Cube, 68; diagonal of, 70;
261
262 INDEX
how to draw a, 69; lateral Forces, directed, 109.

edge of, 68; model of, 68; Formulas, 252; values of,
of a number, 72; volume of, 252.
72. Fractional equations, 156.
Cube root of a number, Fractions, 255.
meaning of, 73.
Custom collector, 198. Golden section, 188.
Cylinder, 67; lateral area of, Graph of equation, 52; of
85; making a model of, 84; linear equation, 164; of
volume of, 88. quadratic equation, 178;
of rectangle formula, 10;
Deposits, 211. solving by, 162.
Deriving equations, 143.
Designs, 41. Horsepower of engine, 87.
Descartes, 113.
Diagonal of a cube, 71. Insurance company, 200; fire,
Directed angle, 108. 199; life, 203; policy, 200;
Directed forces, 109. premium, 200; rate of, 200.
Directed number, 102. Interest problems, 153; ta¬
Discount, successive, 237. bles, 244.
Dividends, 206. Investment, 217.
Division, abbreviated, 57;
short methods of, 238; Lateral area of cone, 93; of
tests of, 238. cylinder, 85; of prism, 82;
Duty, ad valorem, 198; im¬ of regular pyramid, 92.
port, 198. Lateral edge of cube, 68; of
prism, 82.
Endorsing checks, 213. Law of falling objects, 177.
Endowment policy, 205. Law of signs, 118, 122, 132,
Engine, horsepower of, 88. 134.
Equation, deriving an, 143; Law of order in multiplica¬
graph of, 52; linear, 142; tion, 11.
linear in two unknowns,
165; quadratic, 174, 254; Measuring the surface of a
solving, 140; 253. rectangle, 1.
Equations in two unknowns, Mixture problems, 151, 171.
253; solved by elimination, Model of cone, 91; of cube,
167; by graph, 161; with 68; of cylinder, 84; of
parentheses, 152; 253. prism, 82; of pyramid, 91;
Exponent, 54. of rectangular block, 75.
Monomial, multiplication by,
Fahrenheit thermometer, 47. 12.
INDEX 263
Mortgage, 218. Polynomials, addition of,

Motion problems, 149. 249; multiplication of, 12,
Multiplication, abbreviated, 13, 16, 251; subtraction of,
55; by 10; by use of a 249; value of, 249.
rectangle, 17; by zero, 12; Positive number, 112.
law of order in, 11; of a Power, 74.
polynomial by a monomial, Prism, base of, 81; making
12; of a polynomial by a of, 81; right 83 * volume
polynomial, 16; of posi¬ of, 83.
tive and negative num¬ Problems, age, 148; interest,
bers, 130; short methods 153; mixture, 151; mo¬
of, 228. tion, 149; number relation,
148; perimeter, 146: work,
Negative number, 112. 155.
Number, addition of, 116; Ptolemy, 59.
cube root of, 73; dividing Pyramid, 67; lateral area of,
by, 134; directed, 102; 93; making model of, 91;
multiplying, 130; negative, volume of, 96.
112; irrational, 102; posi¬ Pythagoras, theorem of, 33,
tive, 112; scale, 112; 176: life of, 34.
signed, 103; square of,
235; square root of, 31; Quadratic equation, graphi¬
subtraction of, 124. cal solution of, 117; solu¬
tion by completing the
Parallel planes, 69. square, 184.
Parallelogram, area of, 42;
construction of, 40, 41; in Radical sign, 25.
designs, 41; meaning of, Rectangle, area of, 3, 5,
40; properties of, 41. measuring, 1; properties of,
Parentheses, equations with, 2; surface of, 1; use of, in
152. multiplying, 16.
Per cents, changed to com¬ Rectangular solids, 66, 75;
mon fractions, 20; how to surface of, 75; volume of,
picture, 19. 76.
Perfect square, 185.
Perimeter problems, 146. Scale, number, 112.
Policy, cash value of, 205; en¬ Sector of circle, 53.
dowment, 204; limited pay¬ Signed number, 103.
ment life, 204; ordinary Short methods of division,
life, 203; participating, 238; of multiplication, 228.
207. Silo, 87.
Polygon, area of, 4, 51. Simultaneous equations, 161;
264 INDEX
solution of by elimination, Taxes, 191; how collected,

113; graphical solution of, 194.
11. Tax rate, 194.
Slant height of a pyramid, 93. Temperature graph, 105.
Solid, rectangular, 66; vol¬ Terms, combining, 120, 248.
ume of, 66. Tests of divisibility, 238.
Solving equations, 141. Theorem of Pythagoras, 33,
Sphere, 67, 97; area of, 97; 176.
volume of, 98. Thermograph, 105.
Square, area of, 18; meaning Thermometer, Centigrade,
of, 3; of a binomial, 22; of 47; Fahrenheit, 47; read¬
a number, 21. ings, 103.
Square root, extraction of, Trapezoid, area of, 44; mean¬
30; formed by table, 27; ing of, 44.
meaning of, 24; of a num¬ Triangle, area of, 50.
ber, 26. Trinomial square, 23.
Square roots, table of, 28. Trust company, 209.
Stock, 223; transactions, 111.
Subtraction of positive and Unit segment, 1; surface, 2.
negative numbers, 124; of
polynomials, 249. Value of a formula, 252; of a
Successive discounts, 237. polynomial, 249.
Surface, area of, 66; of cone, Variation, direct, 9.
93; of cylinder, 86; of pyra¬ Vieta, 60.
mid, 92; of a rectangular Volume of cone, 96; of a
block, 75; of sphere, 98; cube, 72; of cylinder, 88;
unit of, 2. of prism, 83; of pyramid,
96; of rectangular solid,
Table of square measure, 19; 76; of sphere, 98.
of square roots, 28; inter¬
est, 246. Work problems, 155.
Tariff, 198.
Tax, bill, 194; income, 197; Zero, multiplying by, 12; on
personal property, 193. the thermometer, 103.
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An Illustration of the Use of Geometrical Forms

Assistant Professor of the Teaching of Mathematics,

Head of the Department of Mathematics,

The University of Chicago

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

All rights reserved

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

the author has intentionally made use of many prob¬

The success of the seventh-year book on combina¬

promising for the progress of mathematics and for the

AREA OF RECTANGLES AND SQUARES.

Measuring the Surface of a Rectangle

1. What we are going to study in this chapter.

and arcs by means of unit angles and unit arcs. Since

of times a unit surface is contained in the surface of the

2. Some important prop¬

If the rectangle is equilateral it is a

1. Draw a rectangle (Fig. 2), using ruler and protractor. Make

3. How to measure the surface of a rectangle by

as a unit, we find that the ' H-H

4. What is meant by area. The number of times

1. On squared paper draw a rectangle whose base is 5 centi¬

Show that the same result may be obtained by multiplying 3.6

5. Finding the area of a rectangle by means of a

In the following exercises arrange the written work as shown

1. Find the area of a rec¬

Solution: A = bh. Why?

/.Area = 143 square feet.

2. Find the number of square feet of lighting surface in your

4. Compare the lighting surface in your classroom with the

5. Find the number of square feet in the floor of a corridor

6. A cement walk feet wide and 120 feet long is to be

11. During an anniversary rug sale, a department store ad¬

These rugs are in plain or moresque grounds with nar¬

Seamless Axminster Rugs Specially Priced

Area in Cost per

1. 27 X 54 10| $6.50 $0.64

II. 4\ X 6-J- 11.75

III. 60 XS4 20.00 ........

Find the areas of rectangles of the following dimensions. State

12. 42 and 17. 15. and 14^.

13. 3.4 and 6. 16. 17-| and 123y.

14. 8.2 and 1.42. 17. .06 and .24.

18. A farmer got 59 bushels of potatoes from a patch 9 rods by

Suggestion: 1 acre = 160 square rods.

22. Divide the shaded surfaces (Fig. 6) into rectangles and

Find the value of each of the polynomials in Exercises 23 to 30

y-r b-\-d-\-bd 2ab+c

6. The area of a rectangle varies directly as the

the same (constant).

7. Graphical representation of the formula A = bh.

On squared paper (Fig. 7) draw two lines OH and OA

1. From the graph (Fig. 7) find A when A = 2.4; 3.8.

8. Using the rectangle to show the law of order of

1. Show from a drawing, as in Fig. 8, that 4X6 = 6X4.

3. Explain why the formula A — bh may be written A = hb.

6. Find the value of mn-\-nt-\-ts for m = 3.6, 71 = 1.2, t = 5.5,

7. Since 4X0 means O+O+O+O, it follows that 4X0 = 0. By