Sfdad501 - System Analysis and Design

RQF LEVEL 5
TRADE: SOFTWARE
DEVELOPMENT
MODULE CODE: SFDAD501
TEACHER’S GUIDE
Module name: SYSTEMS ANALYSIS
AND DESIGN
Table of content
Table of Contents
Table of content....................................................................................................................... 1
Acronyms................................................................................................................................. 4
List of figures............................................................................................................................ 5
Introduction............................................................................................................................. 6
Learning Unit 1: Describe information systems concepts........................................................8
Learning outcome 1.1 Identify information system.............................................................8
Indicative content 1.1.1: Context of Information system and categories.........................9
Indicative content 1.1.2: Information systems features and characteristics..................13
Indicative content 1.1.3: Functions of environment of Information system.................14
Learning outcome 1.2 Identify system analysis and design................................................17
Indicative content 1.2.1: System analysis.......................................................................18
Indicative content 1.2.2: System design.........................................................................18
Learning outcome 1.3: Describe System Development Life Cycle......................................22
Indicative content 1.3.1: System Development Life Cycle models.................................22
Indicative content 1.3.2: Selection of system development life cycle............................29
Learning Unit 2: ANALYZE SYSTEMS.......................................................................................37
Learning outcome 2.1: Introduce system analysis and design methods............................37
Indicative content 2.2.1: Introduce system analysis and design methods.....................38
Learning outcome 2.2: Analysis the current system...........................................................42
Indicative content 2.2.1: Analysis the current system....................................................43
Indicative content 2.3.1: Analysis the new system.........................................................50
Learning Unit 3: DESIGN NEW SYSTEM..................................................................................56
Learning outcome 3.1. Introduce the system design.........................................................56
Indicative content 3.3.1: Introduce the system design...................................................57
Learning outcome 3.2: Perform a logical design................................................................59
Indicative content 3.2.1: Performance of requirements catalogue................................59
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Learning outcome 3.3: Perform a Physical design of new system......................................67
Indicative content 3.3.1: Data Design.............................................................................67
Indicative content 3.3.2: Outputs design........................................................................72
Indicative content 3.3.3: Inputs design..........................................................................74
Indicative content 3.3.3: Program design.......................................................................76
References..............................................................................................................................80
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Acronyms
SFD: Software Development

PERT: Program Evaluation and Review Technique
DSS: Decision-support systems
TPS: Transaction processing systems
MIS: Management Information System
CBIS: Computer based information system
ERD: Entity Relationship Diagram
PK: Primary Key
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List of figures
Figure 1 Management information systems...........................................................................16
Figure 2 Expert system........................................................................................................... 17
Figure 3 Design activities........................................................................................................19
Figure 4 Definition of system development life cycle.............................................................24
Figure 5 Waterfall model........................................................................................................25
Figure 6 Agile model...............................................................................................................26
Figure 7 V-Shaped model....................................................................................................... 27
Figure 8 Spiral model..............................................................................................................28
Figure 9 Prototyping...............................................................................................................29
Figure 10 Iterative Model.......................................................................................................30
Figure 11 System Design........................................................................................................ 31
Figure 12 Relationships......................................................................................................... 72
Introduction
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This module describes the skills, knowledge, and attitudes required to perform analysis of
existing and new system and design new system requirements.
By the end of this module the learner will be able to analyse the existing system, analyse the
new system requirements and design a new system.
Module Code and Title: SFDAD501 SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
6
Learning Units:
Describe information systems concepts
Analyse the system
Design the new system
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Learning Unit 1: Describe information systems concepts
Picture/s reflecting the Learning unit 1
STRUCTURE OF LEARNING UNIT
Learning outcomes:
1.1 Identify information systems
1.2 Identify system analysis and design
1.3 Describe system development life cycle
Learning outcome 1.1 Identify information system
Duration: 4 hrs
Learning outcome 1 objectives:

By the end of the learning outcome, the trainees will be able to:
1. Differentiate data, information and knowledge as applied in computer systems
2. Describe main components of Computer based information systems
3. Describe correctly the systems features and characteristics as applied in computer
system
Resources
Equipment Tools Materials
Computer Pens Internet

Papers
Advance preparation:
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Indicative content 1.1.1: Context of Information system and categories
Summary for the trainer related to the indicative content (key notes using bullets
such as ticks etc)
 Definition of: Data, Information and Knowledge

Information is contained in knowledge.
The word knowledge means two things: having the information and understanding
how items of information hang together.
Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to be processed. Data can be something
simple and seemingly random and useless until it is organized.
Each student's test score is one piece of data.
When data is processed, organized, structured or presented in a given context so as to make
it useful, it is called information.
The average score of a class or of the entire school is information that can be derived from
the given data.
Information is data after being processed.
What is a system?
1.The word System is derived from Greek word Systema, which means an organized
relationship between any set of components to achieve some common cause or objective.
2.A system is “an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together according
to a plan to achieve a specific goal.”
3.A collection of components that work together to realize some objectives forms a system.
Basically there are three major components in every system, namely input, processing and
output.
Basic System Components

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Systems categories with examples
The systems can be divided into the following types:
Natural systems
Systems that occur in nature
o Circulation of water in the ocean
o Weather and climate
o Water drainage
o Energy cycles
These systems work together to form the ECOSYSTEMS

Ecosystem is a community of plants and animals that interact with one another and with
their physical environment (land, climate, soil, water and nutrients).
Human made systems
Systems that are created by humans include:
o Human settlements
o Transportation routes
o Communication systems
o Economics
o Infrastructure
o Energy
 Other types of system
Physical or Abstract Systems
o Physical systems are tangible entities. We can touch and feel them.
Physical System may be static or dynamic in nature. For example, desks and chairs are the
physical parts of computer center which are static. A programmed computer is a dynamic
system in which programs, data, and applications can change according to the user's needs.
o Abstract systems are non-physical entities or conceptual that may be formulas,
representation or model of a real system.
Open or Closed Systems
o An open system must interact with its environment. It receives inputs from and
delivers outputs to the outside of the system. For example, an information system
which must adapt to the changing environmental conditions.
o A closed system does not interact with its environment. It is isolated from
environmental influences. A completely closed system is rare in reality.
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Adaptive and Non Adaptive System
o Adaptive System responds to the change in the environment in a way to improve
their performance and to survive. For example, human beings, animals.
o Non Adaptive System is the system which does not respond to the environment. For
example, machines.
Permanent or Temporary System
o Permanent System persists for long time. For example, business policies.
o Temporary System is made for specified time and after that they are demolished.
For example, A DJ system is set up for a program and it is dissembled after the program.
Natural and Manufactured System
o Natural systems are created by the nature. For example, Solar system, seasonal
system.
o Manufactured System is the man-made system. For example, Rockets, dams, trains.
Deterministic or Probabilistic System
o Deterministic system operates in a predictable manner and the interaction between
system components is known with certainty. For example, two molecules of
hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen makes water.
o Probabilistic System shows uncertain behavior. The exact output is not known. For
example, Weather forecasting, mail delivery.
Social, Human-Machine, Machine System
o Social System is made up of people. For example, social clubs, societies.
o In Human-Machine System, both human and machines are involved to perform a
particular task. For example, Computer programming.
o Machine System is where human interference is neglected. All the tasks are
performed by the machine. For example, an autonomous robot.
o Man–Made Information Systems
It is an interconnected set of information resources to manage data for particular

organization, under Direct Management Control (DMC).
This system includes hardware, software, communication, data, and application for
producing information according to the need of an organization.
Man-made information systems are divided into three types:

o Formal Information System: It is based on the flow of information in the form of
memos, instructions, etc., from top level to lower levels of management.
o Informal Information System: This is employee based system which solves the day
to day work related problems.
o Computer Based System: This system is directly dependent on the computer for
managing business applications. For example, automatic library system, railway
reservation system, banking system, etc.
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Characteristics and Features of a System
Characteristics of a system
A system has the following properties:
1. Organization: Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of
components that helps to achieve predetermined objectives.
2. Interaction: It is defined by the manner in which the components operate with each
other. For example, in an organization, purchasing department must interact with
production department and payroll with personnel department.
3. Interdependence: Interdependence means how the components of a system depend
on one another. For proper functioning, the components are coordinated and linked
together according to a specified plan. The output of one subsystem is the required by
other subsystem as input.
4. Integration: Integration is concerned with how a system components are connected
together. It means that the parts of the system work together within the system even if
each part performs a unique function.
5. Central Objective: The objective of system must be central. It may be real or stated.
It is not uncommon for an organization to state an objective and operate to achieve
another. The users must know the main objective of a computer application early in
the analysis for a successful design and conversion.
Systems features
o Feedback
Control (It is the decision–making subsystem that controls the pattern of activities
governing input, processing, and output.) in a dynamic system is achieved by feedback.
o The environment is the “suprasystem” within which an organization operates. It is
the source of external elements that impinge on the system. In fact, it often
determines how a system must function.
For example, the organization’s environment, consisting of vendors, competitors, and
others, may provide constraints and, consequently, influence the actual performance of the
business.
o Boundaries: A system should be defined by its boundaries – the limits that identify
its components, processes and interrelationship when it interfaces with another
system.
o Interface is a way where two or more programs come together and affect each other.
Systems Models
 Schematic Models
- A schematic model is a 2-D chart that shows system elements and their linkages.
- Different arrows are used to show information flow, material flow, and information
feedback.
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 Flow System Models
- A flow system model shows the orderly flow of the material, energy, and information that
hold the system together.
- Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), for example, is used to abstract a real
world system in model form.
 Static System Models
-They represent one pair of relationships such as activity–time or cost–quantity.
-The Gantt chart, for example, gives a static picture of an activity-time relationship.
 Dynamic System Models
- Business organizations are dynamic systems. A dynamic model approximates the type of
organization or application that analysts deal with.
- It shows an ongoing, constantly changing status of the system.
It consists of:
a) Inputs that enter the system
b) The processor through which transformation takes place
c) The program(s) required for processing
d) The output(s) that result from processing
Indicative content 1.1.2: Information systems features and characteristics
such as ticks etc)
 Information systems
Information System is the study of complementary network of hardware and software that
people and organization use to collect, filter, process, creating and distribute data. Any
specific information System aims to support operation, management and decision making.
An information system commonly refers to a basic computer system but may also describe a
telephone switching or environmental controlling system. The IS involves resources for
shared or processed information, as well as the people who manage the system. People are
considered part of the system because without them, systems would not operate correctly.
Components of computer based information system (CBIS)
1. Hardware consists of devices such as the processor, monitor, keyboard, and
printer. Together, these devices accept, process and display data and information.
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2. Software is a program or collection of programs that enable the hardware to
process data.
3. A database is a collection of related files or tables containing data.
4. A network is a connecting system (wireline or wireless) that permits different
computers to share resources.
5. Procedures are the instructions for combining the above components in order to
process information and generate the desired output
6. People are those individuals who use the hardware and software, interface with it,
or utilize its output.
Indicative content 1.1.3: Functions of environment of Information system
such as ticks etc)
Functions of environment of Information system (IS) with examples
Inputs are the elements (material, human resources, and information) that enter the
system for processing.
Output is the outcome of processing.
The process is the element of a system that involves the actual transformation of
input into output.
The control element guides the system. It is the decision – making subsystem that
controls the pattern of activities governing input, processing, and output.
Types of Information system hierarchy
Transaction processing systems
Transaction processing systems (TPS) are the basic business systems that serve the
operational level of the organization. A transaction processing system is a computerized
system that performs and records the daily routine transactions necessary to conduct business.
Examples are sales order entry, hotel reservation systems, payroll, employee record keeping,
and shipping.
Management information systems

MIS is a study of information systems in business and management. Management
information systems (MIS) serve the management level of the organization, providing
managers with reports and often online access to the organization’s current performance and
historical records.
MIS summarize and report on the company’s basic operations. The basic transaction data
from TPS are compressed and are usually presented in long reports that are produced on a
regular schedule.
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Figure 1 Management information systems
Decision-support systems
Decision-support systems (DSS) also serve the management level of the organization. DSS
help managers make decisions that are unique, rapidly changing, and not easily specified in
advance. They address problems where the procedure for arriving at a solution may not be
fully predefined in advance. Although DSS use internal information from TPS and MIS, they
often bring in information from external sources, such as current stock prices or product
prices of competitors.
The office automation systems

Office automation refers to the varied Computer machinery and Software used to digitally
create, collect, store, manipulate, and relay office information needed for accomplishing basic
tasks. Raw data storage, electronic transfer, and the management of electronic business
information comprise the basic activities of an office automation system.
Types of function integrated by office automation system include:
1. Electronic publishing
2. Electronic communication
3. Electronic collaborative
4. Image processing
5. Office management
Expert system
Expert system employs human knowledge captured in a computer to solve problems that
ordinarily require human expertise.
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These can be used by non-experts to improve their problem solving abilities. Expert System
becomes a knowledgeable assistant to human experts.
They are used to propagate search knowledge resources for improved consistent results.
Figure 2 Expert system
Theoretical learning Activity

 In group of two brainstorm about importance of information system
 In group of 4 discuss on system categories and examples
 In pairs discuss on components of computer based information system
Points to Remember (Take home message)
Computer based information system can have different parts depending on system
type.
Learning outcome 1 formative assessment

Written assessment
1. Respond by true or false to the following:
a. Input and output are not parts of information system
b. Data can be row fact of anything
c. All data after being processed by a computer are called information
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2. Differentiate data from information?
3. List and explain main components of a system
4. Describe system models
5. Differentiate natural system from human made system?
6. Describe components of computer based information system?
Please mix different assessment tools for triangulation and relevancy of assessment
Learning outcome 1.2 Identify system analysis and design
Duration: 3 hrs

1. Describe correctly the design processes as applied in system design
2. Define correctly basic terms that are used once analysing a system
Resources

Papers
Indicative content 1.2.1: System analysis
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such as ticks etc)
Definition of analysis
Analysis is a detail study of some thing
Definition of system analysis
It is a process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying the problems, and
decomposition of a system into its components.
Indicative content 1.2.2: System design
such as ticks etc)
Definition of system design
It is a process of planning a new business system or replacing an existing system by defining
its components or modules to satisfy the specific requirements. Before planning, you need
to understand the old system thoroughly and determine how computers can best be used in
order to operate efficiently.
System Design focuses on how to accomplish the objective of the system.
System Analysis and Design (SAD) mainly focuses on:
 Systems
 Processes
 Technology
Design activities
Figure 3 Design activities
- Architectural design: It defines the overall structure of the system, the main components,
their relationships.
-Interface design: It defines the interfaces between these components. The interface
specification must be clear. Therefore, a component can be used without having to know it’s
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implemented. Once the interface specification is agreed, the components can be designed
and developed concurrently.
-Component design: Take each component and design how it will operate, with the specific
design left to the programmer, or a list of changes to be made to a reusable component.
-Database design: The system data structures are designed and their representation in a
database is defined. This depends on whether an existing database is to be reused or a new
database to be created.
-Prototyping: This method involves producing an early, inexpensive, and scaled down
version of the product in order to reveal any problems with the current design.
3. Design the application architecture

4. Design the user interfaces
5. Design the system interfaces
6. Design and integrate the database
7. Prototype for design details
System analysis is conducted for the purpose of studying a system or its parts in order to
identify its objectives. It is a problem solving technique that improves the system and
ensures that all the components of the system work efficiently to accomplish their purpose.
Analysis specifies what the system should do.
Difference between existing and new system
The existing system is manual system depending on the company it may be a computer
based or a paper based system while a new system is a computerized system.
System analysis tools
 Feasibility Studies
Often the first step involves determining whether the product or project is worth the time
and effort. A feasibility study is a document that describes features and benefits of the
product, itemizes costs, resources and staffing then describes the projects potential profits
or value to the organization. A feasibility study forces the analysis team to turn a nebulous
idea into a practical, useful project with a firm definition and a list of tangible benefits.
 Interviews
The details necessary to understand processes or product needs are usually in the heads of
employees and customers. The only way to mine this information is to talk with them.
Interviews should be focused, with a prepared list of questions or concepts to be discussed.
Document each interview by recording it using a small digital recorder or summarize the
conversation immediately after it is completed.
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 Use Cases
Short narratives describing how a product will be used, limited to a few paragraphs, often
helps analysts and customers refine product features. Refine these narratives throughout
the analysis phase. These use cases can be used throughout the project life cycle, especially
during testing.
 Requirements Lists
When designing a product, it is helpful to keep a running list of requirements. These should
be presented as a list or in outline form, organized by categories. As the list grows, this list
helps the analyst understand the customer’s needs and helps limit what features are
necessary and which are not.
 Flowcharts
Flowcharts come in many varieties and under many names, but the basic concept is to take
a process and describe it as a diagram. Whether presented as a process flow chart or an
Entity/Relation diagram, the drawing helps the analyst describe a series of steps or decisions
in visual form in a manner that facilitates communication.
 Prototypes
A model or prototype can turn a group of ideas into solid form. Software engineers often
hear the statement “I’ll know what I want when I see it” and a model or prototype can
facilitate these issues. By presenting a prototype, the analysts gather features that work and
open discussion on other features and improvements.

 In group of four describe system analysis
 In group of two describe the steps that can be used in system design
Before designing a system you have to analyse the requirements and there are
different steps to follow once designing a system.

Written assessment
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1. Write true or false
a. Word knowledge means two things: having the commitment and understanding how
items of information hang together.
b. Data is unorganized facts that need to be processed. It can be something simple and
seemingly random and useless until it is organized.
c. The average score of a class or of the entire school may be an example of
information
2.a. Define a system
b. Give the main components of a system
3. According to categories of systems fill the following table:
Action Nature systems Human made systems
Definition
Example1
Example2
Example3
4. Write the correct answer in the first column by matching the feature/characteristic to
its description
Correct description Characteristic or
answer feature
a…….. a. Achieve the Control in a dynamic system 1.Boundaries
b……. b. the limits that identify system’s components 2. Interface
c…….. c. is a way where two or more programs come together and affect 3.feedback
each other.
d……. d. It is the decision – making subsystem that controls the pattern 4. The control
of activities governing input, processing, and output.
e……. e. are the elements that enter the system for processing. 5.Input
5. Give and explain five characteristics of a system.
6. List system models you know
7. Define information system
8. Differentiate transaction processing system (OIS) from management information system
(MIS).
9. Differentiate system analysis from system design
Learning outcome 1.3: Describe System Development Life Cycle
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Duration: 3 hrs

1. Describe correctly system development life cycle models as used in system analysis and
design
2. Select the correct system development life cycle model depending on software to be
developed
Resources

Papers
Indicative content 1.3.1: System Development Life Cycle models
such as ticks etc)
Definition of system development life cycle
System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model which includes policies and
procedures for developing or altering systems throughout their life cycles.
The software development life cycle (SDLC) is a process used for structuring the
development of any software system, from initiation through to implementation.
In software development the System Development Life Cycle is also known as software
development life cycle.
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Figure 4 Definition of system development life cycle
Fig. 2. Different phases of Software Development Life Cycle

Description of System Development Life Cycle models
Waterfall model
The Waterfall Model is a linear sequential flow. In which progress is seen as flowing steadily
downwards (like a waterfall) through the phases of software implementation. This means
that any phase in the development process begins only if the previous phase is complete.
The waterfall approach does not define the process to go back to the previous phase to
handle changes in requirement. The waterfall approach is the earliest approach and most
widely known that was used for software development.
Figure 5 Waterfall model
Projects which not focus on changing the requirements, for example, projects initiated from
a request for proposals (RFPs), the customer has a very clear documented requirements.
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Advantages Disadvantages
 Easy to explain to the users.  Assumes that the requirements of a

 Structures approach. system can be frozen.
 Stages and activities are well defined.  Very difficult to go back to any stage
 Helps to plan and schedule the project. after it finished.
 Verification at each stage ensures early  A little flexibility and adjusting scope
detection of errors/misunderstanding. is difficult and expensive.
 Each phase has specific deliverables.  Costly and required more time, in
addition to the detailed plan.
Agile model
It is based on iterative and incremental development, where requirements and solutions
evolve through collaboration between cross-functional teams.
Figure 6 Agile model
It can be used with any type of the project, but it needs more engagement from the
customer and to be interactive. Also, we can use it when the customer needs to have some
functional requirement ready in less than three weeks and the requirements are not clear
enough. This will enable more valuable and workable piece for software early which also
increases the customer satisfaction.
 Decrease the time required to avail  Scalability.

some system features.  The ability and collaboration of the
 Face to face communication and customer to express user needs.
continuous inputs from customer  Documentation is done at later stages.
representative leaves no space for  Reduce the usability of components.
guesswork.  Needs special skills for the team.
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 The end result is the high-quality
software in the least possible time
duration and satisfied customer.
V-Shaped model
It is an extension of the waterfall model, instead of moving down in a linear way, the
process steps are bent upwards after the implementation and coding phase, to form the
typical V shape. The major difference between the V-shaped model and waterfall model is
the early test planning in the V-shaped model.
Figure 7 V-Shaped model
 Software requirements clearly defined and known

 Software development technologies and tools are well-known
 Simple and easy to use  Very inflexible, like the waterfall

 Each phase has specific deliverables. model.
 Higher chance of success over the  Adjusting scope is difficult and
waterfall model due to the expensive.
development of test plans early on  The software is developed during the
during the life cycle. implementation phase, so no early
 Works well for where requirements prototypes of the software are
are easily understood. produced.
 Verification and validation of the  The model doesn’t provide a clear
product in the early stages of product path for problems found during
development. testing phases.
 Costly and required more time, in
addition to a detailed plan
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Spiral model
This model of development combines the features of the prototyping model and the
waterfall model. The spiral model is favored for large, expensive, and complicated projects.
This model uses many of the same phases as the waterfall model, in essentially the same
order, separated by planning, risk assessment, and the building of prototypes and
simulations.
Figure 8 Spiral model
It is used in the large applications and systems which built-in small phases or segments.
 Estimates (i.e. budget, schedule, etc.)  High cost and time to reach the final
become more realistic as work product.
progressed because important issues  Needs special skills to evaluate the
are discovered earlier. risks and assumptions.
 Early involvement of developers.  Highly customized limiting re-usability
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 Manages risks and develops the
system into phases.
Prototyping
Prototyping: The prototyping methodology performs the analysis, design, and
implementation phases concurrently, and all three phases are performed repeatedly in a
cycle until the system is completed.
Figure 9 Prototyping
 Reduced time and costs, but this can  Insufficient analysis. User confusion of
be a disadvantage if the developer prototype and finished system.
loses time in developing the  Developer misunderstanding of user
prototypes. objectives.
 Improved and increased user  Excessive development time of the
involvement. prototype.
 It is costly to implement the
prototypes
Iterative Model
The activities of phases for planning, analysis and design are repeated until a solid system
design is developed before developing the system.
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Figure 10 Iterative Model
Indicative content 1.3.2: Selection of system development life cycle
such as ticks etc).
Selection of System Development Life Cycle model

Phases of waterfall model
 Project Planning
In this first stage, there is a meeting with the customer to understand the requirements.
This stage is the most fundamental phase as any miscommunication or misinterpretation (at
this stage) may give rise to the software that is being developed. The key activity of project
planning is the process of clear, discrete activities and the work needed to complete each
activity within a single project.
 Analysis
As per the requirements, the software and hardware needed for the proper completion of the
project is analyzed in this phase.
Such features are decided at this stage; from deciding which computer language should be
used for designing the software, to the database system that can be used for the smooth
functioning of the software.
 System Design
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System design is the phase that bridges the gap between problem domain and the existing
system in a manageable way. This phase focuses on the solution domain, i.e. “how to
implement?”
It is the phase where the SRS document is converted into a format that can be implemented
and decides how the system will operate.
In this phase, the complex activity of system development is divided into several smaller sub-
activities, which coordinate with each other to achieve the main objective of system
development.
Figure 11 System Design
 Types of System Design
 System coding
In this phase the actual development of the software takes place. This phase is also known as
coding and verification phase. Based on the algorithms written in the previous phase,
software program is written. For every module, software code is written and tested, to check
if the correct output is received.
 System Integration and Testing
With the coding of the application complete, the testing of the written code now comes into
scene. Testing checks if there are any flaws in the designed software and if the software has
been designed as per the listed specifications, a proper execution of this stage ensures that the
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customer interested in the created software, will be satisfied with the finished product. If
there are any flaws, the software development process must step back to the design phase.
 Testing
Testing is the process or activity that checks the functionality and correctness of software
according to specified user requirements in order to improve the quality and reliability of
system. It is an expensive, time consuming, and critical approach in system development
which requires proper planning of overall testing process.
A successful test is one that finds the errors. It executes the program with explicit intention
of finding error, i.e., making the program fail. It is a process of evaluating system with an
intention of creating a strong system and mainly focuses on the weak areas of the system or
software.
o Types of Testing
Testing can be of various types and different types of tests are conducted depending on the
kind of bugs one seeks to discover −
 Unit Testing
Also known as Program Testing, it is a type of testing where the analyst tests or focuses on
each program or module independently. It is carried out with the intention of executing
each statement of the module at least once.
 In unit testing, accuracy of program cannot be assured and it is difficult to conduct
testing of various input combination in detail.
 It identifies maximum errors in a program as compared to other testing techniques.
 Integration Testing
In Integration Testing, the analyst tests multiple module working together. It is used to find
discrepancies between the system and its original objective, current specifications, and
systems documentation.
 Here the analysts are try to find areas where modules have been designed with
different specifications for data length, type, and data element name.
 It verifies that file sizes are adequate and that indices have been built properly.
 Functional Testing
Function testing determines whether the system is functioning correctly according to its
specifications and relevant standards documentation. Functional testing typically starts with
the implementation of the system, which is very critical for the success of the system.
Functional testing is divided into two categories −
30
 Positive Functional Testing − It involves testing the system with valid inputs to verify
that the outputs produced are correct.
 Negative Functional Testing − It involves testing the software with invalid inputs and
undesired operating conditions.
System integration
 System deployment
Deployment is the stage of the project during which the theory is turned into practice. The
major steps involved in this phase are:
1. Acquisition and installation of hardware and software
2. Conversion
3. User training
4. Documentation
1. Conversion/ CHANGEOVER
It is a process of migrating from the old system to the new one. It provides understandable
and structured approach to improve the communication between management and project
team.
Conversion Methods
The four methods of conversion are
 Parallel Conversion
 Direct Cutover Conversion
 Pilot Approach
 Phase-In Method
Method Description Advantages Disadvantages
Parallel Old and new systems Provides fallback when new Causes cost
Conversion are used system fails. overruns.
simultaneously.
Offers greatest security and New system may
ultimately testing of new not get fair trail.
system.
Direct New system is Forces users to make new No fall back if

Cutover implemented and old system work problems arise
Conversion system is replaced with new system
Immediate benefit from new
completely.
methods and control. Requires most
careful planning
Pilot Supports phased Allows training and A long term phases

31
Approach approach that gradually installation without in causes a
implement system unnecessary use of resources. problem of
across all users whether
Avoid large contingencies
conversion goes
from risk management.
well or not.
Phase-In Working version of Provides experience and line Gives impression

Method system implemented in test before implementation that old system is
one part of organization erroneous and it is
When preferred new system
based on feedback, it is not reliable.
involves new technology or
installed throughout
drastic changes in
the organization all
performance.
alone or stage by stage.
2. Training
The personnel in the system must know in detail what their roles will be, how they can use
the system, and what the system will or will not do. The success or failure of well-designed
and technically elegant systems can depend on the way they are operated and used.
Training Systems Operators
Systems operators must be trained properly such that they can handle all possible
operations, both routine and extraordinary. The operators should be trained in what
common malfunctions may occur, how to recognize them, and what steps to take when
they come.
Training involves creating troubleshooting lists to identify possible problems and remedies
for them, as well as the names and telephone numbers of individuals to contact when
unexpected or unusual problems arise.
Training also involves familiarization with run procedures, which involves working through
the sequence of activities needed to use a new system.
User Training
 End-user training is an important part of the computer-based information system
development, which must be provided to employees to enable them to do their own
problem solving.
 User training involves how to operate the equipment, troubleshooting the system
problem, determining whether a problem that arose is caused by the equipment or
software.
 Most user training deals with the operation of the system itself. The training courses
must be designed to help the user with fast mobilization for the organization.
Training Methods
Instructor-led training
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It involves both trainers and trainees, who have to meet at the same time, but not
necessarily at the same place. The training session could be one-on-one or collaborative. It
is of two types −
Virtual Classroom
In this training, trainers must meet the trainees at the same time, but are not required to be
at the same place. The primary tools used here are: video conferencing, text based Internet
relay chat tools, or virtual reality packages, etc.
Normal Classroom
The trainers must meet the trainees at the same time and at the same place. They primary
tools used here are blackboard, overhead projectors, LCD projector, etc.
Self-Paced Training
It involves both trainers and trainees, who do not need to meet at the same place or at the
same time. The trainees learn the skills themselves by accessing the courses at their own
convenience. It is of two types −
Multimedia Training
In this training, courses are presented in multimedia format and stored on CD-ROM. It
minimizes the cost in developing an in-house training course without assistance from
external programmers.
Web-based Training
In this training, courses are often presented in hyper media format and developed to
support internet and intranet. It provides just–in-time training for end users and allow
organization to tailor training requirements.
3. Documentation
The documentation of the system is also one of the most important activities in the system
development life cycle. This ensures the continuity of the system. There are generally two
types of documentation prepared for any system. These are:
1. User or Operator Documentation
2. System Documentation
The user documentation is a complete description of the system from the users point of
view detailing how to use or operate the system. It also includes the major error messages
likely to be encountered by the users.
The system documentation contains the details of system design, programs, their coding,
system flow, data dictionary, process description, etc. This helps to understand the system
and permit changes to be made in the existing system to satisfy new user needs.
Systems Documentation
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Documentation is the written material that describes how a system works. It includes
descriptions of how software operates and the procedures users follow. Everyone agrees
about the need for good system documentation, but it is often neglected by those who
ought to provide it. There are four main areas where documentation is required:
 User Documentation: tells users how to use the system and perform tasks. This may
be on-line or contained in a procedures manual. Documentation also tells users how
to complete source documents and data entry screens, generate reports, and check
the validity of output. It should accurately reflect what users learned during training.
 Systems Documentation: shows what the system can do. It is a communication tool
for keeping everyone informed about the design of the system and provides
management with an accurate basis for reviewing and evaluating the system design.
 Software Documentation: assists with system maintenance by describing the logic
and functions of the software. This is useful once the system is operational and
requires updating or upgrading.
 Operations documentation: this gives the computer operators the information that
is required to change files, disks etc. It contains key information and diagrams about
the operational aspects of the system.
 System Maintenance / Enhancement
Maintenance means restoring something to its original conditions. Enhancement means

adding, modifying the code to support the changes in the user specification. System
maintenance conforms the system to its original requirements and enhancement adds to
system capability by incorporating new requirements.
Thus, maintenance changes the existing system, enhancement adds features to the existing
system, and development replaces the existing system. It is an important part of system
development that includes the activities which corrects errors in system design and
implementation, updates the documents, and tests the data.
o Maintenance Types
System maintenance can be classified into three types −
 Corrective Maintenance − Enables user to carry out the repairing and correcting
leftover problems.
 Adaptive Maintenance − Enables user to replace the functions of the programs.
 Perfective Maintenance − Enables user to modify or enhance the programs

according to the users’ requirements and changing needs.

 In group of four, discuss on system development life cycle model
 In group of differentiate waterfall model from agile model
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 Differentiate V-Shaped model from spiral mode
 In group of two describe prototyping model
The system development life cycle is selected based on system to be developed

and based on requirements.

Written assessment
Q1. Answer by True or False:
a. A system development life cycle is not organizational process of developing and
maintaining a system
b. In the system analysis and design terminology the system development life cycle
means software development life cycle.
c. Coding is not a step-in system development life cycle.
d. System analysis and system design are the same phase of system development life
cycle.
Q2. Choose the best answer:
The first step in the system development life cycle is:
I. Analysis
II. Design
III. Problem/ Opportunity identification
IV. Development and Documentation
The final step in the system development life cycle (SDLC)?
I. Analysis
II. Operational
III. Development
IV. Design
Q3. a. Explain the term changeover in system analysis and design
b. Describe the strategies that are followed for changeover of the system
Q4. a. What is a waterfall model?
35
b. Graphically show the phases of a waterfall model.
c. give a briefly description for each phase.
Q5. Differentiate spiral model from V-shaped model.
Q6. a. What is testing?
b. Define:
1. unit testing 2. integration testing 3. Functional testing
Learning Unit 2: ANALYZE SYSTEMS

Learning outcomes:
1. Introduce systems analysis and design methods
2. Analyse the current system
3. Analyse the new system.
Learning outcome 2.1: Introduce system analysis and design methods
Duration: 7 hrs
Learning outcome 2.1 objectives:

1. Describe correctly methods for developing computer based information system
2. Describe clearly popular methods for developing CBI
3. Select a method for CBI based on system to be developed
36
Resources

Papers
Indicative content 2.2.1: Introduce system analysis and design methods
such as ticks etc)
 Introduction to methods for developing computer based information systems

Description of popular methods for developing CBIS:
a. Structured analysis method
Structured Analysis is a development method that allows the analyst to understand the system
and its activities in a logical way
It uses graphical tools that analyze and refine the objectives of an existing system and
develop a new system specification which can be easily understandable by user.
i. Structured Analysis attributes
 It is graphic which specifies the presentation of application.

 It divides the processes so that it gives a clear picture of system flow.
 It is logical rather than physical
 It is an approach that works from high-level overviews to lower-level details.
ii. Structured Analysis Tools

 Data Flow Diagrams
 Data Dictionary
 Decision Trees
 Decision Tables
 Structured English
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 Pseudocode
a. Object oriented analysis method
It is an approach that identifies the objects in problem domain, classifying them in terms of
data and behavior.
The main difference between object-oriented analysis and other forms of analysis is that by
the object-oriented approach we organize requirements around objects, which integrate
both behaviors (processes) and states (data) modeled after real world objects that the system
interacts with.
Characteristics of OO System
 Objects − an object is something that is exists within problem domain and can be
identified by data (attribute) or behavior. All tangible entities (student, patient) and
some intangible entities (bank account) are modeled as object.
 Attributes − they describe information about the object.
 Behavior − It specifies what the object can do. It defines the operation performed on
objects.
 Class − A class encapsulates the data and its behavior. Objects with similar meaning
and purpose grouped together as class.
 Methods − Methods determine the behavior of a class. They are nothing more than an
action that an object can perform.
 Message − A message is a function or procedure call from one object to another.

They are information sent to objects to trigger methods. Essentially, a message is a
function or procedure call from one object to another.
Structured Approach Object Oriented Approach
It works with Top-down approach. It works with Bottom-up approach.
Program is divided into number of Program is organized by having number of

submodules or functions. classes and objects.
Function call is used. Message passing is used.
Software reuse is not possible. Reusability is possible.
Structured design programming usually left Object oriented design programming done
until end phases. concurrently with other phases.
Structured Design is more suitable for It is suitable for in-house development.

offshoring.
It shows clear transition from design to Not so clear transition from design to
38
implementation. implementation.
It is suitable for real time system, embedded It is suitable for most business applications,
system and projects where objects are not game development projects, which are
the most useful level of abstraction. expected to customize or extended.
DFD & E-R diagram model the data. Class diagram, sequence diagram, state
chart diagram, and use cases all contribute.
In this, projects can be managed easily due to In this approach, projects can be difficult to
clearly identifiable phases. manage due to uncertain transitions
between phases.
Selection of a method for CBIS

a. Structured system analysis and design (SSADM) method steps
Feasibility study
In order to determine whether or not a given project is feasible, there must be some form of
investigation into the goals and implications of the project. For very small scale projects this
may not be necessary at all as the scope of the project is easily understood. In larger projects,
the feasibility may be done but in an informal sense, either because there is no time for a
formal study or because the project is a “must-have” and will have to be done one way or the
other.
When a feasibility study is carried out, there are four main areas of consideration:
Technical – is the project technically possible?

Financial – can the business afford to carry out the project?
Organizational – will the new system be compatible with existing practices?
Ethical – is the impact of the new system socially acceptable?
Investigation of the current environment
Having investigated the current system, the analyst must decide on the overall design of the
new system. To do this, he or she, using the outputs of the previous stage, develops a set of
business system options. These are different ways in which the new system could be
produced varying from doing nothing to throwing out the old system entirely and building an
entirely new one.
 the degree of automation

 the boundary between the system and the users
 The distribution of the system, for example, is it centralized to one office or spread
out across several?
 cost/benefit
 impact of the new system
Requirements specification
39
This is probably the most complex stage in SSADM. Using the requirements developed in
stage 1 and working within the framework of the selected business option, the analyst must
develop a full logical specification of what the new system must do.
By logical, we mean that the specification does not say how the system will be implemented
but rather describes what the system will do.
Technical system options

This stage is the first towards a physical implementation of the new system. Like the
Business System Options, in this stage a large number of options for the implementation of
the new system are generated. This is narrowed down to two or three to present to the user
from which the final option is chosen or synthesized.
However, the considerations are quite different being:
 the hardware architectures
 the software to use
 the cost of the implementation
 the staffing required
 the physical limitations such as a space occupied by the system
 the distribution including any networks which that may require
 the overall format of the human computer interface
All of these aspects must also conform to any constraints imposed by the business such as
available money and standardization of hardware and software.
The output of this stage is a chosen technical system option.
Logical design
Though the previous level specifies details of the implementation, the outputs of this stage
are implementation-independent and concentrate on the requirements for the human computer
interface. The logical design specifies the main methods of interaction in terms of menu
structures and command structures.
The product of this stage is the logical design which is made up of:
 Data catalogue
 Required logical data structure
 Logical process model – includes dialogues and model for the update and inquiry
processes
 Stress & Bending moment.
Physical design
40
This is the final stage where all the logical specifications of the system are converted to
descriptions of the system in terms of real hardware and software. This is a very technical
stage and a simple overview is presented here.
The product is a complete Physical Design which could tell software engineers how to build
the system in specific details of hardware and software and to the appropriate standards.
Learning outcome 2 theoretical learning activity

 Brainstorm about system analysis
 In group of four describe structured system analysis
Once analysing system don’t think only the new system to be developed but think
olso on existing system.
Learning outcome 2.1 formative assessment

Written assessment
1. Define system analysis.
2. Differentiate structured analysis method from Object oriented analysis method by
definition.
3. Differentiate behaviour from methods as characteristics of object oriented analysis
methods.
4. Give two differences between structured analysis method and Object oriented analysis
method.
5. List steps of structured system analysis and design methods.
Please mix different assessment tools for triangulation and relevancy of assessment.
Learning outcome 2.2: Analysis the current system
Duration: 7 hrs
41
1. describe correctly current system analysis phase
2. Investigate correctly the environment of current system as applied once designing a new
system
Resources

Papers
Indicative content 2.2.1: Analysis the current system
such as ticks etc)
Introduction to Current system analysis
Remember that system analysis is a process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying
the problems, and decomposition of a system into its components.
System analysis is conducted for the purpose of studying a system or its parts in order to
identify its objectives. It is a problem solving technique that improves the system and
ensures that all the components of the system work efficiently to accomplish their purpose.
Analysis specifies what the system should do.

Current system analysis phases:
42
i. Feasibility study:
Feasibility Study can be considered as preliminary investigation that helps the management
to take decision about whether study of system should be feasible for development or not.
The main objective of a feasibility study is to acquire problem scope instead of solving the
problem
 Technology and system feasibility
The assessment is based on an outline design of system requirements in terms of Input,
Processes, Output, Fields, Programs, and Procedures. This can be quantified in terms of
volumes of data, trends, frequency of updating, etc. in order to estimate whether the new
system will perform adequately or not.
Technological feasibility is carried out to determine whether the company has the capability,
in terms of software, hardware, personnel and expertise, to handle the completion of the
project.
 Economic feasibility
Economic analysis is the most frequently used method for evaluating the effectiveness of a
new system. More commonly known as cost/benefit analysis, the procedure is to determine
the benefits and savings that are expected from a candidate system and compare them with
costs.
 Legal feasibility
It determines whether the proposed system conflicts with legal requirements, e.g. a data
processing system must comply with the local Data Protection Acts.
 Operational feasibility
Operational feasibility is a measure of how well a proposed system solves the problems and
takes advantage of the opportunities identified during scope definition and how it satisfies the
requirements identified in the requirements analysis phase of system development.
 Schedule feasibility
A project will fail if it takes too long to be completed before it is useful. Typically this means
estimating how long the system will take to develop, and if it can be completed in a given
time period using some methods like payback period. Schedule feasibility is a measure of
how reasonable the project timetable is.
 Ethical feasibility
Is a test to determine if the project is ethical, or even legal. Ethical feasibility should be
tested from both the company perspective, as well as the developer's perspective. The
company has a vested interested to develop applications that show they are both professional
and ethical.
 Behavioral Feasibility
43
It evaluates and estimates the user attitude or behavior towards the development of new
system.
It helps in determining if the system requires special effort to educate, retrain, transfer, and
changes in employee’s job status on new ways of conducting business.
 Steps in Feasibility Analysis
Feasibility analysis involves eight steps:
1. Form a project team and appoint a project leader.
2. Prepare system flowcharts.
3. Enumerate potential candidate systems.
4. Describe and identify characteristics of candidate systems.
5. Determine and evaluate performance and cost effectiveness of each candidate system.
6. Weight system performance and cost data.
7. Select the best candidate system.
8. Prepare and report final project directive to management.
Investigation of Environment of current system
 Collection of requirements using traditional data findings

 Interviewing
Systems analyst collects information from individuals or groups by interviewing. The analyst
can be formal, legalistic, play politics, or be informal; as the success of an interview depends
on the skill of analyst as interviewer.
 Unstructured Interview − the system analyst conducts question-answer

session to acquire basic information of the system.
 Structured Interview − It has standard questions which user need to respond
in either close (objective) or open (descriptive) format.
 Semi-structured interview
 Questionnaires
This method is used by analyst to gather information about various issues of system from
large number of persons.
44
 Open-ended Questionnaires − It consists of questions that can be easily and
correctly interpreted. They can explore a problem and lead to a specific
direction of answer.
 Closed-ended Questionnaires − It consists of questions that are used when
the systems analyst effectively lists all possible responses, which are mutually
exclusive.
 Observation
This is a method of gathering information by noticing and observing the people, events, and
objects. The analyst visits the organization to observe the working of current system and
understands the requirements of the system.
 Documentation
This is a method of investigating the document that keeps the records of the manual system
like books,….it may also concern visiting a system’s website for more information.
Review of Records, Procedures, and Forms
Review of existing records, procedures, and forms helps to seek insight into a system which
describes the current system capabilities, its operations, or activities.
 Collection of requirements using Modern data findings

Rapid Application Development (RAD)
Rapid application development attempts to address both weaknesses of the structured
development methodologies: long development times and difficulty in understanding a
system from a paper-based description.
RAD methodologies adjust the SDLC phases to get some part of the system developed
quickly and place into the hands of the users, so that users can better understand the
system and provide feedback for improvement of the system.
Two common methodologies of rapid application development are: phased development
and prototyping.
Phased Development: The phased development methodology breaks the overall system
into a series of versions that are developed sequentially. The analysis phase identifies the
overall system concept, and the project team, users, and system sponsors then categorize
the requirements into a series of versions.
The most important and fundamental requirements are bundled into the first version of the
system. The analysis phase then leads into design and implementation, but only with the set
of requirements identified for version 1.
45
Once version 1 is implemented, work begins on version 2 and follows the steps, and so on.
Any additional requirement identified during testing of the older version is implemented in
the next version.
Phased development has the advantage of quickly getting a useful system into the hands of
the users.
Prototyping: The prototyping methodology performs the analysis, design, and

implementation phases concurrently, and all three phases are performed repeatedly in a
cycle until the system is completed.
In this case, the users of the system are an active participant of the system development
process. With the basic requirements from the users, a quick analysis and design of the
system is performed, and a prototype of the system containing main features of the
requirements, are developed.
The prototype is handed to the users for testing and to provide comments; which are then
reanalyzed and redesigned, and a second prototype is developed. The process continues in a
cycle until the users and developers agree to a final system.
Prototyping methodology gives a system quickly to the users’ hands, which they can
visualize from the very beginning instead of waiting at the end of the system development.
46
Tools for Rapid Applications Development:
Most RAD methodologies recommend that analysts use special techniques and computer
tools to speed up the analysis, design, and implementation phases. Two common
techniques and tools include JAD (joint application design), and CASE (computer-aided
software engineering) tools.
a. Joint Application Design (JAD): In this approach, the sponsor company creates a task
force of users, managers, and IS professionals that works together to gather information,
discuss business needs, and define the new system requirements. This group usually meets
over periods of days or weeks.
Because of the wide range of user input, JAD produces the best possible definition of a new
system than a single analyst can provide.
b. CASE (Computer-Aided Software Engineering) Tools: There are software packages

available that can help speed up various phases of the SDLC, thus shortening the
development time. These tools can be used in the analysis phase to document data
dictionary (data elements, data flows, data stores, processes, and external entities), and
create data-flow diagrams.
In the design phase, CASE tools can be used to create entity-relationship diagrams and to
generate program codes in certain language such as Visual Basic.
Modelling the current system using different levels of logical DFDs
A logical DFD focuses on the business and how the business operates.
It describes the business events that take place and the data required and produced by each
event.
A DFD that shows the movement of information is called a logical DFD

47
The logical DFD is the most common type of DFD
The problems in existing system

 What is the main problem of concern?
 Why is it a problem?
 Are existing resources available to eliminate the problem?
 Is another agency or organization trying to solve the problem?
 How severe is the problem?
Production of (AS-IS) current situation report

An as is system is an existing or a current state of system or process. The As-Is system is the
combination of people, processes, data, and technology that currently perform the tasks and
functions of the system under study. The As-Is system may or may not incorporate
computers. A to be system is the one which is developed on the basis of the analysis done on
the current system which needs to be changed.
 System process
Processes are all the related activities (parts) inside the system that work together to make it
function. For a mass transit system, there's a process for ticket sales, equipment maintenance
process, vehicle and track repair process, a safety process and so on. Processes are a smaller
part of the larger system.
A comprehensive and detailed analysis of the current system is essential to developing a
quality, new information system. The analyst should understand and document how the
current system uses hardware, software, and people to accept and manage input data and
to convert such data into information suitable for decision making. The documentation
should be detailed and complete.
For example, the analyst should assess the quality of input and output activities that form
the user's interface. In addition, the volume and timing of such activities may be
documented.
 Stakeholder(people)
Analysis of the information needs of the stakeholders is an important first step in
determining the requirements of the new system. It is essential that the analyst
understands the environment in which the new system will operate. Understanding the
environment means knowing enough about the management of the organization, its
structure, its people, its business, and the current information systems to ensure that the
new system will be appropriate.
 Technology
Functional requirements include the necessary hardware and software configurations along
with the appropriate human resources.
Learning outcome 2.3: Analysis the new system
48
Duration: 6 hrs
Learning outcome 2. 3 objectives:

1. Identify the desired business process
2. Design correctly the physical DFD as used in software Development
3. Design the Logical Data Model
Resources

Papers
Indicative content 2.3.1: Analysis the new system
such as ticks etc)
Definition of analysis of new system
Systems analysis is the act, process, or profession of studying an activity (such as a

procedure, a business, or a physiological function) typically by mathematical means in order
to define its goals or purposes and to discover operations and procedures for accomplishing
them most efficiently.
Model of the new system using:

1. Physical DFD
 Data Flow Diagrams (DFD) or Bubble Chart
49
It is a technique developed by Larry Constantine to express the requirements of system in a
graphical form.
 It shows the flow of data between various functions of system and specifies how the
current system is implemented.
 It is an initial stage of design phase that functionally divides the requirement
specifications down to the lowest level of detail.
 Its graphical nature makes it a good communication tool between user and analyst
or analyst and system designer.
 It gives an overview of what data a system processes, what transformations are
performed, what data are stored, what results are produced and where they flow.
Symbol Name Symbol Meaning
Square Source or Destination of Data
Arrow Data flow
Circle Process transforming data flow
Open Rectangle Data Store
The data flow diagram is a hierarchy of diagram consists of:

 Context Diagram (conceptually level zero)
DFD Level 0 is also called a Context Diagram. It’s a basic overview of the whole system or
process being analyzed or modeled. It’s designed to be an at-a-glance view, showing the
system as a single high-level process, with its relationship to external entities. It should be
easily understood by a wide audience, including stakeholders, business analysts, data
analysts and developers.
1. The Level-1 DFD

DFD Level 1 provides a more detailed breakout of pieces of the Context Level Diagram. You
will highlight the main functions carried out by the system, as you break down the high-level
process of the Context Diagram into its sub processes
50
2. The Level-2 DFD
DFD Level 2 then goes one step deeper into parts of Level 1. It may require more text to
reach the necessary level of detail about the system’s functioning
And possible Level-2 DFD and further levels of functional decomposition depending on the
complexity of your system
51
Progression to Levels 3, 4 and beyond is possible, but going beyond Level 3 is uncommon.
Doing so can create complexity that makes it difficult to communicate, compare or model
effectively.
For example, in a Logical DFD, the processes would be business activities, while in a
Physical DFD; the processes would be programs and manual procedures.
Physical DFD looks at how a system is implemented

2. Logical Data Model
52
A logical data model or logical schema is a data model of a specific problem domain
expressed independently of a particular database management product or storage technology
(physical data model) but in terms of data structures such as relational tables and columns,
object-oriented classes, or XML tags.
3. Conceptual Data Model

A conceptual data model identifies the highest-level relationships between the different
entities. Features of conceptual data model include: Includes the important entities and the
relationships among them.
4. Activities of analysis of desired system
5. Identify the desired business process
6. Identify the needed business activities
7. Define required processing requirements
8. Define the information or data storage requirements for the new system
9. Define the interfaces with other systems
Environment of the new system
The environment is the “supersystem” within which an organization operates. It is the source
of external elements that strike on the system.
It determines how a system must function. For example, vendors and competitors of
organization’s environment may provide constraints that affect the actual performance of the
business.
Production of a “TO BE” report.

The To-Be system is the combination of people, processes, data, and technology that will
perform the required tasks and functions of the system under study.

 Explain common symbols that are used once designing a dataflow diagram
 Describe by using example the conceptually level zero
 Compare conceptually level zero from DFD level 1
 Describe elements of a report
In system analysis and design, It is necessary to design a data flow diagram that can
be either DFD level 0 and DFD level 1.
53
Written assessment
1. Define a bubble chart from a context diagram.
2. Differentiate a physical DFD from a logical DFD.
Practical assessment
Assay
According to the requirement collected from Groupe Scolaire B TVET library and analysis
you did, develop a ‘TO BE REPORT’ that shows how a new system will operate.
Observation checklist
Criterio Yes No
Physical DFD
Logical Data Model
Conceptual Data Model
Activities of analysis of desired system
Needed for business process
Needed business activities
Learning Unit 3: DESIGN NEW SYSTEM
54
Learning outcomes:
3.1. Introduce the system design
3.2. Perform a logical design
3.3. Perform a physical design
Learning outcome 3.1. Introduce the system design
Duration: 8 hrs

1. Describe correctly new system design process
Resources

Papers
Indicative content 3.3.1: Introduce the system design

55
such as ticks etc)
System design
System design is the phase that bridges the gap between problem domain and the existing
system in a manageable way. This phase focuses on the solution domain, i.e. “how to
implement?
The design phase decides how the system will operate, in terms of the hardware, software,
and network infrastructure; the user interface, forms, and reports that will be used; and the
specific programs, databases, and files that will be needed. Look and feel or blueprint of the
system on paper is developed in this phase.
Types of System Design
Systems design phase can be broken into two phases: logical design and physical design.
Logical Design
The logical design addresses the business aspect of the system, which is independent of any
hardware. In this phase, the system analyst uses the information collected earlier to develop
a logical design of the information system. It includes the following:
• Database structure: Identifies external entities and relationships through E-R diagrams and
normalization. Also mentioned in the analysis phase.
Physical Design
Physical Design:
The logical design is implemented through the physical design. It identifies the file and
database structures, system structure, program structure, and hardware and software
necessary to implement the system. They include:
• Database: Implementation of E-R diagram. Defines all tables in the database including
field names, field size, data type, keys, validation rules, and so on.
• Files: If the system requires any input or output file, their structures are defined. A file
definition includes information such as the record length, field names, field size, field
sequence, and so on.
• Data-Entry Forms: Data-entry forms are developed, which defines the relationships of
data-entry fields with the file or table-fields. The forms can also be used for displaying data.
These forms can be character-based or GUI-based. The analyst defines exactly how each
form looks on the computer screen.
56
• Menus: Menus are designed such that the forms and reports can be accessed and printed
according to the business need of the organization. It should also address the security
requirement of the organization.
• Reports: Reports are defined, which includes the relationships of the report-fields with the
table-fields, any calculations, layout, font type, font size, and so on.
• Systems and Programs: All programs and program modules corresponding to processes
are defined through a structured chart. To define the processes performed by a program,
the analyst may include data-flow diagrams, flow-charts, and pseudocodes that were used
to describe the processes in the analysis phase.
• Programming Languages: Identifies the languages that will be used to code the systems.
• Database System: Identifies the database software that will be used in the system.
• Hardware Platform: Identifies the computer hardware that will be used in various parts of
the system.
• Operating Systems: Operating systems that will be used in various parts of the system.
• Network Architecture: Identifies the network architecture of the system.
The output of the design phase is a Functional Specification or Design Specification.
Programmers and network administrators use this document as the working specification
for the physical development of the system.

 In group of 4 design a logical model of library management system
There are two types of System Design including logical design and physical desig.

Written assessment
57
1. Differentiate logical model from physical model
2. What are key elements that you based on while designing logical model and
physical model
Learning outcome 3.2: Perform a logical design
Duration: 8 hrs

1. Perform data analysis (normalize set of tables and rationalize set of tables
2. Performance of required system logical data structure
Resources
Computer Pens Internet Papers
Indicative content 3.2.1: Performance of requirements catalogue
such as ticks etc)
Performance of requirements catalogue
Format
Requirements Catalogue Entry
Project Author Date Version Page of
Source Priority Owner Requirement ID
58
Functional Requirement
Business Event:
Non-functional requirements
Description Target value Acceptable range Comments
Benefits
Comments/suggested solutions
Related Document
Related requirements
Resolution
Requirements Catalogue Entry
Project S.Todd Author NL Date 7.7.94 Version 1 Page 1 of 1
Source Interview 2 with Priority H Owner ST Requirement ID A6

ST
Functional Requirement
Arrange for (immediate) payment of appointments:
Appointments should be paid for upon completion of the appointment. It is important for
the stylist responsible for the appointment to inform reception of all the treatments
provided before the customer leaves the premises. A full list of all the services arranged for
during the setting up of the appointment, plus any services that were provided at the
stylist’s suggestion without pre-arrangement should be available for charging purposes. The
method of payment should be recorded and a bill provided for the customer. A record of
the transaction should be kept for tax purposes.
Business Event: Appointment Completed
59
Non-functional requirements
Description Target value Acceptable range Comments

Input services immediately 4 seconds per
provided through keyboard service
5-10 secs
print bill under 20 secs
Benefits
No time will be lost calculating the value of each service. A record for tax purposes will
reduce accounting fees considerably. Customers will have a complete breakdown of the
treatment they pay for.
Comments/suggested solutions
The LDS will contain entities to trace and charge for all Jobs making up an Appointment.
A direct link to a printer is necessary
Related Documents
Interview and observation notes. Identified through BAM. LDS entities Appointment, Job,
Treatment, Skill, and Treatment Skill. DFD processes 5.1 and 5.2.
Related requirements
A1, and to a lesser extent A3 & A4
Resolution
Accepted by BSO and TSO. Implemented. Function Id:__
Performance required system Data Flow Diagrams

Logical design
A logical DFD focuses on the business and how the business operates. It describes the
business events that take place and the data required and produced by each event.
Logical DFD
 Logical DFD depicts how the business operates.
 The processes represent the business activities.
 The data stores represent the collection of data regardless of how the data are
stored.
 It s how business controls.
Benefits of Logical Data Flow Diagram
The logical data flow diagrams implemented correctly achieves the goal of the business.
60
 Clarifying which processes are manual and which are automated: Manual processes
require detailed documentation and automated process require computer programs
to be developed.
 Describing processes in more detail than do logical DFDs: Describes all steps for
processing of data.
 Sequencing processes that have to be done in a particular order: Sequence of
activities that lead to a meaningful result are described. For example, update must
be performed before a producing a summary report.
 Identifying temporary data storage: Temporary storage such as a sales transaction
file for a customer receipt (report) in a grocery store, are described.
Logical DFD only focus on the information flow in business term.
Performance of required system Logical Data Structure

Logical data structures are data models, and are sometimes called entity-relationship (ER)
models or even entity-attribute-relationship models.
It shows what data the business needs for its day-to-day operations
It is important that the logical design accurately reflect the mental model of how the user
views the system.
61
Perform data analysis (Normalize set of tables and rationalize set of tables
What Is Normalization?
Normalization is the branch of relational theory that provides design insights. It is the
process of determining how much redundancy exists in a table. The goals of normalization
are to:
 Be able to characterize the level of redundancy in a relational schema
 Provide mechanisms for transforming schemas in order to remove redundancy
Normalization theory draws heavily on the theory of functional dependencies.
Normalization theory defines six normal forms (NF). Each normal form involves a set of
dependency properties that a schema must satisfy and each normal form gives guarantees
about the presence and/or absence of update anomalies. This means that higher normal
forms have less redundancy, and as a result, fewer update problems.
There are six normal forms, but we will only look at the first four, which are:
 First normal form (1NF)
 Second normal form (2NF)
 Third normal form (3NF)
 Boyce-Codd normal form (BCNF)
BCNF is rarely used.
 First Normal Form
First Normal Form is defined in the definition of relations (tables) itself. This rule defines
that all the attributes in a relation must have atomic domains. The values in an atomic
domain are indivisible units.
62
Abnormal
Normal
 Second Normal Form
Before we learn about the second normal form, we need to understand the following −
 Prime attribute − an attribute, which is a part of the candidate-key, is known as a
prime attribute.
 Non-prime attribute − an attribute, which is not a part of the prime-key, is said to be
a non-prime attribute.
If we follow second normal form, then every non-prime attribute should be fully functionally
dependent on prime key attribute.
63

Normal Third Normal Form
For a relation to be in Third Normal Form, it must be in Second Normal form and the
following must satisfy −
 No non-prime attribute is transitively dependent on prime key attribute.
We find that in the above Student_detail relation, Stu_ID is the key and only prime
key attribute. We find that City can be identified by Stu_ID as well as Zip itself. Neither Zip
is a superkey nor is City a prime attribute. Additionally, Stu_ID → Zip → City, so there
exists transitive dependency.
To bring this relation into third normal form, we break the relation into two relations as
follows −
Boyce-Codd Normal Form

Boyce-Codd Normal Form (BCNF) is an extension of Third Normal Form on strict terms. BCNF
states that −
 For any non-trivial functional dependency, X → A, X must be a super-key.
In the above image, Stu_ID is the super-key in the relation Student_Detail and Zip is the
super-key in the relation ZipCodes. So,
64
Stu_ID → Stu_Name, Zip
and
Zip → City
Which confirms that both the relations are in BCNF.

 ………………………………. (example: ask trainees to brainstorm about………. within
groups)
Practical learning Activity

 Trainees will be given practical exercises to design a system based on analyzed
requirements

Written assessment
 Assessment tools
 True or false questions
 Multiple choice
 Open ended questions
 Case studies
65
 Assay
 Task to be performed
 Observation checklist
Learning outcome 3.3: Perform a Physical design of new system
Duration: 8 hrs

1. Design correctly Data design on new system
2. Develop correctly the report.
3. Design the input to be used once developing the new system
Resources
Computer Pens Internet Papers
Indicative content 3.3.1: Data Design
such as ticks etc)
ERD
ER modelling is based on two concepts:
Entities, defined as tables that hold specific information (data)
Relationships, defined as the associations or interactions between entities
66
Let’s use a sample database called the COMPANY database to illustrate the concepts of the
ER model. This database contains information about employees, departments and projects.
Important points to note include:
There are several departments in the company. Each department has a unique
identification, a name, location of the office and a particular employee who manages the
department.
A department controls a number of projects, each of which has a unique name, a unique
number and a budget.
Each employee has a name, identification number, address, salary and bir//thdate. An
employee is assigned to one department but can join in several projects. We need to record
the start date of the employee in each project. We also need to know the direct supervisor
of each employee.
We want to keep track of the dependents for each employee. Each dependent has a name,
birthdate and relationship with the employee.
1. Entity, Entity Set and Entity Type
An entity
is an object in the real world with an independent existence that can be differentiated from
other objects. An entity might be
An object with physical existence (e.g., a lecturer, a student, a car)
An object with conceptual existence (e.g., a course, a job, a position)
Entities can be classified based on their strength. An entity is considered weak if its tables
are existence dependent.
That is, it cannot exist without a relationship with another entity
Its primary key is derived from the primary key of the parent entity
The Spouse table, in the COMPANY database, is a weak entity because its primary key is
dependent on the Employee table. Without a corresponding employee record, the spouse
record would not exist.
An entity is considered strong if it can exist apart from all of its related entities.
Student is strong entity.
A table without a foreign key or a table that contains a foreign key that can contain nulls is a
strong entity
Another term to know is entity type which defines a collection of similar entities.
Entity set
67
It is a collection of entities of an entity type at a particular point of time. In an entity
relationship diagram (ERD), an entity type is represented by a name in a box.
Kinds of Entities
 Independent entities
Independent entities, also referred to as kernels, are the backbone of the database. They
are what other tables are based on. Kernels have the following characteristics:
They are the building blocks of a database.
The primary key may be simple or composite.
The primary key is not a foreign key.
They do not depend on another entity for their existence.
If we refer back to our COMPANY database, examples of an independent entity include the
Customer table, Employee table or Product table.
 Dependent entities
Dependent entities, also referred to as derived entities, depend on other tables for their
meaning. These entities have the following characteristics:
Dependent entities are used to connect two kernels together.
They are said to be existence dependent on two or more tables.
Many to many relationships become associative tables with at least two foreign keys.
They may contain other attributes.
The foreign key identifies each associated table.
There are three options for the primary key:
o Use a composite of foreign keys of associated tables if unique
o Use a composite of foreign keys and a qualifying column
o Create a new simple primary key
Attributes
Each entity is described by a set of attributes (e.g., Employee = (Name, Address, Birthdate
(Age), Salary).
o Simple attributes
Simple attributes are those drawn from the atomic value domains; they are also called
single-valued attributes.
o Composite attributes
Composite attributes are those that consist of a hierarchy of attributes.

68
o Multivalued attributes
Multivalued attributes are attributes that have a set of values for each entity.
o Derived attributes
Derived attributes are attributes that contain values calculated from other attributes.
Keys
An important constraint on an entity is the key. The key is an attribute or a group of
attributes whose values can be used to uniquely identify an individual entity in an entity set.
Types of Keys
o Candidate key
A candidate key is a simple or composite key that is unique and minimal. It is unique
because no two rows in a table may have the same value at any time. It is minimal because
every column is necessary in order to attain uniqueness.
o Primary key
The primary key is a candidate key that is selected by the database designer to be used as
an identifying mechanism for the whole entity set. It must uniquely identify tuples in a table
and not be null. The primary key is indicated in the ER model by underlining the attribute.
A candidate key is selected by the designer to uniquely identify tuples in a table. It must not
be null.
A key is chosen by the database designer to be used as an identifying mechanism for the
whole entity set. This is referred to as the primary key. This key is indicated by underlining
the attribute in the ER model.
o Alternate key
Alternate keys are all candidate keys not chosen as the primary key.
o Foreign key
A foreign key (FK) is an attribute in a table that references the primary key in another table
OR it can be null. Both foreign and primary keys must be of the same data type.
Relationships
Relationships are the glue that holds the tables together. They are used to connect related
information between tables.
Relationship strength is based on how the primary key of a related entity is defined. A weak,
or non-identifying, relationship exists if the primary key of the related entity does not
contain a primary key component of the parent entity.
Many to many (M: N) relationships
69
One to one (1:1) relationship
One to many (1: M) relationship
Figure 12 Relationships
File Organization
It describes how records are stored within a file. There are four file organization methods:
 Serial: Records are stored in chronological order (in order as they are input or occur).
Examples: Recording of telephone charges, ATM transactions, Telephone queues
 Sequential: Records are stored in order based on a key field which contains a value that
uniquely identifies a record. Examples: Phone directories
 Direct (relative): Each record is stored based on a physical address or location on the
device. Address is calculated from the value stored in the record’s key field. Randomizing
routine or hashing algorithm does the conversion
 Indexed: Records can be processed both sequentially and non-sequentially using indexes.
File Access
One can access a file using either Sequential Access or Random Access. File Access methods
allow computer programs read or write records in a file. Sequential Access Every record on
the file is processed starting with the first record until End of File (EOF) is reached. It is
efficient when a large number of the records on the file need to be accessed at any given
time. Data stored on a tape (sequential access) can be accessed only sequentially Direct
70
(Random) Access Records are located by knowing their physical locations or addresses on
the device rather than their positions relative to other records. Data stored on a CD device
(direct-access) can be accessed either sequentially or randomly. Types of Files used in an
Organization System Following are the types of files used in an organization system:
 Master file: It contains the current information for a system. For example, customer file,
student file, telephone directory.
 Table file: It is a type of master file that changes infrequently and stored in a tabular
format. For example, storing Zipcode.
 Transaction file: It contains the day-to-day information generated from business activities.
It is used to update or process the master file. For example, Addresses of the employees.
 Temporary file: It is created and used whenever needed by a system.
 Mirror files: They are the exact duplicates of other files. Help minimize the risk of
downtime in cases when the original becomes unusable. They must be modified each time
the original file is changed.
 Log files: They contain copies of master and transaction records in order to chronicle any
changes that are made to the master file. It facilitates auditing and provides mechanism for
recovery in case of system failure.
 Archive file: Backup files that contain historical versions of other files.
Indicative content 3.3.2: Outputs design
such as ticks etc)
 Output design
The design of output is the most important task of any system. During output design,
developers identify the type of outputs needed, and consider the necessary output controls
and prototype report layouts.
Objectives of Output Design
The objectives of input design are
To develop output design that serves the intended purpose and eliminates the production
of unwanted output.
 To develop the output design that meets the end user’s requirements.
71
 To deliver the appropriate quantity of output.
 To form the output in appropriate format and direct it to the right person.
 To make the output available on time for making good decisions.
Let us now go through various types of outputs
o External Outputs
Manufacturers create and design external outputs for printers. External outputs enable the
system to leave the trigger actions on the part of their recipients or confirm actions to their
recipients.
Some of the external outputs are designed as turnaround outputs, which are implemented
as a form and re-enter the system as an input.
o Internal outputs
Internal outputs are present inside the system, and used by end-users and managers. They
support the management in decision making and reporting.
 reports
There are three types of reports produced by management information −
Detailed Reports − they contain present information which has almost no filtering or
restriction generated to assist management planning and control.
Summary Reports − they contain trends and potential problems which are categorized and
summarized that are generated for managers who do not want details.
Exception Reports − they contain exceptions, filtered data to some condition or standard
before presenting it to the manager, as information.
o Output Integrity Controls
Output integrity controls include routing codes to identify the receiving system, and
verification messages to confirm successful receipt of messages that are handled by network
protocol.
Printed or screen-format reports should include a date/time for report printing and the
data. Multipage reports contain report title or description, and pagination. Pre-printed
forms usually include a version number and effective date.
 displays
 Logical Data Model
Indicative content 3.3.3: Inputs design

72
such as ticks etc)
Inputs design
In an information system, input is the raw data that is processed to produce output.
Therefore, the quality of system input determines the quality of system output.
Well designed input forms and screens have following properties:
 It should serve specific purpose effectively such as storing, recording, and retrieving
the information.
 It ensures proper completion with accuracy.
 It should be easy to fill and straightforward.
 It should focus on user’s attention, consistency, and simplicity.
Objectives for Input Design
The objectives of input design are
 To design data entry and input procedures
 To reduce input volume
 To design source documents for data capture or devise other data capture methods
 To design input data records, data entry screens, user interface screens, etc.
 To use validation checks and develop effective input controls.
Data Input Methods

It is important to design appropriate data input methods to prevent errors while entering
data. These methods depend on whether the data is entered by customers in forms
manually and later entered by data entry operators, or data is directly entered by users on
the PCs.
A system should prevent user from making mistakes by −
 Clear form design by leaving enough space for writing legibly.
 Clear instructions to fill form.
 Clear form design.
 Reducing key strokes.
 Immediate error feedback.
Some of the popular data input methods are

Batch input method (Offline data input method)
73
 Online data input method
 Computer readable forms
 Interactive data input
 Input Integrity Controls
Input integrity controls include a number of methods to eliminate common input errors by
end-users. They also include checks on the value of individual fields; both for format and the
completeness of all inputs.
 forms
Forms Design
Both forms and reports are the product of input and output design and are business
document consisting of specified data. The main difference is that forms provide fields for
data input but reports are purely used for reading. For example, order forms, employment
and credit application, etc.
During form designing, the designers should know
 who will use them
 where would they be delivered
 the purpose of the form or report
During form design, automated design tools enhance the developer’s ability to prototype
forms and reports and present them to end users for evaluation.
Objectives of Good Form Design
A good form design is necessary to ensure the following −
 To keep the screen simple by giving proper sequence, information, and clear
captions.
 To meet the intended purpose by using appropriate forms.
 To ensure the completion of form with accuracy.
 To keep the forms attractive by using icons, inverse video, or blinking cursors etc.
 To facilitate navigation.
Types of Forms
o Flat Forms
It is a single copy form prepared manually or by a machine and printed on a paper. For
additional copies of the original, carbon papers are inserted between copies.
It is a simplest and inexpensive form to design, print, and reproduces, which uses less
volume.
o Unit Set/Snap out Forms
74
These are papers with one-time carbons interleaved into unit sets for either handwritten or
machine use.
Carbons may be either blue or black, standard grade medium intensity. Generally, blue
carbons are best for handwritten forms while black carbons are best for machine use.
o Continuous strip/Fanfold Forms
These are multiple unit forms joined in a continuous strip with perforations between each
pair of forms.
It is a less expensive method for large volume use.
o No Carbon Required (NCR) Paper
They use carbonless papers which have two chemical coatings (capsules), one on the face
and the other on the back of a sheet of paper.
When pressure is applied, the two capsules interact and create an image.
 screens
 dialogues
Indicative content 3.3.3: Program design
such as ticks etc)
Programs Design
Structure of programs to collect, transform & output data
Work to accomplish before the end of module
As a system analyst:
What are the attributes of a system analyst?
Give the responsibilities of a system analyst.
System analyst
he system analyst is a person who study the system and guides the system development
project by giving proper directions.
He is an expert having technical and interpersonal skills to carry out development tasks
required at each phase.
75
Main Roles
 Defining and understanding the requirement of user through various Fact finding
techniques.
 Prioritizing the requirements by obtaining user consensus.
 Gathering the facts or information and acquires the opinions of users.
 Maintains analysis and evaluation to arrive at appropriate system which is more user
friendly.
 Suggests many flexible alternative solutions, pick the best solution, and quantify cost and
benefits.
 Draw certain specifications which are easily understood by users and programmer in
precise and detailed form.
 Implemented the logical design of system which must be modular.
 Plan the periodicity for evaluation after it has been used for some time, and modify the
system as needed.
Attributes of Systems Analyst
Interpersonal Skills
 Interface with users and programmer.
 Facilitate groups and lead smaller teams.
 Managing expectations.
 Good understanding, communication, selling and teaching abilities.
 Motivator having the confidence to solve queries.
Analytical Skills
 System study and organizational knowledge
 Problem identification, problem analysis, and problem solving
 Sound commonsense
 Ability to access trade-off
 Curiosity to learn about new organization Systems

Management Skills
 Understand users jargon and practices.
76
 Resource &project management
 Change & risk management
 Understand the management functions thoroughly.

Technical Skills
 Knowledge of computers and software
 Keep abreast of modern development.
 Know of system design tools.
 Breadth knowledge about new technologies.
The following figure shows the attributes a systems analyst should possess

 ………………………………. (example: ask trainees to brainstorm about………. within
groups)
 ……………………………….
 ……………………………….
77
Practical learning Activity
 Practical exercise to elaborate a database design for a designed system
A database can have different tables and table have different fields one of them
must be a primary key.
Written assessment
 True or false questions
 Multiple choice
 Open ended questions
 Case studies
 Assay
 Task to be performed
 Observation checklist
78
References
3. https://www.wisdomjobs.com/e-university/system-analysis-and-design-
tutorial-330/systemanalysis-and-design-overview-17815.html
4. https://www.douglascollege.ca/programs-courses/catalogue/courses/CSIS/
CSIS2200
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Requirements_analysis
6. https://www.slideshare.net/somipam123456/information-systems-concept-
purpose-types
7. https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Systems_Analysis_and_Design/Introduction
8. https://www.grin.com/document/106034
9. https://slideplayer.com/slide/254376/
10. https://cybarlab.com/normalization
79

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RQF LEVEL 5

MODULE CODE: SFDAD501

SFD: Software Development

Module Code and Title: SFDAD501 SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Picture/s reflecting the Learning unit 1

STRUCTURE OF LEARNING UNIT

Learning outcome 1.1 Identify information system

Learning outcome 1 objectives:

Equipment Tools Materials

Computer Pens Internet

 Definition of: Data, Information and Knowledge

Basic System Components

These systems work together to form the ECOSYSTEMS

It is an interconnected set of information resources to manage data for particular

Man-made information systems are divided into three types:

Indicative content 1.1.2: Information systems features and characteristics

Indicative content 1.1.3: Functions of environment of Information system

Transaction processing systems

Management information systems

The office automation systems

Figure 2 Expert system

Theoretical learning Activity

Points to Remember (Take home message)

Learning outcome 1 formative assessment

Learning outcome 2 objectives:

Equipment Tools Materials

Computer Pens Internet

Indicative content 1.2.1: System analysis

Indicative content 1.2.2: System design

Figure 3 Design activities

3. Design the application architecture

Theoretical learning Activity

Points to Remember (Take home message)

Learning outcome 2 formative assessment

Action Nature systems Human made systems

Learning outcome 3 objectives:

Equipment Tools Materials

Computer Pens Internet

Indicative content 1.3.1: System Development Life Cycle models

Fig. 2. Different phases of Software Development Life Cycle

Figure 5 Waterfall model

 Easy to explain to the users.  Assumes that the requirements of a

Figure 6 Agile model

 Decrease the time required to avail  Scalability.

Figure 7 V-Shaped model

 Software requirements clearly defined and known

 Simple and easy to use  Very inflexible, like the waterfall

Figure 8 Spiral model

Indicative content 1.3.2: Selection of system development life cycle

Selection of System Development Life Cycle model

Figure 11 System Design

 Types of System Design

 System Integration and Testing

Method Description Advantages Disadvantages

Direct New system is Forces users to make new No fall back if

Pilot Supports phased Allows training and A long term phases

Phase-In Working version of Provides experience and line Gives impression

 System Maintenance / Enhancement

Maintenance means restoring something to its original conditions. Enhancement means