4.

MATERIAL SELECTION IN ENGINEERING

The principle of Design for Manufacturing and Design for Assembly

is to anticipate cost and relate the design decision to committed
cost.
The material the part will be made of is the first decision of the
design process, or the fist decision of the manufacturing process. A
product can be made of the same material or can be made up of
different part that may have different materials.
The performance of a part is strongly related to the property the
material that is used for the part is made of.

The function embodied in a component, how the part answers to the customer needs, is related to
the material and to the shape (thickness) of the part. The function a piece has to embrace is made
up of a different combination of material and shape.
For example, a piece that has the function of thermal conductivity can be designed choosing
different combinations of material and shape, the important is to reach the optimum combination
that respects the initial function.
The interchange between material properties and shape is what makes the design job of the
engineer difficult, because every time we change material then the shape has to change and every
time the shape changes potentially we can choose a different material for improvement.
For consumer products, the optimum decision about material and shape is the one that reduces
costs; but in some industries (es.: aerospace or supercar) the optimal decision is only based on
performance.

When designing a part, we also decide what process, what technology we use to make that part.
When designing we have to consider constraints, that come from the process used to manufacture
the part. The shape of the part and the material of the part are tightly related to process
constraints. The decisions in shape and material put constraints on the process selection. The
initial decisions places different constraints on the process selection.
Having selected the possible processes to manufacture that part, the overall cost sums up the
material usage and the process usage. Here starts an iterative confrontation of the possible
solutions, given by different combinations of material, shape and process; the iteration stops when
the lowest possible cost is reached, given the function to satisfy.
This iterative process of cost determination can be performed with simulations and tools like CAD.
With CAD and simulations, we try to reach the lowest cost that gives the function needed, by the
optimal combination of material and shape (and process).

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MATERIALS SELECTION AND DESIGN
Most of the times, Material Selection is Design-led. The materials are selected from a database, a
table, a book, ... a list of materials, based on their properties. The function of a piece is related to
the material properties. Given the properties I select some of the materials.
Anyways, there are different ways of selecting materials.
Some materials are just discovered and then they have to be studied, the possible applications and
the opportunities they can exploit are identified. Properties of a new material can suggest the new
product. For example:
• Transistor: High-purity silicon;
• Optical Fiber: High-purity glass.
Other materials are developed because there is a special demand (es.: alloys that can withstand
loads at high temperature, superalloys), the material is developed because there is a need to be
fulfilled. Need for a new product can demand the development of a new material. Examples are:
• Turbine Technology: High-Temperature Alloys, Ceramics;
• Space Technology: Lightweight Composites.
So, we can distinguish:
• Push-procedure: the material is pushed into the market to find applications;
• Pull-procedure: the market pulls the development of a new material, the need for a new
material, to fulfill certain functions, that existing material do not fulfill.
These two methods for selecting materials are not common.

Mechanical Design
The function (structural, thermal, optical, electrical …) helps to understand the subset of properties
I need to look for in the material. If the function of a piece is structural then I’m looking for
mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness; other properties are also important, but they are
not the main properties. We have to identify the main function.
The mechanical design deals with function and physical principles. Components must:
• Carry Loads,
• Conduct Heat and Electricity,
• Exposed to Wear and Corrosion,
• Must be Manufactured,
• ...
The function can be limited by Material properties.

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Engineering Materials

We can classify all the materials in the known universe in

families, and we can assign to every family some general
properties. Doing this we gain more knowledge, assigning
better the materials.
From a large set of materials classification allows to focus,
narrow down the focus on few materials that are better for
the function needed.

Let’s see the principal properties of every family:

• Metals: stiff, strong and ductile; they can resist at high temperature, they have an high
melting point; Cons: they are heavy, cause they have an high density and they are prone to
corrosion and oxidation.
• Polimers: weak, not stiff, compliant; but they are very light.
The price of the materials are related to their weight, so for commodity materials the
higher the weight / the density the more expensive they are, polymers have low density, so
even if they cost more per kg, the material used is less to have the same volume.
They cannot be used at high temperature, they usually cannot withstand higher
temperatures that 150 degrees.
• Ceramics: very high stiffness, but they are fragile; they can withstand high temperature;
they can be quite heavy, and oxidation can be a problem; they are expensive.
• Glasses: used when transparency is needed.
• Elastomers: used when elastic properties are needed.
• Hybrids or composites: the properties of this family materials are combined.
Menu of materials:
• Metals: High Moduli, Can undergo alloying and heat treatment, Formed by Deformation,
Ductile (Yields before fracture), Prey to Fatigue, Corrosion.
• Ceramics/Glasses: High Moduli, Hard, Abrasion/Corrosion resistant (Cutting Tools), Retain
Strength at High Temperature, Brittle, Prey to high contact stresses, low tolerance for
cracks.
• Polymers and Elastomers: Low Moduli, High Strength (High Elastic Deflection: Snap fits),
Corrosion Resistant, Easy to Shape, Minimize Finishing Operations, Temperature Dependent
Properties.
• Composites: High Moduli, Strength, Lightweight, Can be Tough, Optimal performance at
room temperature, Expensive, Difficult to Form/Join.
The awareness of the general properties the material family has, permits to select the best
material. Materials are described by properties, so an engineer has to dominate the meaning of
these properties, he has to be able to “speech the language” of properties.
A successful design exploits and brings out the true potential of materials selected. The goal is to
meet a certain profile of properties.
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Design-Limiting Material Properties
• General: Cost, Density.
• Mechanical: Elastic Moduli, Strength, Toughness, Fracture Toughness, Damping Capacity,
Fatigue Endurance Limit.
• Wear: Archard Wear Constant.
• Thermal: Thermal Conductivity, Thermal Diffusivity, Specific Heat, Melting Point, Glass
Temperature, Thermal Expansion Coefficient, Thermal Shock Resistance, Creep Resistance.
• Corrosion/Oxidation: Corrosion Rate, Parabolic Rate Constant.
Difference between strength and stiffness. Strength: it does not brake; Stiffness: it does not
deform.
Difference between thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity. Thermal diffusivity: ratio
between thermal conductivity and thermal capacity. If thermal conductivity describes the ability
of the material to conduct heat, exchange heat by conduction, thermal diffusivity is the ability of
the material to heat up or cool down rapidly. We use thermal conductivity when we have steady
heat exchange. Instead, thermal diffusivity is related to the capacity of the body to heat up or cool
down, used when transient problems; for example, to heat up a battery we use a material with
high thermal diffusivity, to cool down a mold we use a material with a high thermal diffusivity.

Properties are not fixed in time; they can change

over time and over temperature.
The stiffness or toughness on a piece can change
with the temperature.
We always have to take into account the
environment the material works in, changing
temperature and time.

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SELECTION OF MATERIALS
Materials Selection Charts
A fundamental concept that Michael Ashby introduced in the material selection process is that
when selecting a material, most of the times, the aim is the maximization on a combination of
properties. So, combinations of properties are important in evaluating usefulness of materials. For
example, car materials have to be tough, to absorb the energy in case of crash, but at the same
time light, for performance.
The ratio between mechanical properties (strength or stiffness) and density is considered.
σ
• Strength to Weight Ratio: f
ρ
E
• Stiffness to Weight Ratio:
ρ
Most of the times, especially for commodity materials that have to be cheap, not only the density
ρ is minimized but the product of density ρ per cost c of the material has to be minimized.
The materials selection using charts is helpful to plot one property against another and following
charts is useful in performance-optimization.
Ashby also found out that materials can be clustered using properties. Material families can be
concentrated around some narrow ranges of properties and distinct them one form the other. This
is done with what is called bubble plot or cloud plot. The ratio of two properties is used to select
the subset of material that perform better for that combination, that maximize the combination of
properties.
Let’s see how to cluster materials using a mechanical property, the Young modulus, and a physical
property, the density. Having a wide range of properties, a double log scale is used.

By plotting all the materials using the two considered properties, we can see where and so for
what materials the ratio between E and ρ is maximized. Ashby observed that exploiting the
clustering result can identify the subset of materials, using the maximization of the combination of
properties.
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 1 1
E 2 3
By choosing the maximization of or E or E (material index) the slope changes. The ratio
ρ ρ ρ
chosen depends on the application. The exponent is very important and is determined based on
what the material index needs to be.

The materials can be plotted under a different

perspective, using different properties.

Material Indices
The method starts form the correct definition of the problem, it means to answer to some
question and understand the function, the objective, and the constraints. The material index will
depend on these three factors. A method is necessary for translating design requirements into a
prescription for a material.
• Function: what does the component do? Mechanical and structural functions need to be
defined in more details.
• Objective: what is to be maximized or minimized? Lightness is tried to be maximized (for
supercars or airplanes); cost is always tried to be minimized (for commodity parts).
• Constraints: what non-negotiable conditions must be met? what negotiable but
desiderable conditions…? Non-negotiable conditions that the material has to meet; the
constraints filter out all the materials that do not meet the imposed limits given by the
constraints.
Objective is one and is something that we always try to improve (minimize or maximize);
instead, constraints are all the other properties that are not tried to be maximized, we just
want to reach a specific value.
Understood the process, given the functions, the geometry, …, the material index is looked up in a
table. In general, the material index is a:
• Combination of material properties which characterize performance in a given application.
• Combination of material properties which, when maximized, maximize some aspects of
performance.

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MATERIALS SELECTION STEPS
Ashby identified 4 basic steps for Materials selection process:
 Step 1 Translation: express design requirements as constraints & objectives: define the
problem and translate in the voice of the costumer function objective and constraints.
 Step 2 Screening: eliminate materials that cannot do the job: Constraints are used to screen
out all the material that do not satisfy the constraints.
 Step 3 Ranking: find the materials that do the job best: the remaining materials are ranked
using the material indexes, we can so identify the best materials.
 Step 4 Supporting information: explore pedigrees of top-ranked candidates: among the best
materials, supporting information have to be taken into account. Supporting information are
not related to the material properties but that the company has to take into account, in order
to not put itself at risk. Market related information such as instability, monopoly of the
company that sell that material, … are some examples.

Step 1: Translation
Translation: “Express design requirements as
constraints and objectives”.

Materials selection and thickness (shape) are free

variables: the combination of these two variables
can be chosen in different ways.

Design requirements: bunch of requirements

expressed by costumers, these requirements have to
be translated into properties.
Constraints (strength, toughness, transparency): we
don't what to maximize these properties.
Objectives: we what to minimize the objective
properties (cost and eco-impact).

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Step 2: Screening
Screening: “Eliminate materials that cannot do the job”.
Looking at the Heat sink example:

All the materials are plotted using bar charts, identifying the needed values in databases. We then
filter out all the material that do not respect the required constraints.

Step 3: Ranking
Ranking: “Find materials that do the job best”.
In ranking we try to optimize the objective. In some cases, the objective is given by just one
property, but this is rare. Most of the times the objective is given by a combination of properties.
With a combination of properties, the material index must be calculated.
The third contribution by Ashby gives a way to calculate the material index, we have to put in that
index all the properties that are independent form function and geometry; a combination of
material properties which characterize performance in a given application.
Ashby stated that the performance of a component is a function of the functional needs (function
that the component has to perform), of the geometric parameters and of the material
characteristics. Performance of a structural element:

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Most of times, especially for mechanical problems, I can factorize this performance equation,
meaning I can express that equation using product of factors, I consider factors form a separable
equation:

Then, wanting to maximize a performance, given the functional needs, the geometric parameters
and the material properties, we just need to maximize the material characteristics, maximize a
ratio of properties. This selection of the material will work for every load and for every geometry, it
will work unregardless the functional need and geometry. We can focus on the material selection
without caring of the geometry or of the specific function.
Performance for all functional needs (F) and geometric parameters (G) is maximized by maximizing
f 3 ( M ):
• f 3 ( M ) : Material Index.
• f 1 ( F ) f 2 (G) : Related to Structural Index.
Each combination of function, objective, and constraint leads to a material index.

To sum up, the approach is to define properties using

specific indexes that are able to evaluate the performance
is a specific application. Performance of a part in a given
application can be evaluated using an index, so materials
that could be used in a specific application are ranked
using this index.

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Example: Calculation of Material Index for a Light, Strong Tie Rod
(tirante)
• Function: cylindrical tie rod (structural function).
• Objective: minimize the mass.
• Constraints: length l specified, support tensile force F without failing.
I state the Objective function, to minimize the mass:
Mass ( m )= Area ( A ) · Lenght ( l ) · Density ( ρ )
The Goal is to minimize m by varying A .
I have two free variables: I can change the area and the density. So, I substitute one of the two free
variables using a Constraint: A must be sufficient to carry tensile load, F . We obtain:
F
≤σf
A
By eliminating A from these equations, we obtain:

m ≥ F·l· ( σρ )
f

I now can distinguish the functional characteristic F , the geometrical characteristic l , and the
material properties
ρ
( )
σf
. I made the factorization. Thus, if I want to minimize mass, I have to

minimize ( σρ ), so I have to maximize ( σρ ) that is the material index.

f
f

In other words, the lightest tie which will carry F safely is that made of the material with the
ρ σ
smallest value of . Therefore, the material index can be defined as M = f .
σf ρ
E
A similar calculation for a light and stiff tie leads to the index M = .
ρ
Ashby is saying that when designing any tie rod, for any application, unregarding what load the rod
will sustain and what length that rod will have, we have to maximize the strength of the material
used over the density of the same material.
Given the function and the objective, we can find the material index.
Having the material index, we have to maximize it using the bubble plot. Moving the lines upper
and upper in the Strength and Density Chart we are maximizing the mass.

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The best material for any tie rod is ceramics. Anyways, they do not satisfy some constraints, such
as they are fragile, so the final material selection was composites.
Case study: OARS
An oar is a structural element. It must be light because you have to lift it and it must be stiff
because you don’t want it to bend.

The more elastic the oar is the more energy is dissipated while paddling. However, for some
reasons, for minimizing energy dissipation is better to minimize mass instead of maximizing
stiffness. For this reason, stiffness can be turned into a constraint. We’ll have a constraint of the
minimum amount of stiffness needed.
Considering the calculation of Material Index for a Light, Stiff Beam (trave) we have:

Changing the structural function (form

tie rod to beam), the exponent of the
material index changes.

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 1
E 2
The slope of the function considered goes from the function of M = to M = E .
p p

The possible best choices are different, for the beam we could use ceramics, composites (CFRP),
woods and foams.

We have four different material families that can satisfy our requirements in terms of best
combination of stiffness and lightness.
At one extreme we have a material that is very stiff but very heavy, ceramics: so, in order to have a
specific stiffness I could use a very thin section. Instead, on the other side, foams, in order to have
the same bending stiffness, having a very low module, I have to increase the section of the oar, and
so the piece has a very thick section.
Material at the limit of the selection are many times not an option because they may not respect
the applications they are made for. Most of the times the best options are in the middle.
In our example, in the middle we have composites and wood. Oars made of composites can have a
thinner section (they can be hollow), while oars made of wood have a bigger section.

Finally, ceramics have a good value of M but are brittle and expensive; instead, wood and CFRP
(carbon fibers reinforced polymers) have a similar level of material index, but woods are cheap,
traditional, but not easily controlled (wood is a natural material and so is more variable in his
properties), carbon fibers are as good as wood, but we have more control of their properties (they
are synthetic materials). Glass fibers are stiff, but they are heavy, density is higher, so the M value is
lower than carbon fibers.
The two winners are woods and CFRP but, considering the supporting information (more control
on properties), the final selection is carbon fiber (CFRP).

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PROCEDURE FOR DERIVING MATERIAL INDICES
1. Define the design requirements: (a) function; (b) objective; (c) constraints.
2. Develop an equation for the objective in terms of the functional requirements, the geometry
and the material properties (the objective function).
3. Identify the free (unspecified) variables.
4. Develop equations for the constraints (no yield; no fracture; no buckling;...).
5. Substitute for the free variables from the constrain equations into the objective function.
6. Group the variables intro three groups: Functional requirements, F; Geometry, G; and material
properties, M.
Performance characteristic ≤ ≥ f 1 ( F ) · f 2 ( G ) · f 3 (M )
7. Read off the material index, expressed as a quantity M, which optimizes the performance
characteristic.

Material “indices”
By changing the function, the exponent of the material index changes. By changing the
constraints, we change the material properties used in the material index ( E or σ ). By changing
the objective, the material index changes ( ρ or ρ· c m).

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TEST QUESTION: HOW DOES THE MATERIAL INDEX CHANGE DEPENDING ON THE PROBLEM?
The Material Index that is used to select the best material for the specific problem, depends on a
combination of function, constraints, and objective.
The objectives and the constraints change the material properties we use, while the function
changes the exponent some of the material properties are powered to.
Changing the objective, one material property is changed (not ρ but ρ· c m); changing the
constraints, one material property is changed (not E but σ ). Changing the function, the exponent
of one of the material properties changes.

Design Requirements for a Light, Stiff Panel

Most plastic objects are just boxes. They need to be light, stiff enough and of course cheap.
 Function: Panel. A panel is a flat slab, like a tabletop. Its length L and width b are specified but
its thickness is free.
¿
 Constraints: Bending stiffness S specified (functional constraint). Length L and width b
specified (geometric constraints).
 Objective: Minimize mass m of the panel.
 Free variables: Panel thickness, h . Choice of material.

1
3
The material index for a light and stiff plate is: M = E
ρ
1 1
3 3
The material index for a cheap plate is: M = E (no M = E · c )
ρ· cm ρ m

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Other Materials Selection Charts
Modulus - Relative Cost. Strength - Relative Cost. Modulus - Strength. Specific Modulus - Specific
Strength. Fracture Toughness - Modulus. Fracture Toughness - Strength. Loss Coefficient - Modulus.
Facture Toughness – Density. Conductivity – Diffusivity. Expansion – Conductivity. Expansion –
Modulus. Strength – Expansion. Strength – Temperature. Wear Rate – Hardness. Environmental
Attack Chart.

CONCLUSION
Plastic parts have very thin walls and, if it is wanted to increase the stiffness or make parts
stronger, the thickness is not increased but thin ribs are placed. It's an economical reason but also
an environmental reason, goal: thickness is the most important parameter for minimizing the
amount of material and so the cost and also the impact on the environment.
These two objectives go hand in hand, and the environmental objective nowadays is something
that matters when the customer selects the product, it’s a leverage.

BOX ASSIGNMENT
When selecting a plastic/polymer for the box, I can go for a very stiff material/polymer/plastic, but
then in order to save cost, I’ll have to decrease the thickness very very much. Sometimes this is not
possible, because the manufacturability will be not possible.

15
For the box:
Function: load, stiff under load (under load in does not have to bend too much), stiff and cheap
plate.
Objective: the box will be a commodity; the minimization of cost is the goal; we’ll see that this
means minimizing the product of ρ· c m ? (cost per kg).
Constraints: deformation within 1-2 mm.
Equation for the objective: minimize p=V·ρ·c the product of volume, density and cost. By
substituting the value in the equation, we then distinguish functional requirements, geometry
(volume) and material properties.
Free variables: thickness of the plate and material properties.
Substituting equations for the free variables and grouping the variables we develop the Material
1 1
3 3
Index that for the box will be: M = E o M = E · c (uno dei due, probabilmente il primo)
ρ· cm ρ m

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