Chapter 1: Single Phase Transformer

Introduction of Electric Machine

An electric machine is a device that converts electricity into mechanical energy or mechanical energy into
electricity. It is a fundamental part of many modern technologies, including electric motors, generators,
and transformers. Electric machines are classified into two main categories: AC machines and DC
machines. AC machines are designed to operate on alternating current, while DC machines are designed
to operate on direct current. The most common type of electric machine is the electric motor. Electric
motors are used to power a wide variety of devices, from cars and appliances to industrial machinery and
robots. Electric motors work by converting electrical energy into mechanical energy, which is then used
to rotate a shaft. Another common type of electric machine is the generator. Generators are used to
convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Generators are used in power plants to generate
electricity for the grid, and they are also used in many other applications, such as wind turbines and solar
panels. Transformers are another type of electric machine. Transformers are used to change the voltage or
current of an electrical signal. Transformers are used in a wide variety of applications, including power
transmission and distribution, electronics manufacturing, and telecommunications. Electric machines are
an essential part of modern life. They are used in everything from our homes and businesses to our
transportation systems and industries. Electric machines are reliable, efficient, and environmentally
friendly, making them a key part of the transition to a clean energy future.
1.1. [Operating Principle, Basic construction, operation, derivation of emf
equation, Transformation ratio, Concept of ideal transformer.]
A single-phase transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
circuit of the same frequency. It consists of two windings, the primary winding and the secondary
winding, wound around a ferromagnetic core.
The operating principle of a single-phase transformer is based on the phenomenon of mutual induction.
Mutual induction is the production of an electromotive force (EMF) in a conductor when it is subjected to
a changing magnetic field.
When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, an alternating magnetic
field is created in the core. This alternating magnetic field links with the secondary winding, inducing an
EMF in the secondary winding. The magnitude of the induced EMF is proportional to the number of turns
in the secondary winding and the rate of change of the magnetic field.
The voltage ratio of a transformer is equal to the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary winding to
the number of turns in the primary winding. The current ratio is equal to the inverse of the voltage ratio.
Single-phase transformers are used in a wide variety of applications, including power transmission and
distribution, electronics manufacturing, and telecommunications. They are an essential part of modern
electrical systems.

Here is a simplified explanation of the operating principle of a single-phase transformer:

1. When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer, an alternating
current flows through the winding.
2. This current creates an alternating magnetic field in the core of the transformer.
3. The alternating magnetic field links with the secondary winding of the transformer.
4. According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, a changing magnetic field induces an
electromotive force (EMF) in a conductor.
5. Therefore, an EMF is induced in the secondary winding of the transformer.
6. The magnitude of the induced EMF is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic field
and the number of turns in the secondary winding.
7. If a load is connected to the secondary winding of the transformer, a current will flow through
the load.
8. The transformer transfers electrical energy from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit
without any physical connection between the two circuits.
Single-phase transformers are a very efficient way to transfer electrical energy. They are also very reliable
and low maintenance.
Faraday's law of Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday's law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will
interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF).
1" law:
Any change in the magnetic field of a coil of wire will cause an emf to be induced in the coil. This emf
induced is called induced emf and if the conductor circuit is closed, the current will also circulate through
the circuit and this current is called induced current.
2nd law:
It states that the magnitude of emf induced in the coil is equal to the rate of change of flux that linkages
with the coil. The flux linkage of the coil is the product of number of turns in the coil and flux associated
with the coil.
Statically induced EMF:
The emf induced in a coil due to change of flux linked with it (change of flux is by the increase or
decrease in current) is called statically induced emf. In statically induced emf, conductor is stationary
with respect to the magnetic field. Transformer is an example of statically induced emf. Here the
windings are stationary, magnetic field is moving around the conductor and produces the emf.
Suppose, magnetic flux changes from an initial value of Ø1 to the final value of Ø2 in time of 't' sec then,
Induced emf = rate of change of flux linkage N(Ø2- Ø1) volts

Construction
Construction The three main parts of a transformer are:

i. Primary Winding: The winding that takes electrical power and produces magnetic flux when it is
connected to an electrical source.
ii. Magnetic Core: This refers to the magnetic flux produced by the primary winding. The flux
passes through a low reluctance path linked with secondary winding creating a closed magnetic
circuit.
iii. Secondary Winding: The winding that provides the desired output voltage due to mutual
induction in the transformer.

The primary winding is supplied an alternating electrical source. The alternating current through the
primary winding produces an alternating flux that surrounds the winding. Another winding, also known
as the secondary winding, is brought close to the primary winding. Eventually, some portion of the flux in
the primary will link with the secondary. As this flux is continually changing in amplitude and direction,
there is a change in flux linkage in the second winding as well. According to Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, an electromotive force (emf) is induced in the secondary winding which is
called as induced emf. If the circuit of the secondary winding is closed an induced current will flow
through it. This is the simplest form of electrical power transformation; this is the most basic working
principle of a transformer.
It consists of two coils of electrical wire called inner and outer windings. The primary is usually known to
have the higher amount of voltage. Both coils are wrapped around a common closed magnetic iron circuit
which is referred to as the core. The core is made up of several layers of iron, laminated together to
decrease losses. Being linked at the common core allows power to be transferred from one coil to the
other without an electrical connection. When current passes through the primary coil, a magnetic field is
created which induces a voltage in the secondary coil. Usually, the primary coil is where the high voltage
comes in and then is transformed to create a magnetic field. The job of the secondary coil is to transform
the alternating magnetic field into electric power, supplying the required voltage output.
EMF Equation Of The Transformer
Let,
N1 = Number of turns in primary winding
N2 = Number of turns in secondary winding
Φm = Maximum flux in the core (in Wb) = (Bm x A)
f = frequency of the AC supply (in Hz)
emf equation of transformer

As, shown in the fig., the flux rises sinusoidally to its maximum value Φm from 0. It reaches to the
maximum value in one quarter of the cycle i.e in T/4 sec (where, T is time period of the sin wave of the
supply = 1/f).
Therefore,
average rate of change of flux = Φm /(T/4) = Φm /(1/4f)
Therefore,
average rate of change of flux = 4f Φm ....... (Wb/s).
Now,
Induced emf per turn = rate of change of flux per turn

Therefore, average emf per turn = 4f Φm ..........(Volts).

Now, we know, Form factor = RMS value / average value
Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = Form factor X average emf per turn.
As, the flux Φ varies sinusoidally, form factor of a sine wave is 1.11
Therefore, RMS value of emf per turn = 1.11 x 4f Φm = 4.44f Φm.
RMS value of induced emf in whole primary winding (E1) = RMS value of emf per turn X Number of
turns in primary winding

E1 = 4.44f N1 Φm ............................. eq 1

Similarly, RMS induced emf in secondary winding (E2) can be given as

E2 = 4.44f N2 Φm. ............................ eq 2

from the above equations 1 and 2,

emf equation of transformer
This is called the emf equation of transformer, which shows, emf / number of turns is same for both
primary and secondary winding.

For an ideal transformer on no load, E1 = V1 and E2 = V2 .

where, V1 = supply voltage of primary winding
V2 = terminal voltage of secondary winding

Voltage Transformation Ratio (K)

As derived above,
voltage transformation ratio

Where, K = constant
This constant K is known as voltage transformation ratio.
If N2 > N1, i.e. K > 1, then the transformer is called step-up transformer.
If N2 < N1, i.e. K < 1, then the transformer is called step-down transformer.

Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer which has the following characteristics −
 The primary and secondary windings have negligible (or zero) resistance.
 No leakage flux, i.e., whole of the flux is confined to the magnetic circuit.
 The magnetic core has infinite permeability, thus negligible mmf is require to establish flux in the
core.
 There are no losses due winding resistances, hysteresis and eddy currents. Hence, the efficiency is
100 %.
Ideal Transformer on No-Load
Consider an ideal transformer on no-load, i.e., its secondary winding is open circuited (see the figure).
Thus, the primary winding is a coil of pure inductance.

When an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding, it draws a very small magnetising
current Im to establish the flux in the core, which lags behind the applied voltage by 90°. The magnetising
current Im produces an alternating flux ϕm which is proportional to and in phase with it. This alternating
flux (ϕm) links the primary and secondary windings magnetically and induces EMF E1 in the primary
winding and EMF E2 in the secondary winding.

The EMF induced in the primary winding E1 is equal to and in opposition to the applied voltage V1
(according to Lenz’s law). The EMFs E1 and E2 lag behind the flux (ϕm) by 90°, although their
magnitudes depend upon the number of turns in the primary and the secondary windings. From the phasor
diagram of the ideal transformer on no-load, it is clear that the flux is common to both the windings,
hence it can be taken as the reference phasor. Also, the EMFs E1 and E2 are in phase with each other, but
E1 is equal to V1 and 180° out of phase with it.

Ideal Transformer On-Load

When load is connected across the terminals of secondary winding of the ideal transformer, the
transformer is said to be loaded and a load current flows through the secondary winding and the load.

Consider an inductive load of impedance ZL is connected across the secondary winding of the ideal
transformer (see the figure). Then, the secondary EMF E2 will cause a current I2 to flow through the
secondary winding and the load, which is given by,
Since, for an ideal transformer, the EMF E2 is equal to secondary terminal voltage V2.

Here, the load is inductive, therefore, the current I2 will lag behind the E2 or V2 by an angle ϕ2. Also, the
no-load current I0 being neglected because the transformer is ideal one. It is clear from the phasor diagram
of the ideal transformer on-load that the secondary current I2 lags behind the secondary terminal voltage
V2 by an angle of ϕ2.

1.2. Constructional Details: Core type and shell type core construction,
stepped type core cross-section, Types of windings.
Types Of Transformers
On the basis of construction, transformers can be classified into two types as;
(i) Core type transformer and
(ii) Shell type transformer,
which are described below.

(I) Core Type Transformer

In core type transformer, windings are cylindrical former wound, mounted on the core limbs as shown in
the figure above. The cylindrical coils have different layers and each layer is insulated from each other.
Materials like paper, cloth or mica can be used for insulation. Low voltage windings are placed nearer to
the core, as they are easier to insulate.
(II) Shell Type Transformer
The coils are former wound and mounted in layers stacked with insulation between them. A shell type
transformer may have simple rectangular form (as shown in above fig), or it may have a distributed form.
Stepped type Core and cross section

1.3. No-load operation: phasor diagram, equivalent circuit for no-load

operation
When the transformer is operating at no load, the secondary winding is open-circuited, which means there
is no load on the secondary side of the transformer and, therefore, current in the secondary will be zero.
While primary winding carries a small current I0 called no-load current which is 2 to 10% of the rated
current.
This current is responsible for supplying the iron losses (hysteresis and eddy current losses) in the core
and a very small amount of copper losses in the primary winding. The angle of lag depends upon the
losses in the transformer. The power factor is very low and varies from 0.1 to 0.15.

The no-load current consists of two components:

Reactive or magnetizing component Im

(It is in quadrature with the applied voltage V1. It produces flux in the core and does not consume any
power).
Active or power component Iw, also know as a working component
(It is in phase with the applied voltage V1. It supplies the iron losses and a small amount of primary
copper loss).
The following steps are given below to draw the phasor diagram:
(i) The function of the magnetizing component is to produce the magnetizing flux, and thus, it will
be in phase with the flux.
(ii) Induced emf in the primary and the secondary winding lags the flux ϕ by 90 degrees.
(iii) The primary copper loss is neglected, and secondary current losses are zero as I2 = 0.
Therefore, the current I0 lags behind the voltage vector V1 by an angle ϕ0 called the no-load power factor
angle and is shown in the phasor diagram above.
The applied voltage V1 is drawn equal and opposite to the induced emf E1 because the difference between
the two, at no load, is negligible.
Active component Iw is drawn in phase with the applied voltage V1.
The phasor sum of magnetizing current Im and the working current Iw gives the no-load current I0.

From the phasor diagram drawn above, the following conclusions are made:

No-Load Equivalent Circuit of Practical Transformer

When the transformer is on no-load, no current flows in the secondary winding. Although, the primary
winding draws a small no-load current (I0), which supplies the magnetising current (Im) to produce flux
in the core and the current Iw to supply the core losses. Therefore, the no load primary current is divided
into two components and hence it can be represented by two parallel braches which composed of a
parallel circuit R0 – Xm in parallel with the primary winding.
The resistance R0 is called core-loss resistance which represents the iron losses (i.e., hysteresis and eddy
current losses), thus the current Iw flows through the R0 branch. The inductive reactance Xm is known as
magnetising reactance which represents a loss-less coil that produces the magnetic flux in the core, thus
the magnetising current Im passes through it.
The core loss resistance (R0) is given by,

The magnetising reactance (Xm) is given by,

It should be noted that, in a practical transformer the current Iw is very small as compared to current Im.
Therefore, the no-load power factor (cosφ0) of a practical transformer is very small.
Chapter- 2 Three Phase Transformer
2.1 Evolution of three-phase transformer
The Winding Road of the Three-Phase Transformer: A Journey of Efficiency and Progress
The three-phase transformer, a workhorse of the modern power grid, boasts a fascinating history marked
by continuous innovation and optimization. Its journey began in the late 19th century, forever changing
the landscape of electricity transmission and distribution. Let's delve into the key milestones of its
evolution:

1. Pioneering Spark: 1889 - Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky

Just five years after unveiling the world's first three-phase generator, the visionary Russian engineer
Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky conceived the three-phase transformer in 1889. This ingenious invention
allowed for efficient transmission of electric power over long distances by utilizing three sets of windings
(primary and secondary) arranged on a shared iron core.

2. Early Designs: Shell and Core Types

Early three-phase transformers sported two primary configurations:

 Shell-type: In this design, the primary windings surrounded the core, while the secondary
windings were placed inside. This offered good mechanical protection but limited winding
capacity.
 Core-type: Here, the core was sandwiched between the primary and secondary windings, enabling
higher winding capacity but exposing them to external elements.
3. Material Matters: Laminated Iron Cores

Solid iron cores in early transformers suffered from significant energy losses due to eddy currents. The
breakthrough came in the form of laminated iron cores, pioneered by Ottó Bláthy and Miksa Déri in 1884.
These cores, made of thin iron sheets insulated from each other, drastically reduced eddy currents and
boosted efficiency.

4. The 20th Century: Advancements and Innovations

The 20th century witnessed a surge in advancements, shaping the three-phase transformer into the reliable
and efficient behemoth we know today:

Improved Cooling: Oil-immersed and forced-air cooling systems were developed to dissipate heat
generated during operation, further enhancing efficiency and longevity.
Amorphous Metal Cores: These futuristic cores, introduced in the late 20th century, boast even lower
losses than traditional silicon steel, paving the way for ultra-efficient transformers.
Computer-Aided Design and Manufacturing: Advanced software tools optimized transformer design,
leading to more compact, lighter, and efficient units.
5. The Future Beckons: Smart Grids and Renewable Integration

With the rise of smart grids and the integration of renewable energy sources, three-phase transformers are
evolving to meet the demands of a dynamic and sustainable future:

Smart Transformers: These intelligent transformers equipped with sensors and communication
capabilities can monitor and optimize the grid in real-time, improving efficiency and reliability.
Renewable-Friendly Designs: Transformers are being adapted to handle the intermittent nature of
renewable energy sources like solar and wind, ensuring grid stability and efficient integration.
The three-phase transformer's journey is far from over. As technology continues to evolve, these
remarkable machines will undoubtedly play a crucial role in powering our future, ensuring efficient,
reliable, and sustainable electricity for generations to come.

2.2 Relationship between primary and secondary line and phase quantities.

The relationship between primary and secondary line and phase quantities in a transformer depends on the
connection configuration on both sides, namely star (Y) or delta (Δ). Here's a breakdown for each type:

Star (Y):

Line voltage:
√3 times the phase voltage (VL = √3 * VP)
Phase current:
Primary: Equal to the line current (IP = IL)
Delta (Δ):

Line voltage:
Equal to the phase voltage (VL = VP)
Phase current:
√3 times the line current (IP = √3 * IL)

2.4 Parts of power transformer: Tank, Conservator, Breather, Explosion vent,

Transformer oil, Terminal bushing, arching horns, Buchhloz’s relay, tap-
changer.
Power transformers are the unsung heroes of our modern world, silently transmitting electricity over vast
distances with remarkable efficiency. But what lies beneath their steel shells? Let's embark on a journey
to explore the essential parts of a power transformer:

Tank and Conservator

Tank: This sturdy steel container houses the core and windings, filled with insulating oil for cooling and
insulation. Imagine it as a fortress protecting the delicate internal components.
Conservator:

Attached to the tank, this smaller container accommodates the expansion and contraction of the insulating
oil due to temperature changes. Think of it as a breath of fresh air for the oil, preventing pressure build-
up.
Breathing Easy: Breather and Explosion Vent
Breather:

This silica gel-filled device allows air to circulate within the tank while keeping out moisture and
contaminants, ensuring the oil's purity and preventing internal corrosion. It's like a lung, keeping the
transformer breathing freely.
Explosion Vent:

In case of internal faults, this pressure-relief device channels any sudden gas build-up safely away from
the transformer, preventing catastrophic explosions. It's like a safety valve, ensuring everyone's peace of
mind.
Transformer Oil
This mineral oil acts as an insulator, cooling medium, and fire retardant, playing a vital role in the
transformer's operation. It's like the blood, circulating to maintain optimal health.
Terminal Bushings

These porcelain insulators house the high-voltage and low-voltage connections, providing safe and
reliable access to the transformer's electrical energy. Think of them as the entry and exit points,
connecting the transformer to the wider grid
Arcing Horns

These curved metallic horns divert any potential electrical arcs away from the transformer's vital
components, protecting them from damage. Imagine them as lightning rods, channeling disruptive sparks
to ensure smooth operation.
Buchholz Relay

This ingenious device detects abnormal gas build-up within the transformer, indicating potential faults
like overheating or internal faults. It's like a silent watchdog, constantly monitoring for any internal
distress.
Tap Changer

This mechanism allows for manual or automatic adjustment of the turns ratio on the windings, enabling
fine-tuning of the output voltage to match changing load requirements. It's like a volume knob, ensuring
optimal voltage delivery.

By understanding these key components and their crucial roles, we gain a deeper appreciation for the
complex, yet elegant, machinery that silently powers our world. So, the next time you flick on a light
switch, remember the silent symphony of these parts orchestrating the flow of electricity that illuminates
your life.
2.5. Study of name plate specification of transformer.
Decoding the Transformer's Identity: A Guide to Nameplate Specifications

Just like a birth certificate, a transformer's nameplate holds vital information about its identity,
capabilities, and safe operation. Here's a comprehensive guide to understanding the key specifications
you'll find on this essential plaque:

1. Nameplate Location:
Typically found on the outer tank of the transformer, often in a visible and accessible area.
2. Essential Information:
Manufacturer: The company that designed and built the transformer.
Serial Number: A unique identifier for tracking and maintenance purposes.
Year of Manufacture: Indicates its age and potential need for upgrades.
3. Electrical Ratings:
KVA or MVA Rating: The transformer's apparent power capacity, measured in kilovolt-amperes (KVA)
or megavolt-amperes (MVA).
Voltage Ratio: The primary and secondary voltage levels (e.g., 11kV/400V), representing the voltage
transformation ratio.
Frequency: The operating frequency, typically 50 or 60 Hz, crucial for compatibility with the grid.
4. Connection and Impedance:
Connection: The winding configuration, commonly Y (star) or Δ (delta), influencing voltage and current
relationships.
Impedance: Measured in percentage, it indicates the transformer's internal resistance to current flow,
affecting voltage regulation and fault current levels.
5. Cooling and Insulation:
Cooling Type: Specifies the method of heat dissipation (e.g., ONAN – Oil Natural Air Natural, ONAF –
Oil Natural Air Forced), determining its suitability for different load conditions.
Basic Insulation Level (BIL): The transformer's ability to withstand voltage surges, ensuring safe
operation during electrical disturbances.
6. Additional Details:
Vector Group/Phasor Diagram: Indicates the phase relationship between primary and secondary voltages,
essential for paralleling transformers.
Tap Changer Details: If equipped, information on voltage adjustment capabilities.
Weight and Oil Capacity: Important for transportation and handling

2.6. Difference between power and distribution transformer

Power vs. Distribution Transformers: Giants and Guardians of the Grid
Power and distribution transformers, though both vital cogs in the electricity transmission and distribution
machinery, play distinct roles with unique design considerations. Here's a breakdown of their key
differences:
Voltage Levels:
Power Transformers: Handle high voltages, typically ranging from 110 kV to 400 kV or even higher.
They work like giants, transmitting bulk power over long distances.
Distribution Transformers: Step down these high voltages to medium voltages, usually between 4 kV and
33 kV. Think of them as gatekeepers, delivering electricity to local communities.
KVA Rating:
Power Transformers: Boast impressive high KVA ratings, often exceeding 100 MVA. They can handle
massive amounts of power, like the mighty rivers of the electrical grid.
Distribution Transformers: Have lower KVA ratings, typically ranging from 100 kVA to 1 MVA. They
cater to smaller, localized demands, like tributaries feeding individual neighborhoods.
Connections:
Power Transformers: Often utilize Delta-Delta or Delta-Y connections, prioritizing stability and fault
tolerance for long-distance transmission.
Distribution Transformers: Typically employ Delta-Star connections, providing a balance between
voltage stability and phase flexibility for local distribution.
Cooling:
Power Transformers: Often rely on forced oil or forced air-oil cooling due to their high heat generation
during long-distance transmission.
Distribution Transformers: Can often use natural air-cooled or oil-natural air cooling due to their lower
operating temperatures and localized application.
Purpose:
Power Transformers: Focus on bulk power transmission over long distances, connecting power plants to
substations and forming the backbone of the nationwide grid.
Distribution Transformers: Step down voltages for local distribution and end-user consumption,
delivering electricity to residential, commercial, and industrial sectors.
Design and Cost:
Power Transformers: Are larger, more complex, and expensive due to their high voltage handling,
extensive cooling systems, and robust construction.
Distribution Transformers: Are smaller, simpler, and less expensive due to their lower voltage handling,
simpler cooling solutions, and lighter construction.
Additional Differences:
Power transformers: Experience lower load fluctuations and prioritize efficiency at full load.
Distribution transformers: Operate at varying load levels throughout the day and prioritize efficiency at
60-70% of rated load.
Power transformers: Have higher insulation levels to withstand higher voltages and short circuit currents.
Remember, both power and distribution transformers are crucial, working in tandem to deliver electricity
from its generation point to your power socket. Understanding their differences helps us appreciate the
intricate web of the power grid and the remarkable engineering behind it.