16 - Academic English NREM - Jan21

Lesson 1
Natural resources and environment

1.1. Natural resources
A natural resource is any asset that we can obtain from our environment: water, soil,
plants, wind, animals, minerals, the energy of the sun and many others. Natural resources are
often seen in terms of economic value, because so many of them are crucial for people’s
livelihoods. We are also an integral part – unbreakably linked to our environment. Without
water, air and minerals we would not be alive.
We need to be very aware of how we use the natural resources in our environment. We
should use resources in a way that does not dangerously reduce their supply and we should
preserve the balance between the different resources and organism in the environment.
Maintaining healthy ecosystems: All living and non-living things interact with each other
and co-exist in a balance. Disturbing this balance usually has broad effects on everything in
the entire ecosystem. We are not immune to these effects. To live long and healthy lives we
must work hard to maintain this balance.
Building sustainable livelihoods: Farmers rely on the entire ecosystem (water, soil,
plants, animals and everything else in it) for their livelihood. How successful they are in
providing for their families largely depends on how well they manage these resources. Good
management practices help farmers safeguard and improve their livelihoods.
1.2. Classification of natural resource
There are various methods of categorizing natural resources, these include source of
origin, stage of development, and by their renewability.
On the basis of origin, resources may be divided into:
 Biotic – Biotic resources are obtained from the biosphere (living and organic
material), such as forests and animals, and the materials that can be obtained from
them. Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum are also included in this category
because they are formed from decayed organic matter;
 Abiotic – Abiotic resources are those that come from non-living, non-organic material.
Examples of abiotic resources include land, fresh water, air and heavy metals
including ores such as gold, iron, copper, silver, etc.
Considering their stage of development, natural resources may be referred to in the
following ways:
 Potential resources – Potential resources are those that exist in a region and may be
used in the future. For example, petroleum occurs with sedimentary rocks in various
regions, but until the time it is actually drilled out and put into use, it remains a
potential resource;
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 Actual resources – Actual resources are those that have been surveyed, their quantity
and quality determined and are being used in present times. The development of an
actual resource, such as wood processing depends upon the technology available and
the cost involved;
 Reserve resources – The part of an actual resource which can be developed profitably
in the future is called a reserve resource.
Renewability is a very popular topic and many natural resources can be categorized as
either renewable or non-renewable:
 A renewable natural resource is one that can regrow, or whose supplies can be
replenished, through natural processes. Some examples of renewable resource include
plants, animals, insects or wind. But being renewable does not mean that these
resources automatically last forever. If the renewable resources in a particular area are
overexploited for a long period of time, it is entirely possible that they may become
endangered or even disappear altogether.
 A non-renewable natural resource is one that can be used up, one that will not
replenish itself. Examples of these include oil, coal, minerals or rocks. The use of
these resources should be carefully monitored and managed according to their
availability. The effects that their exploitation has on all the other resources and the
environment as a whole should be carefully followed.
1.3. Environment
The natural environment encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally
on Earth. It is an environment that encompasses the interaction of all living species. Climate,
weather, and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity. The concept
of the natural environment can be distinguished by components:
 Ecological units that function as natural systems without massive civilized human
intervention, including all vegetation, microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere, and
natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries;
 Universal natural resources and physical phenomena such as air, water, and climate, as
well as energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism.
In contrast to the natural environment is the built environment. In such areas where man
has fundamentally transformed landscapes such as urban settings and agricultural land
conversion, the natural environment is greatly modified and diminished, with a much more
simplified human environment largely replacing it. Even events which seem less extreme such
as hydroelectric dam construction, or solar array construction in the desert, the natural
environment is substantially altered.
It is difficult to find absolutely natural environments, and it is common that the
naturalness varies in a continuum, from ideally 100% natural in one extreme to 0% natural in
the other. More precisely, we can consider the different aspects or components of an
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environment, and see that their degree of naturalness is not uniform. If, for instance, we take
an agricultural field, and consider the mineralogical composition and the structure of its soil,
we will find that whereas the first is quite similar to that of an undisturbed forest soil, the
structure is quite different.
Source: CRS, USAID and MEAS, 2002. Natural Resource Management: Basic concepts and strategies
Quiz
A. Choose the correct answer
1. What is a “natural resource”?
a. Anything we can see around us
b. Plastic and any other thing made from natural materials
c. Any naturally occurring asset that is not man-made (like air, water, soil, trees,
animals, birds, etc.)
d. Assets that are unique to our environment (the specific cars, jobs, plants, animals etc.)
2. Which sentence best describes the difference between “renewable” and “non-renewable”
resources?
a. A renewable resource is anything that people can use over and over again (like a
metal plate); on the other hand, a non-renewable resource is something that has to be
thrown away once it has been used one time (e.g., cell phone scratch-card).
b. A renewable resource is something in nature that “renews” itself (for example, trees
can be reseeded after the parent tree has died); on the other hand, a non-renewable
resource is one that cannot be replaced once it has been removed (e.g., gold in a
specific gold mine).
3. What are “sustainable livelihoods”?
a. Activities where people make a lot of money in a short time period
b. Activities where people make a lot of money of a long time period
c. Activities that generate food and/or income while maintaining the productivity of the
natural resource base
d. All activities that generate food and/or income
4. Which one of the following is an example of non-renewable resources?
a. Wind
b. Vegetation
c. Coal and minerals
d. Water
5. Which of the following lists includes ALL renewable resources?
a. Hydroelectric, solar, biomass, wind, geothermal
b. Nuclear, natural gas, oil, coal
c. Solar, nuclear, wind, natural gas
d. Geothermal, wind, nuclear, sola
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6. Which of the following is NOT a renewable energy source?
a. Water
b. Biomass
c. Nuclear
d. Solar
e. Wind
f. None of the above
B. True or false?
1. It is not difficult to find absolutely natural environment.
2. Natural resource management deals with managing the way in which people and natural
landscapes interact.
C. Fill in the missing words
1. …............................... is any asset that we can obtain from our environment such as water,
soil, plants, minerals, the energy from the sun.
2. …............................... is the human use of land. It involves the management and
modification of natural environment or wilderness into built environment.
3. …............................... refers to the management of natural resources such as land, water,
soil, plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects the quality of
life for both present and future generations.
4. On the basis of origin, natural resources may be divided into…............................... and
…...............................
5. On the basis of stage of development, natural resources may be divided
into…...............................,..............................., and …...............................
6. On the basis of renewability, natural resources may be divided into…...............................
and …...............................
7. Natural resource that can regrow, or whose supplies can be replenished, through natural
processes is called…...............................
8. Natural resource that can be used up or one that will not replenish itself is
called…...............................
9. In contrast to the natural environment is the…...............................
D. Further reading
Drivers of resource use
Natural resources, including materials, water, energy and fertile land, are the basis for our
life on Earth. However, humanity’s rapidly growing consumption of these resources is
causing severe damage. Humans today extract and use about 60 million tones of raw materials
a year which account around 50% more natural resources than those only 30 years ago.
People in rich countries consume up to 10 times more natural resources than those in the
poorest countries. Our climate is changing; fresh water reserves, fish stocks and forests are
shrinking; fertile land is being destroyed and species are becoming extinct. In order to create a
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more sustainable and equitable world, regions with high levels of per-capita resource use,
such as Europe, will need to sharply decrease their resource use in absolute terms. This
reduction in resource use in richer regions will give poorer regions the chance to increase their
resource use as they overcome poverty and increase their quality of life. This principle is
already well established in the global debate on climate targets, and it needs to be extended to
the area of resource use.
Source: Sustainable Europe Research Institute, 2009
OVERCONSUMPTION: Our use of the world´s natural resources

Natural resources, including materials, water, energy and fertile land, are the basis for our
life on Earth. However, humanity’s rapidly growing consumption of these resources is
causing severe damage. Our climate is changing; fresh water reserves, fish stocks and forests
are shrinking; fertile land is being destroyed and species are becoming extinct. In order to
continue to thrive on this planet, our lifestyles will need to become more sustainable, so that
we are able to protect our natural resource base and the fragile eco-systems on our planet. We
consider that it is essential to start a debate about European resource use and its environmental
and social impacts around the world. In order to help facilitate this debate, this report aims to
provide a compilation of information on current trends in European and global resource use.
This report focuses on biotic and abiotic materials, and is intended to be the first in a series of
reports on different aspects of natural resource use.
Humans today extract and use around 50% more natural resources than only 30 years
ago, at about 60 billion tonnes of raw materials a year. This is equivalent to the weight of
around 41,000 Empire State Buildings. Increasing resource extraction doesn’t just lead to
environmental problems, but is often also linked to social problems such as human rights
violations and poor working conditions. These negative environmental and social impacts are
most strongly felt in African, Latin American and Asian countries with low environmental
and social standards. Given current trends of growth, our extraction of natural resources could
increase to 100 billion tonnes by 2030.
People in rich countries consume up to 10 times more natural resources than those in the
poorest countries. On average, an inhabitant of North America consumes around 90 kilograms
(kg) of resources each day. In Europe, consumption is around 45 kg per day, while in Africa
people consume only around 10 kg per day. With almost 3 tonnes per capita per year, Europe
is the continent with the highest net-imports of resources. Europe thus benefits from a major
transfer of resources from poorer, low consuming countries to richer, high consuming
countries. The current world trade system helps support substantial inequalities in the
distribution of the use of natural resources. This raises important questions for global justice.
The world economy today uses around 30% fewer resources to produce one Euro or
Dollar of GDP than 30 years ago; however, overall resource use is still increasing. Resource
efficiency has improved steadily in Europe and globally. However, as we consume growing
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amounts of products and services, this positive trend is more than outweighed by the overall
growth of our economies.
In order to create a more sustainable and equitable world, regions with high levels of per-
capita resource use, such as Europe, will need to sharply decrease their resource use in
absolute terms. This reduction in resource use in richer regions will give poorer regions the
chance to increase their resource use as they overcome poverty and increase their quality of
life. This principle is already well established in the global debate on climate targets, and it
needs to be extended to the area of resource use.
Short-term actions can get Europe and other rich countries on the right track. These
include implementing policy measures that increase the prices of natural resources and reward
resource-efficient behaviour, exploiting resource efficiency within companies, increasing
recycling and informing consumers about their options to reduce the use of natural resources.
More fundamental questions about economics, development and resources need to be
addressed in the medium term. Most significantly, “How can new models of development be
created in Europe and other industrialized countries that focus on well-being instead of
increased production and consumption?” This will require rethinking the role of economic
growth and the links between resource use, quality of life and happiness.
Source: Sustainable Europe Research Institute, 2009
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Lesson 2
Natural resource management
Natural resource management refers to the management of natural resources such as land,
water, soil, plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects the quality
of life for both present and future generations.
Natural resource management deals with managing the way in which people and natural
landscapes interact. It brings together land use planning, water management, biodiversity, and
the future sustainability of industries like agriculture, mining, tourism, fisheries and forestry.
It recognizes that people and their livelihoods rely on the health and productivity of our
landscapes, and their actions as stewards of the land play a critical role in maintaining this
health and productivity.
Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and technical
understanding of resources and ecology and the life-supporting capacity of those resources.
Environmental management is also similar to natural resource management.
Natural resource management issues are inherently complex as they involve the
ecological cycles, hydrological cycles, climate, animals, plants and geography, etc. All these
are dynamic and inter-related. A change in one of them may have far reaching and/or long
term impacts which may even be irreversible. In addition to the natural systems, natural
resource management also has to manage various stakeholders and their interests, policies,
politics, geographical boundaries, economic implications. It is very difficult to satisfy all
aspects at the same time. This results in conflicting situations.
All management strategies consistent of either a top-down, bottom-up or combination
approach (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Management approach

A top-down approach — When people other than the resource users make decisions
about managing resources and enforcing rules. For example, government departments make
all the decisions and rules about the resources.
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Bottom-up or combination approach — When people who are directly affected by
resource use are involved in decision making and managing the resource. For example, fisher
people would be involved in making decisions about the rules that affect them.
Here is how the following three types of management apply to these three management
approaches:
Integrated coastal management — Integrated coastal management (ICM) is a “top-
down” approach that is characterized by centralized planning and authority. This approach
ensures that decisions are consistent with the national legal and jurisdictional framework for
coastal management. ICM has many purposes and addresses the connections between
development, human activities, biophysical processes, and sectoral activities in inland areas,
coastal lands, coastal waters, and offshore waters. ICM, when effective, provides a supporting
framework for community-based and collaborative approaches.
Community-based coastal resource management — In contrast to centralized planning
and authority, community-based resource management is a bottom-up approach that involves
local resources users and community members in active management and responsibility for
coastal resources. The bottom-up approach assumes that local users, if given responsibility for
their resources will manage their resources in sustainable ways and enforce community-
derived rules. Bottom-up approaches evolved in response to the failure of more centralized
approaches and with the recognition that local management may be more effective than a top-
down approach.
Collaborative or co-management of coastal resources — Co-management or
collaborative management incorporates both a top-down and bottom-up approach. It describes
in reality most management processes by which governments (especially local governments)
share responsibility and work together in dynamic partnerships. This collaborative process is
based on the participation of all individuals and groups that have a stake in the management
framework. Social, cultural, and economic objectives are an integral part of the management
framework. Government retains responsibility for overall policy and coordination, while the
local community plays a large role in day-to-day management.
Source: The Philippine Coastal Management Guidebook No. 4, Involving Communities in Coastal
Management, 2001; Managing Marine Protected Areas: A TOOLKIT for the Western Indian Ocean.
http://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/management/pdfs/comm_based_mod3_curr.pdf
Quiz
1. Which of the following is referred to top-down approach management strategies?
a. Governments decide what to do with the resources.
b. International bodies decide all about the resources.
c. People live near the resources decide what to do with the resources.
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2. Which of the following statement is true about bottom-up or combination approach
management strategies?
a. People who are directly affected by resources use make decisions and manage
the resources
b. People and companies who exploit and use the resources make decisions and
manage the resources
c. People who are directly affected by resources use are involved in decision
making and managing the resources.
3. Which of the following types of management refers to a top-down approach?
a. Integrated coastal management
b. Community-based management
c. Co-management of coastal resources
4. Which of the following types of management refers to a bottom-up approach?
5. Which of the following types of management refers to a combination approach (top-down
and bottom-up)?
6. In top-down approach management strategies:
a. Governments decide what to do with the resources
b. All stakeholders in natural resource management decide what to do with the
resources
c. Natural resource users make decisions
7. In bottom-up approach management strategies:
a. Governments decide what to do with the resources
b. All stakeholders in natural resource management decide what to do with the
resources
c. People who are directly affected by resource use are involved in decision making of
the resources
B. True or false?
1. In natural resource management, bottom-up approach refers to centralized planning and
authority by people other than resource users.
2. In natural resource management, top-down approach refers to local responsibility and
management of natural resources.
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3. Effectively natural resources management involves scientific and technical understanding
of resources.
4. When solving natural resources management problems, there is always a perfect answer
that is able to satisfy every aspect at the same time.
5. Natural resource management specifically focuses on a scientific and technical
understanding of resources and ecology and the life-supporting capacity of those
resources.
6. Natural resource management is complex as they involve many issues and all of these are
dynamic and inter-related.
7. Natural resource management has to manage various stakeholders and their interests,
policies, politics, geographical boundaries, economic implications.
8. A bottom-up approach refers to the cases when people other than the resource users make
decisions about managing resources and enforcing rules.
9. In top-down approach of natural resource management, governmental departments make
all the decisions and rules about the resources.
10. A bottom-up approach refers to the cases when the resource users are involved in decision
making and managing resource.
11. Integrated coastal management, when effective, provides a supporting framework for
community-based and collaborative approaches.
1. All management strategies consistent of three major approach,
including…............................., ….............................. and ….............................
2. In natural resource management, an approach which refers to the cases when people other
than the resource users make decisions about managing resources and enforcing rules is
called…...............................
3. In natural resource management, an approach which refers to the cases when the resource
users are involved in decision making and managing resource is
called…...............................
D. Further reading
1. Natural resource conflicts
The term “natural resources” refers to oil, minerals, forests, water, and fertile land that
occur in nature and can be exploited for economic gain. These resources frequently represent
an important source of income and power; land, in particular, is essential to the livelihoods of
millions of people. When poorly managed, distributed or controlled in an unfair or unequal
manner, natural resources can also be a major driver of conflict or instability. The features of
natural resource conflicts most relevant to mediation practitioners are highlighted below.
Categorizing resource conflicts
Resource conflicts are typically categorized according to the primary resource involved
and to the main conflict driver. Typical resource categories include extractive resources (e.g.,
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hydrocarbons, minerals, gemstones, and timber), land, and water. Of course, many conflicts
involve the interplay of more than one type of resource. Indeed, in the majority of cases, one
or more of the following drivers are at play: (1) conflict over resource ownership; (2) conflict
over resource access; (3) conflict over decision making associated with resource management;
and (4) conflict over distribution of resource revenues as well as other benefits and burdens.9
Unique characteristics of natural resource conflicts
A number of characteristics associated with natural resource conflicts contribute to their
complexity and, in turn, influence approaches to their resolution. The scarcity or abundance of
a specific natural resource fundamentally influences the conflict dynamics at play nd the
mediation opportunities available. In addition, one or more of the following characteristics
may influence the dynamics of a resource conflict:
 Many resources are influenced by a range of natural and social factors leading to a
high level of complexity and uncertainty in their availability, quality, and value.
 Natural resources that are embedded in global supply chains are subject to high levels
of price volatility that can have destabilizing effects or lead to sudden shifts in
investment strategies and opportunities.
 Resources involved in disputes are often ascribed with highly sensitive historic and
symbolic values that may be linked to national or group identity, or to a specific
livelihood.
 Natural resource conflicts often occur at different scales or levels in ways that
interconnect at local, regional, national, transboundary, or international levels.
 Resource disputes often involve uneven geographic patterns of resource distribution
that can be particularly salient when they occur along ethnic, religious, or linguistic
lines.
 Tensions between competing livelihood groups over scarce natural resources often
occur in seasonal cycles, which can escalate into violent outcomes following sudden
shocks or stresses to the system.
 Natural resources can play a number of different roles in the generation and escalation
of tensions between stakeholders, ranging from triggering and intensifying conflicts to
prolonging them.
 Resource conflicts can involve a wide range of actors and stakeholders, including
nation-states, local governments, ethnic groups, communities, civil society
organizations, and private companies.
 Natural resources frequently play a key role in the broader political economy, often
reinforcing the power of elite actors.
 Resource disputes are sometimes associated with significant power imbalances and
asymmetries between the parties (e.g., international corporations versus local
communities, or lack of formal representation of a specific livelihood group in a
decision making process).
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 In many situations natural resources are governed by a combination of customary and
statutory institutions, or hybrid political orders.
Approaches for dealing with these characteristics are addressed in relevant sections of the
guide.
Source: UNEP, 2015. Natural Resources and Conflict: A Guide for Mediation Practitioners
2. The DPSIR framework
DPSIR is a general framework for organizing information about the state of the
environment. Conceptually, the framework assumes cause-effect relationships between
interacting components of social, economic, and environmental systems, which include:
Drivers: the anthropogenic forces that lead to pressures on the environment. The drivers
include population growth, economic production and consumption activities, and
developments in the needs and activities of individuals (e.g. leisure activities). In the context
of sustainable use of resources, examples of drivers include industrial production activities
where resources are extracted and transformed into goods and services (e.g. fossil fuels into
electricity).
Pressures: pressures are the ways in which drivers are expressed physically, reflecting
the interlinkages between a human activity and the surrounding natural environment. On the
'input' side, pressures comprise extraction of materials from nature for use in human activities
(e.g. fossil fuels, minerals, and biomass, use of land), while on the 'output side' pressures
include of discharges of pollutants and generation of waste (e.g. CO2 emissions, wastewater,
mining waste)
State: the properties of the ecosystem itself. Pressures exerted by human activities
influence the state of ecosystems, by altering the natural bio-geo-chemical material cycles.
State refers to the condition of different environmental compartments and systems in physical
(e.g. temperature), chemical (e.g. atmospheric CO2 concentrations) or biological (fish stocks)
variables. Up to a certain threshold, the natural ecosystems can cope with and accommodate
human-induced disturbances; however, these 'carrying capacities' are not very well known.
Impact: impacts on population, economy and ecosystems caused by the changes in state.
Impacts can include ill health, biodiversity loss, or economic damage. For instance, higher
atmospheric concentrations of CO2 cause higher average temperatures which again alter
natural ecosystems and may have an impact on human health (e.g. cardiac diseases).
Response: actions taken by society as well as governments to prevent, compensate, or
adapt to changes in the state of the environment. Responses tend to aim to change drivers (i.e.
human activities) so as to avoid pressures. For instance, responses can aim at raising the
efficiency of products and processes, through stimulating the development and penetration of
clean technologies.
Source: Variations of DPSIR framework include PSR (e.g. OECD, 1994), DSR (e.g. UNCSD,
1996).
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Lesson 3
The water cycle
Water on or beneath Earth‘s surface cycles among the various reservoirs: the oceans, the
atmosphere, and the land. The cyclical movement of water - from the ocean to the atmosphere
by evaporation, to the surface through rain, to streams through runoff and groundwater, and
back to the ocean - is the hydrologic cycle (Fig. 2). A simplified illustration of the circulation
of water and the amounts moved. Because organisms use water, it is also stored in the
biosphere - for example, within the trees of rain forests.
Fig. 2. The water cycle

Source: Keller, 2008
Within the range of temperatures found at Earth‘s surface, water shifts among the three
states of matter: liquid (water), gas (water vapor), and solid (ice). These transformations
power some of the main flows from one reservoir to another in the hydrologic cycle. Earth‘s
external heat engine, powered by the Sun, drives the hydrologic cycle, mainly by evaporating
water from the oceans and transporting it as water vapor in the atmosphere. Under the right
conditions of temperature and humidity, water vapor condenses to the tiny droplets of water
that form clouds and eventually falls as rain or snow - together known as precipitation - over
the oceans and continents. Some of the water that falls on land soaks into the ground by
infiltration, the process by which water enters rock or soil through joints or small pore spaces
between particles. Part of this groundwater evaporates through the soil surface. Another part
is absorbed by the biosphere in plant roots, carried up to the leaves, and returned to the
atmosphere by transpiration - the release of water vapor from plants. Other groundwater may
return to the surface in springs that empty into rivers and lakes.
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The rainwater that does not infiltrate the ground runs off the surface, gradually collecting
into streams and rivers. The sum of all rainwater that flows over the surface, including the
fraction that may temporarily infiltrate near-surface formations and then flow back to the
surface, is called runoff. Some runoff may later seep into the ground or evaporate from rivers
and lakes, but most of it flows into the oceans.
For farmers the most important part of the water cycle is what happens to the rainwater
once it reaches the soil. After it rains, the water that falls on the fields can do one of three
things. It can move across the surface of the field and go into a ditch, stream or river (surface
runoff). It can seep into the soil and go underground (infiltration). Finally, because of effects
of the heat and the sun, it can also evaporate and return to the atmosphere.
The water that evaporates back up into the sky is lost and cannot be used until it falls
again as rain. The water that sinks into the soil is used by the plants and other life forms in the
soil. It is therefore extremely important to capture and hold as much water in the soil as
possible. Water that moves off the surface of the soil may still be captured in dams, or it may
move into streams and rivers. If this water moves too fast, it can have very harmful effects,
causing soil erosion or flooding. It is therefore important to make sure that this water moves
slowly off the surface of the land. Slowing the movement of water across the surface of the
soil also gives it more time to sink in, thus it serves to both prevent erosion and improve
infiltration of water into the soil.
Essential for supporting life and preserving healthy farming environments, water needs to
be retained and used as productively as possible. This is particularly pressing in areas that do
not receive regular rainfall, suffer from long dry seasons, or experience particularly heavy and
short wet periods. The best and most commonly used method is to collect as much rainfall as
possible, either in the soil or in reservoirs (like small dams or other types of large containers).
All of the water that runs off the fields is water that could have been used for production
or in your homes, gardens or fields. Watching large volumes of water flowing over your fields
and out of your village is almost like watching money flow out of your community.
Uncontrolled water flow can lead to a number of very serious problems: erosion,
mudslides, flooding and pollution.
Erosion
Erosion is caused by water that runs off the soil surface too quickly and carries away the
soil from fields and other unprotected areas (like grazing lands) (Fig. 3). This is one of the
biggest dangers to agricultural production. The best layer of soil for growing crops is the
topmost layer (topsoil). When water carries soil off the field – especially when the topsoil is
lost – productivity goes down quickly. Preventing soil erosion, both in your fields and in other
natural areas (like communal grazing areas), is absolutely essential for farming and for
sustaining lives and livelihoods.
Water that contains a lot of soil is not healthy for human consumption and not very
useful for domestic use. Water that has large quantities of soil also poses problems for fish
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and other organisms, which can struggle to multiply and even to survive in such water.
Streams, rivers and dams are thus less productive, and if the problem persists it can endanger
livelihoods.
Fig. 3. Soil erosion

Mudslides
The roots of trees, grass and other plants hold the soil in place on hillsides and sloping
land. In areas where the slopes are steep and the trees and grass have been removed, this
protection does not exist. If there is a period of heavy rains, the soil can fill up with water and
slide downslope as mud. When a large area of land is affected this movement turns into a
mudslide. Whole plots of land and entire sides of hills can slide downhill, often strong and
large enough to destroy houses and kill people in its path.
Flooding
If large amounts of water run off the fields too quickly, they accumulate in natural and
artificial reservoirs (like rivers, lakes and dams). If there is more water than the reservoir can
hold, inevitably it will spill over the bank and cause flooding. People are in danger of being
swept away and drowning in the flowing current. Large numbers of livestock and plants also
perish in massive floods. In addition, homes, roads and other important structures are often
destroyed.
When the movement of the water slows down, the soil falls to the bottom. The
accumulation of these layers of soil on top of each other is called siltation. This is a particular
problem for dams, which can fill up with soil and thus hold less and less water over time.
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Pollution
When water runs off the soil too quickly, it also carries with it everything that was in the
soil. This may include chemicals, disease organisms or other pollutants. For example, if a
field was recently sprayed with insect-killing chemicals or fertilized with manure, heavy rains
will wash these particles down into the local dam. Dangerous chemicals and manure will
pollute the source of drinking water for the community and can kill off organisms that live in
the water (some of these organisms are very important for livelihoods – like fish). Reducing
runoff can greatly reduce the level of pollution.
Drought
We usually think of drought as not having enough water – either for crop growth, for
grazing plants and drinking water for livestock, or for people (drinking, bathing and other
household use).
Quiz
1. What can happen with the water that falls on our fields?
a. It can run off the surface
b. It can sink into the ground
c. It can evaporate back into the sky
d. All of the above
2. Rainwater that falls on a crop field should:
a. Sink into the soil
b. Be removed as quickly as possible
c. Be prevented from running off too quickly
d. Only a and c
e. Only a and b
3. Soil erosion is caused by:
a. Water moving too quickly over the surface of the soil
b. Water moving too slowly over the surface of the soil
c. Soil erosion is not caused by water at all
4. Soil erosion is a problem because it can lead to:
a. More floods
b. More droughts
c. Pollution of drinking water
d. Lower soil fertility and lower crop yields
e. All of the above
5. Floods can be prevented by_______.
a. Afforestation
b. Cutting the forests
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c. Tilling the land
d. Removing the top soil
6. Which of the following statements about global water abundance is FALSE?
a. Water is often not available in the right place at the right time in the right form
b. Water suitable for use is less than one percent of the world's total
c. Water is plentiful
d. Most of the Earth's water is suitable for human use
7. The global water cycle involves which of the following processes?
a. Water evaporates from the ocean into the atmosphere
b. Water precipitates from the atmosphere onto land
c. Water flows into the oceans
d. A and B above
e. All of the above
8. Uncontrolled water flow can lead to a number of very serious problems including ALL
BUT not of the following:
a. Erosion
b. Landslide
c. Flooding
d. Volcano
e. B and D above
f. A and D above
9. What happens to rainwater that is not sinked into the ground?
a. It evaporates back into the atmosphere
b. It is lost forever
c. It runs of the surface, gradually collecting into streams and rivers.
d. All of the above
e. A and C above
10. What happens to rainwater that infiltrate into the ground?
a. It runs into rivers and streams and empty into the oceans
b. It evaporates back up into the sky
c. It is absorbed by biosphere
d. All of the above
e. B and C above
B. True or false?
1. There is more organic matter in topsoil than in other layers of the soil.
2. Water runs faster on long and slope field.
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1. A natural process that is caused by water running off the soil surface too quickly and
carrying away the soil form fields is called…...............................
2. In water cycle, the transformation of water from gas to liquid is
called…...............................
3. In water cycle, the transfer of water to the atmosphere by plants and vegetation is
called…...............................
4. In water cycle, the transfer of water from the atmosphere to land is
called…...............................
5. In water cycle, the movement of water through the atmosphere is
called…...............................
6. In water cycle, the transformation of water from a liquid into gas is
called…...............................
7. In water cycle, water below the surface and its location in different soil layers and gaps is
called…...............................
D. Match the definitions to the terms
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E. Label the simplified version of water with the above mentioned terms (D)
F. Further reading
The Hydrologic Cycle
Water on or beneath Earth‘s surface cycles among the various reservoirs: the oceans, the
atmosphere, and the land. The cyclical movement of water - from the ocean to the atmosphere
by evaporation, to the surface through rain, to streams through runoff and groundwater, and
back to the ocean - is the hydrologic cycle. A simplified illustration of the circulation of water
and the amounts moved. Because organisms use water, it is also stored in the biosphere - for
example, within the trees of rain forests.
Within the range of temperatures found at Earth‘s surface, water shifts among the three
states of matter: liquid (water), gas (water vapor), and solid (ice). These transformations
power some of the main flows from one reservoir to another in the hydrologic cycle. Earth‘s
external heat engine, powered by the Sun, drives the hydrologic cycle, mainly by evaporating
water from the oceans and transporting it as water vapor in the atmosphere. Under the right
conditions of temperature and humidity, water vapor condenses to the tiny droplets of water
that form clouds and eventually falls as rain or snow - together known as precipitation - over
19
the oceans and continents. Some of the water that falls on land soaks into the ground by
infiltration, the process by which water enters rock or soil through joints or small pore spaces
between particles. Part of this groundwater evaporates through the soil surface. Another part
is absorbed by the biosphere in plant roots, carried up to the leaves, and returned to the
atmosphere by transpiration - the release of water vapor from plants. Other groundwater may
return to the surface in springs that empty into rivers and lakes.
The rainwater that does not infiltrate the ground runs off the surface, gradually collecting
into streams and rivers. The sum of all rainwater that flows over the surface, including the
fraction that may temporarily infiltrate near-surface formations and then flow back to the
surface, is called runoff. Some runoff may later seep into the ground or evaporate from rivers
and lakes, but most of it flows into the oceans.
Snowfall may be converted into ice in glaciers, which return water to the oceans by
melting and runoff and to the atmosphere by sublimation, the transformation from a solid (ice)
directly into a gas (water vapor). Most of the water that evaporates from the oceans returns to
them as precipitation. The remainder falls over the land and either evaporates or returns to the
ocean as runoff. The land surface gains water from precipitation and loses the same amount of
water by evaporation and runoff. The ocean gains water from runoff and precipitation and
loses the same amount by evaporation, more water evaporates from the oceans than falls on
them as rain. This loss is balanced by the water returned as runoff from the continents. Thus,
the size of each reservoir stays constant.
Source: Grotzinger, J.U.A. Understanding Earth; W.H. Freeman and Company, New York
2007; p. 402-403
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Lesson 4
Managing water
There are multiple ways to manage runoff, stop soil erosion, and protect the land against
droughts, floods and mudslides.
 Capture as much of the rainfall as possible and use it effectively
 Collect surface water runoff in dams (large or small) and use water harvesting
techniques to trap rain and direct it into a storage structures.
 Slow runoff and increase infiltration into the soil by using various types of ground
cover.
Ground cover can be provided naturally by living trees, grass or other plants, or by laying
non-living material, such as corn stalks or lines of stone or trash, along the contour. A
“contour” is an imaginary line that runs horizontally across the slope. It stays at the same
level, i.e. does not go up or down the slope. Another way to slow or stop runoff is to build
contour trenches along the slope. Sometimes these contour trenches may also include shallow
pits that trap additional water, making sure that it seeps into the ground. These are called
infiltration pits. Contour trenches have to be properly laid out and constructed, or they may
actually make the water damage worse. It is necessary to use special equipment to lay out a
contour line precisely, so it is important to obtain expert advice before constructing contour
trenches.
Fig. 4. Contour trenches

Source:http://www.ektitli.org/2011/11/21/successful-water-conservation-in-awalkhed-village-
nasik/
Increase the amount of water that the soil can hold
21
One strategy is to preserve as much of the soil on the field as possible by stopping
erosion. Another way is to remove plough pans by using a ripper or subsoiler to break up
hardened layers of soil. Also increasing the amount of organic matter in the soil increases
water uptake (organic matter is any material that was formerly living or produced by
something living). This can be done by adding animal manure, or any living or dead plant
material to the soil.
Reduce evaporation and increase infiltration
Covering the soil surface with dead plant material is called mulching, and it greatly
reduces evaporation of water from the surface of the soil. It’s like putting a “lid” on the soil to
hold the water in. It also has three other key benefits: (1) it reduces weed growth (it prevents
sunlight from reaching the soil surface); (2) it increases organic content of the soil (as the
plant material breaks down, it slowly filters into the soil); and (3) it decreases the force with
which the rain hits the surface of the soil and slows down the movement of water across the
soil surface. This reduces erosion and increases the infiltration of water into the soil.
Prevent landslides by using trees and grasses to stabilize the soil
Plant roots hold the soil together, especially on sloping land where it might otherwise
slide downward during heavy rainfall. Tree roots are especially good because they are
stronger and go deeper than the roots of smaller grasses and shrubs. Making sure that steep
hillsides remain covered with trees and other plant life is the best way to protect against
mudslides.
Quiz
1. Key strategies for managing rainwater include:
a. Capturing rainwater in the soil where it falls
b. Making sure excess water walks – not runs – off the surface
c. Making sure that excess water evaporates safely back into the atmosphere
d. Only a and c
e. Only a and b
2. Options for managing water on a slope include:
a. Keep the soil covered with grass and/or trees
b. Remove all ground cover on the soil
c. Make contour trenches across the slope
d. Make contour trenches up and down the slope
e. Only a and c
f. Only b and d
3. Which following factor(s) can cause mudslide?
a. Heavy rain
b. Lose consolidated soil
22
c. Slope
d. A and C above
e. All of the above
4. What is the best way to protect hillsides against mudslides?
a. Place wind breaks
b. Cover the soil
c. Build trenches along the contour of the slope
d. A and C above
e. A and B above
5. Which following method can be use to increase water retention in soil?
a. Add organic matter into the soil
b. Reduce fertilizer using
c. Add gravels into the soil
d. All of the above
B. True or false?
1. Organic matter in the soil increases the water holding capacity of the soil.
2. Stopping soil erosion will increase the capacity of the soil to hold water.
3. Mulching the soil surface will increase rainfall infiltration and decrease evaporation.
4. If we don't manage our water resources better we may be facing a food shortage in the
future.
C. Further reading
Water in the world: what is happening and where?
The earth is covered in water, but only 3 percent is fresh water and most of that is
unevenly distributed and subject to great variability, affecting social and economic
development around the globe. While nation states struggle to cope with domestic issues of
water insecurity, the matter is more complex where freshwater resources cross sovereign
borders. More than 260 major rivers are shared by two or more states, serving more than 70
percent of the world’s population. For example, the Himalayan glaciers feed the Indus,
Ganges, Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, Yangtze and Yellow rivers, and serve large
populations in China, India and South East Asia. However, their flows are now diminishing in
quality and quantity. A recent report by the National Centre for Atmospheric Research
(NCAR) analyzing the flows of 925 of the planet's largest rivers found that a number of trans-
boundary watercourses, including the Columbia River (Canada, USA), the Ganges
(Bangladesh, Nepal, India), the Niger (Benin, Guinea, Mali, Niger, Nigeria) and the Colorado
(Mexico, USA), each have diminishing flows, potentially threatening future water and food
supplies (Dai et al., 2009).
The availability of water and water use per capita varies widely around the world. The
top five users of water are the United States, Australia, Italy, Japan and Mexico where the
23
average person tends to use well over 300 litres a day. The countries where water poverty is
most pronounced – including Mozambique, Rwanda, Haiti, Ethiopia, and Uganda – have a
daily per capita water use of 15 litres or less. In the UK, while Scotland is abundant in water,
in some part of England and Wales per capita water averages are less than in the
Mediterranean countries of Italy, Spain and Egypt (UN Food and Agriculture Organisation
[FAO] 2005). The water used in food must be taken into account too – one kilo of beef
requires more than 15,000 litres of water to produce and a cup of coffee 1,200 litres of water.
To complete the picture, a microchip uses 16,000 litres (Water Footprint Network 2010; for a
graphical representation of water usage, accessibility and GDP in selected countries, see
Circle of Blue 2009).
A recent technical report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
Climate Change and Water, surveys the impact that climate change will have on water
resources and presents a series of water models that project serious shortages of water in
semi-arid regions of the world such as Australia, southern Africa, Central America, the
Caribbean, south-western South America, south-western United States and the Mediterranean,
resulting from increased frequencies of droughts and water scarcity over the next 50 to 100
years (Bates et al 2008). A quick tour of the world reveals great disparities in the numbers and
types of demands on the world’s water resources. Africa appears likely to suffer heavily, with
the combined effects of water scarcity and poverty leading to increased vulnerability for many
people. A 2008 report on Africa by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
warned of severe consequences unless adaptation measures are put in place to deal with
threats to freshwater resources due to population growth, food insecurity, urbanization,
industrialization, pollution of water resources, poor governance and management structures
and limited scientific and technical capabilities (UNEP 2008).
Source: Patricia Wouters, 2010. Water Security: Global, regional and local challenges
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Lesson 5
Watersheds and watershed management
A “watershed” is an area from which all of the rainfall drains into the same place (stream,
river or ocean). Watersheds can be large, covering thousands of hectares and many smaller
water bodies, or even very small, just a few square meters that all drains into one gully or
stream. Even very flat areas are part of a watershed. Regardless of size, a few basic
management concepts are useful for all watersheds. It is important to manage rainfall across
the entire watershed. This section will also discuss how to identify problem areas within a
watershed.
Fig. 5. A watershed
Source: http://hawp.org/what-is-a-watershed/
Managing water across the entire watershed
It is impossible to manage one part of a watershed effectively without looking at the
bigger picture upslope and downslope. For example, if our field is on the lower part of a slope
and there are no trees above, heavy rains will result in large volumes of water pouring down
onto the field. This may cause serious erosion and damage. Also, if we do not consider the
effects of the water leaving our field, we may be causing problems further down the slope
without knowing. For example, we could build a big contour trench across the top part of our
field to protect it from incoming water. The trench will catch all of this water and divert it
away from our field. But, if it does not guide the water slowly and safely away into the stream
or river of the watershed it can make a big gully or cause erosion on someone else’s field
downslope.
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What causes soil erosion?
 Weather: Wind and water can blow or wash soil away, the more fierce the weather the
more soil is lost. Soft breezes leave the soil in place and gentle rains soak slowly into
the soil, without washing it away.
 Slopes: Soil on sloped land erodes faster than soil on flat land. Steep slopes lose more
soil than moderate slopes. Longer slopes lose more soil than shorter slopes because
water builds up speed and force as it moves down an uninterrupted slope.
 Soil cover: Bare soils erode much more easily and quickly than soils covered with
plants, such as tall grasses, mature crops or thick groves of trees.
 Type of soil cover: Soils covered with a thick tree cover or grasses that are never cut
lose very little soil. Land that is used for annual crops (like maize, sorghum, millet and
beans) can lose topsoil more easily, especially if it is left uncovered during the dry
season and the early part of the rainy season. Erosion also happens when land is
cleared for planting and at the beginning of the rainy season, before plants grow and
provide a protective cover over the land.
 Soil type: Soils with many fine particles blow and wash away faster than soils with
sand particles, which are somewhat larger and heavier.
How to reduce erosion
Wind erosion happens due to strong winds that blow over unprotected, exposed lots of
land. The wind picks up the small soil particles and disperses them over a wide area.
Fig. 6. Wind breaks

Source: http://www.forestry.ok.gov/windbreaks-shelterbelts
Place wind breaks – These are usually lines of trees or other tall plants that are planted
perpendicular to the direction of the incoming wind. How far apart the rows are planted
26
depends on the height of the plants and the usual force of the wind. Cover the soil – Keeping
the soil covered with live plants or with mulch also fights erosion.
Water erosion happens when water runs rapidly over the surface of the soil, carrying with
it soil particles. The steeper the slope and the longer field, the faster the water will flow and
the more erosion it will cause. Reducing erosion by water usually involves either slowing
down the flow of water or channeling the excess water safely off the threatened area.
Build trenches along the contour of the slope. This trench will capture and channel excess
water away from the field.
 Place barriers along the contour of the slope: These barriers can be constructed by
piling stones or brush along the contour of the slope. This will either block or slow
down the movement of water. Also natural barriers can be planted along the contours
of the slope, such as trees or permanent grass strips.
 Plug gullies: As soon as you notice large crevices in the earth, made by flowing water
after heavy rains, take action. Fill them up with either stones, heavy piles of brush or
fences, for example bamboo stems with vines woven between them.
 Cover the soil: Keep the soil surface covered either with mulch or with live plants, like
grass or a green manure crop.
There are two main strategies for combating both water and wind erosion. The first one is
to use physical interventions that will limit the force and the impact of water and wind on the
soil. They include using mulches; building terraces; plugging gullies; building dams, check
dams and reservoirs; constructing infiltration and diversion ditches; using Zai holes as
planting areas, and many others. The other strategy is to use biological interventions to
achieve the same effect. They include planting windbreak lines of trees; planting grass strips
or shrubs along the contour line; using crop cover for the soil (often deep-rooted legumes
planted with widely spaced cereals); crop rotation; keeping permanent vegetation on steep
slopes – perennials like forage legumes or trees (fruit, coffee, tea, nuts etc.), planting crops
that capture water in their biomass, and many others.
How to manage rainfall within a watershed
The most effective way to manage soil and water resources is to work across the entire
watershed. Using this approach, you can eliminate soil erosion almost completely and capture
the maximum amount of rainfall – either in the soil or in small dams. Capturing surface water
in small dams also opens up the possibility of irrigation farming and other commercial
activities, such as fish production. Three of the most common and important tools for
managing water movement include:
 Keeping the soil covered at all times by using grass, trees or crops (or the remains of
the previous crop). Covering the soil with dead plant matter protects against
evaporation of water from the soil surface and also slows the movement of water
across the soil surface.
27
 Creating barriers along the contour lines of a slope, such as stone barriers or live
barriers (trees, shrubs or special species of grasses). They help slow down water
movement and keep the soil on the contour edge compact and strong.
 Digging contour trenches along the contour lines of a slope. These ditches capture the
water and transport it safely to dams or streams.
When building barriers or ditches along contour lines it is important to make sure that the
contour lines are properly marked. If this is not done well, it may instead concentrate the
water in some areas and actually make the problems even worse. As most of the time
watershed areas are larger than individual farms, cooperation is essential. Developing a
management plan for the whole watershed requires all farmers and stakeholders who use the
area to communicate, consult one another and work together. It may also require the
involvement of local government bodies. The first step in promoting cooperation is to identify
and build awareness among the local population about the different stakeholders in the
watershed and their roles in a water management plan.
Upstream and downstream issues: The surface or ground water will be used many times
by many users before it reaches the ocean or evaporates. The people who use the water from a
river before us are upstream users. We want those people to respect our rights to water and
our need for clean, safe water. This means that they should not use all of it up. It means that
they should not pollute the water after they have used it. Those who use the water after us are
downstream users, and they deserve the same considerations that we want to receive. We
should make sure that they receive enough water that is clean and safe to use. Various
national and local laws regulate water use – especially surface water in streams, rivers and
dams. We need to be aware of those laws and respect them.
Quiz
1. A watershed is:
a. A huge area with a river running through it
b. A hillside where all the water runs off when it rains
c. An area where all the rain that falls drains into the same body of water
d. The land and all the resources between two bodies of water
2. You can identify “problem areas” in a watershed by looking for:
a. Areas of bare soil on a slope
b. Gullies forming and getting bigger
c. Surface areas covered with small and medium sized stones
d. All of the above
e. None of the above
3. Ways that you can effectively manage water within a watershed include the following:
a. Ensure that the soil is never covered with anything – living or dead
28
b. Don’t create any barriers to slow down the flow of water on the slope
c. Never dig any contour trenches across the slope
d. Channel all of the rainfall run-off into existing gullies
4. Biological interventions for soil erosion reduction include all BUT NOT of the following?
a. Planting windbreak lines of trees
b. Planting grass strips or shrubs along the contour line
c. Using crop cover for the soil
d. Building terraces
e. Keeping permanent vegetation on steep slopes
f. Planting crops that capture water in their biomass
5. Physical interventions for soil erosion reduction include all BUT NOT of the following?
a. Using mulches
b. Building terraces
c. Plugging gullies
d. Applying crop rotation
e. Keeping permanent vegetation on steep slopes
f. Constructing infiltration and diversion ditches
6. What are the key strategies of reducing water erosion?
a. Plug gullies and place barriers along the contour of the slope
b. Slowing down the flow of water and channeling the excess water safely off the
threatened area
c. Build trenches along the contour of the slope, place barriers along the contour of the
slope, cover the soil
7. Which following method(s) can reduce wind erosion?
a. Use strong nails and anchors
b. Cover it with trees and other plants
c. Concrete the soil
8. Why cooperation is essential in managing watershed?
a. Because it is impossible to manage one part of a watershed effectively without
looking at upslope and downslope
b. Because most of the time watershed areas are larger than individual farms
c. Because the number of people participating in watershed management determine the
success of water management
d. A and B
e. All of the above
9. What should upstream people do to balance the benefits with downstream people?
a. Do not use any water
29
b. Respect others rights and need for clean and safe water
c. Do not use all of the water and/or do not pollute the water after using it
d. A and B
e. B and C
B. True or false?
1. We only need to manage the water we are using in our own immediate environment.
People who live upstream or downstream from us need to look after themselves
2. It is possible to effectively manage only a small part of a watershed without having to
worry about anything outside your particular area.
3. A watershed is always large, covering thousands of hectares.
4. We can as many build contour trenches as we want. The more trenches there are, the more
effective it is.
5. We should build contour trenches as big as we could. The bigger the trenches, the more
effective they are.
6. Physical interventions are always not effective in reducing soil erosion.
1. …............................... happens when water runs rapidly over the surface of the soil,
carrying with it soil particles.
2. …............................... is an area from which all of the rainfall drains into the same place.
D. Further reading
River basins for Action
A river basin is the land area between the source and mouth of a river, including all the
lands that drain into the river. Some river basins, particularly in interior of continental regions,
may terminate at lakes and/or inland deltas, with no exit to the sea. These basins are referred
to as closed basins.
SEVEN Guiding Principles for effective Integrated River Basin Management (IRBM) are
as follows:
Vision: Management of river basins should be governed by a long term vision, agreed by
consensus among all major stakeholders, to meet economic, social and environmental
objectives.
Integration: Policies, decisions and institutional frameworks must be integrated and must
allow the sharing of costs and benefits of management. This means ensuring strong links
between different sectoral activities such as biodiversity conservation, pollution control,
fisheries management, navigation, water supply and land use.
Scale: The primary scale for strategic decision making must be the whole river basin as
this encompasses the ecological processes needed for sustainable management. Operational
decisions must then be taken in accordance with the basin-wide strategy, but can be made at
30
sub-basin or local levels. This principle applies in all cases, including transboundary river
basins.
Timing: With IRBM, timing is important as well as consideration of elements including
political, geographical and economic contexts. IRBM is not a neat linear process where one
step has to be completed before the next can begin; different tasks can be tackled
simultaneously.
Participation: High priority must be given to establishing effective mechanisms for
active public participation in planning and decision-making. Participation initiatives must be
managed carefully to ensure that they are transparent and accessible, that all opinions are
respected and that expectations from all sides are clear at the beginning.
Capacity: Capacity to engage in river basin planning needs to be maximised among
officials, planners and administrators, and also among economic sectors, local authorities and
civil society, especially local NGOs. Investment of adequate financial and human resources
into capacity building and participation processes is one of the keys to successful river basin
management.
Knowledge: The foundation for effective management is good scientific information
along with socioeconomic analyses as the key to understanding the drivers behind water use
and abuse. Effective monitoring is also important for adjusting management decisions; it
consists of not measuring everything all the time, but rather carrying out a strategic, targeted
and integrated programme and using the results.
Source: WWF Living Waters Programme River basins for Action (status 2002)
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Lesson 6
Soil fertility, soil nutrients, nutrient cycles and land use
Plants need five things to grow – energy from the sun, water, air to breathe, nutrients
from the soil and a gas called carbon dioxide from the air. When a crop grows it takes
nutrients from the soil. If the nutrients are not replaced – by adding organic matter or
commercial fertilizer – the soil becomes infertile and cannot produce future crops.
Also, each type of crop needs a different mix of nutrients. For example, maize needs
different nutrients in different amounts than beans or cassava. And each soil contains different
types and amounts of nutrients. Farmers with the best yields often know what nutrients their
soils have, how much of which nutrients each crop needs, and when and where to add
nutrients.
Nutrients
To grow plants need 17 nutrients. Three of these are very important and needed in large
amounts: nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Because they interact differently with the soil,
nutrients need to be applied differently. For example, nitrogen may be applied on the soil
surface if rains are near (called “top dressing”). Otherwise it should be mixed into the soil to
keep it from evaporating. Phosphorus needs to be applied near the roots, because it does not
move down into the soil with the groundwater.
Nitrogen: Plants that receive plenty of nitrogen grow large and their leaves are dark
green. Some plants (beans, clover or groundnuts) can take nitrogen from the air and, with the
help of soil bacteria, produce nitrogen in the soil for other plants to use. Animal manure and
commercial nitrogen fertilizer also put nitrogen back into the soil.
Phosphorus: This nutrient helps roots to grow, and flowers and seeds to develop. It can
be added to plants as commercial fertilizer, or through organic matter and manure. It needs to
be worked into the soil near plant roots because it does not travel with water down into the
soil, as do nitrogen and potassium. The phosphorus content of the soil is reduced either by
removing the crops or as part of soil erosion.
Potassium: This nutrient helps strengthen the stalks and stems, and it helps plants resist
disease and drought. Like nitrogen, potassium can be washed away by heavy rains, flowing
away with the groundwater.
Using fertilizers
Maintaining the balance of nutrients in the soil over time is usually done through
fertilizer. It replaces in the soil the nutrients that were used by the previous crop. Commercial
fertilizers are expensive in terms of money costs. Fertilizers produced on the farm – such as
compost, vermiculture (worm compost), animal manure or green manure – are less expensive,
but require more time and labor. Many small farmers use commercial fertilizers in small
amounts when they can afford it and depend more on organic fertilizers that they produce on
32
the farm. Commercial fertilizers are called inorganic because they are taken from minerals
and ores. Farm-made fertilizers are considered organic because they come from plants and
animals.
Commercial (inorganic) fertilizers
There are two main types of inorganic or mineral fertilizers. Straight fertilizers have one
main plant nutrient, such as a nitrate or phosphate fertilizer. Compound fertilizers have at
least two nutrients in different amounts. A common compound fertilizer is N-P-K fertilizer.
Applying commercial fertilizer is tricky. Too much will “burn” or kill plants and pollute
nearby water bodies, while too little will result in low yields.
Labels on fertilizer bags usually show the percent of N-P-K. For example, a bag of 7-14-
7 means that the fertilizer contains 7% of nitrogen, 14% of phosphate and 7% of potassium.
Most bags also have written instructions for handling and storage. Fertilizers can be
dangerous to humans and animals if not stored and applied properly.
Land use
Land use is the human use of land. Land use involves the management and modification
of natural environment or wilderness into built environment such as settlements and semi-
natural habitats such as arable fields, pastures, and managed woods. It also has been defined
as "the arrangements, activities and inputs people undertake in a certain land cover type to
produce, change or maintain it".
Land use practices vary considerably across the world. The United Nations' Food and
Agriculture Organization Water Development Division explains that "Land use concerns the
products and/or benefits obtained from use of the land as well as the land management actions
(activities) carried out by humans to produce those products and benefits." As of the early
1990s, about 13% of the Earth was considered arable land, with 26% in pasture, 32% forests
and woodland, and 1.5% urban areas.
Land use and land management practices have a major impact on natural resources
including water, soil, nutrients, plants and animals. Land use information can be used to
develop solutions for natural resource management issues such as salinity and water quality.
For instance, water bodies in a region that has been deforested or having erosion will have
different water quality than those in areas that are forested. Forest gardening, a plant-based
food production system, is believed to be the oldest form of land use in the world.
The major effect of land use on land cover since 1750 has been deforestation of
temperate regions. More recent significant effects of land use include urban sprawl, soil
erosion, soil degradation, salinization, and desertification. Land-use change, together with use
of fossil fuels, is the major anthropogenic sources of carbon dioxide, a dominant greenhouse
gas.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use
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Quiz
1. Which of the following soil is the best for plant growth?
a. Sandy soil
b. Clay
c. Gravel
d. Loamy soil
2. Why is it important to manage soil, water and other natural resources?
a. To protect our ability to produce food and income
b. To protect vital ecosystem services
c. To ensure we pass on to our children rich, productive natural resources
d. All of the above
3. Organic fertilizers produced on the farm including all BUT NOT of the following:
a. Compost
b. Worm compost
c. Green manure
d. Straight fertilizer
4. Which of the following is/are the source(s) of nitrogen in soil?
a. Artificial fertilizer
b. Some plants
c. Bionic fertilizer
d. All of the above
e. B and C above
5. What is the major function of phosphorus in plants?
a. Helps roots to grow and flowers and seeds to develop
b. Helps leaves to grow and turn dark
c. Helps strengthen the stalks and stems
d. Helps plants resist disease and drought
e. C and D above
6. What is the major function of nitrogen in plants?
e. C and D
7. What is the major function of potassium in plants?
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e. C and D
8. In addition to the three main nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) plants also
need which of the following?
a. Large amounts of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur
b. Large amounts of iron and zinc
c. Small amounts of calcium and magnesium
d. A and B above
e. A and C above
f. A, B, and C above
9. What is the function of soil to plants?
a. Plant roots feed the plant by absorbing water and nutrients from the soil
b. The roots also need air, which they extract from the soil
c. Soil provides a place for the plant roots to “anchor” the plant and hold it in place so
that it can grow properly
d. All of the above
e. A and B above
B. True or false?
1. Plants need 5 things to grow: sunlight, air, nutrients, water and carbon dioxide.
2. Plants need 20 different types of nutrients in order to grow properly.
3. If you grow crops continuously on a field without returning any organic matter or
nutrients, the nutrients in the soil will get depleted and eventually nothing will grow well
on that soil.
4. The 3 nutrients that plants need in largest volumes are nitrogen, phosphorus and calcium.
5. Fertilizers can be either organic or inorganic.
6. All fertilizers have the same nutrients in them.
7. Organic fertilizers can be made on the farm.
8. The label on a bag of fertilizer only shows the percent of nitrogen in that fertilizer.
9. There is only one correct way to apply all fertilizers.
10. It is often better to apply different nutrients in different ways because they move
differently in soil and water.
11. The best soils are “loamy soils” which have a balanced mix of sand, silt and organic
matter particles.
12. Topsoil is the best layer for growing crops.
13. Weather intensity is directly proportional to soil erosion.
14. The slope of topology is inversely proportional to soil erosion.
15. Soils that are covered by plants will be easier to be eroded than bare soil.
16. Different types of soil cover cause different rate of erosion.
35
17. The coarser the soil grains, the easier they are to blow or wash away.
18. Land use management refers to not building homes and plant fields in areas prone to
flooding.
36
Lesson 7
Plant health
Plant nutrient needs
In addition to the three main nutrients – nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium – plants also
need large amounts of the following nutrients: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, calcium and
magnesium. They need small amounts of other nutrients: boron, chlorine, copper, iodine, iron
and zinc. Several other concepts are important for plant nutrition:
 Most limiting nutrient: If the plant can access several key nutrients but is missing one
(for example, it has nitrogen and potassium but not enough phosphorus) it will not
give good crops. When enough phosphorus has been added, plant growth will be
limited by the next “least available” nutrient. Limited growth will persist until all
nutrients needs of the plant are met.
 Nutrient movement: Nutrients move in cycles. They move from the soil to plants and
then to the animals that eat these plants. They move from the fertilizer that the farmer
applies into the soil and then into the plants. The nutrients move off the farm when the
farmer sells the harvest at the market. Also erosion takes nutrients out of the farm.
 Nutrient deficiency: When nutrients are lacking in the soil, crop growth is slow and
plants are weak until the balance of nutrients is restored. The signs of nutrient
deficiency are often very visible: short weak stalks, leaves that are spotted or a
different color, and many others (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7. Signs of nutrient deficiency

Source: Stevens và nnk, 2002
 Nutrient sources: These include commercial fertilizer, organic fertilizers (like animal
manure, green manure, legumes, cover crops, mulch compost) as well as other
intervention options (like crop rotation).
 Soil pH: This is a scale that measures the acidic or alkaline properties of the soil. Most
plants do best in close to neutral pH (7.0), with an acceptable range between 6.0 and
7.5. Highly acidic (low pH) or alkaline soil (high pH) prevents certain nutrients in the
soil from reaching the plants. For example, because acidic soils tie up phosphorus,
37
plants cannot access it. Lime has to be added to these soils (to raise the pH) or there
should be heavier phosphorus applications near plant roots. When soil pH is too high,
it can be reduced by applying sulfur and/or some specific types of commercial
fertilizer.
 Nutrient availability: Plants use nutrients in certain forms and not in others. For
example, most plants cannot use the form of nitrogen that exists in the air.
Plant water needs
Too much or too little rain for too long easily destroys plants. Especially when they are
young, plants need moderate amounts of water. Young plants lack the network of roots
needed for retrieving water deep from the ground. Consistent access to water is important for
young seedlings and for crucial growth stages. In addition, plants need soils that are moist in
order to access some nutrients, for example nitrogen and potassium. Having regular access to
moderate amounts of water is essential for healthy plant growth. With too much rain the soil
cannot provide sufficient volume of air; the roots will rot and the whole plant will die. If there
is too little rain, plants cannot access the nutrients in the soil and the nutrients cannot travel
through the plant. Plants wilt to prevent water loss from their leaves, and if the dry spell lasts
too long they will die. Farmers around the world have found clever ways to conserve scarce
water and drain excess water.
Plant light needs
Plants need energy from the sun to grow. They transform light energy into chemical
energy. Once plants have captured energy in this way, it can be utilized by all animals that eat
plants. However, different crops need different amounts of light and different total hours of
light (or darkness) in a single day. Maize, beans and potatoes all require high levels of light to
grow well, while onions, carrots and spinach require less light. There are also differences in
desired day length. In order to flower and produce fruit or grain, many plants need a certain
number of hours of darkness. Other plants will flower regardless of how many hours of light
or darkness they receive. Some vegetables (lettuce, beets and spinach) flower only when they
receive more than 12 hours of sunlight.
Plant soil needs
Plants need soil for several reasons. The soil provides a place for the plant roots to
“anchor” the plant and hold it in place so that it can grow properly. Plant roots feed the plant
by absorbing water and nutrients from the soil. The roots also need air, which they extract
from the soil. If the soil is completely full of water, the roots cannot breathe well or function
properly. Some crops (like rice) extract oxygen from the water, and thus do not suffer from
this problem. Also, if soils are polluted (for example, by oil or car fuels seeping into the soil)
plants do not grow very well and may even become sick.
Air
Like humans, plants breathe air. They take in oxygen through their leaves and roots,
giving out carbon dioxide. Without oxygen, plants will die. Plants are also affected by air
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pollution, for example by a factory’s discharge of dust into the air, or dusty rural roads. The
small particles can settle on plant leaves and make it impossible to absorb sunlight, thus
reducing their productivity. In some cases air pollution may be directly harmful to plants
(sulfur and other pollution).
Pests and diseases
Like people, plants are affected by many different pests and diseases. Pests may include
insects of various kinds, or larger pests like rats or animals that like a particular kind of plant.
Diseases also come in many forms. They may be viruses or bacteria, or many other types of
micro-organisms that hinder plant growth and development. When large land areas are
planted with a single crop (for example, maize planted on every farm across whole districts or
provinces), the pests and diseases that prefer that particular crop have a favorable
environment in which to grow and multiply. Outbreaks of pest or disease spread very quickly
across these large areas and cause a great deal of damage.
An example is the Cassava Mosaic Virus. This disease has caused so much damage in
Africa that some countries can hardly grow the crop at all anymore. A good way to reduce the
probability of these kinds of outbreaks is to plant diverse crops on the same field, rotate the
type of crop grown on a specific piece of land from year to year, and protect the diversity of
species in your environment. For example, if certain kinds of birds are protected, they may eat
some types of insects that might otherwise spread disease. The birds can help keep the disease
in check. Promoting diversity of crops and other plants as well as diversity of animal and
insect species helps maintain nature’s balance and prevents major pest and disease outbreaks.
Quiz
1. The “most limiting nutrient” for plant growth is:
a. Nitrogen
b. Phosphorus
c. The nutrient that is the main cause of poor plant growth at any given time
d. A major nutrient that can be replaced with commercial fertilizer
2. Which of the following are sources of plant nutrients?
a. Commercial fertilizers d. Mulch
b. Water e. All of the above
c. Sunlight e. Only a and d
3. Ways to minimize pest and disease outbreaks on a farm include:
a. Rotate the crops grown in any one field from year to year
b. Grow a range of different crops on the same farm
c. Protect the diversity of species in your local environment
d. All of the above
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4. In order to grow well, plants need which of the following:
a. Energy from the sun
b. Water
c. Nutrients
d. Air
e. Light
f. All of the above
g. A, B, C and D above
B. True or false?
1. Plants can never have enough water.
2. All plants need the same amount of sunlight in order to grow properly.
3. Plants need to breathe air, just like people.
4. Plants can get sick, just like people.
5. In natural resource management, bottom-up approach refers to centralized planning and
authority by people other than resource users.
6. Three most abundant nutrient elements in plant are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
7. Plants need a large amount of micronutrients.
8. Nutrient deficiency causes no effect on plant growth.
9. Soil pH controls the nutrient availability for plant uptake.
10. If the soil is oversaturated with water, no root of any plants can breathe well or function
properly.
11. Plants are not suffered by diseases.
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Lesson 8
Life systems in nature (ecosystems)
All living organisms (plants and animals) and non-living things (air, water, sun, soil)
taken together make up an ecosystem – in other words, everything that we see and don’t see
around us. We are also a part of this environment, and our actions affect how it functions. In
this system all living things are dependent and connected to one another. They continually
exchange the nutrients and energy essential for supporting life.
Plants can do something animals cannot. Plants can produce chemical energy from
sunlight, which is why they are called producers. Animals that eat only plants to get energy
are called primary consumers (e.g., cows). Other animals primarily eat other animals to get
energy (e.g., wild cats mainly eat birds, mice and other small animals). These animals are
called secondary consumers. Finally, there are animals that eat both plants and other animals.
Humans are a good example of these omnivores.
When growing, plants also take up minerals from the soil and the air to make organic
matter (the matter that makes up a living thing). When plants are eaten, some of their matter is
absorbed and utilized by the organism that has eaten it. The same thing happens when an
animal eats another animal. So when one organism eats another, both energy and matter are
transferred from one to the other. A food web diagram shows the flow of energy and matter
from producers to primary consumers, and from primary consumers to secondary consumers.
When things die without being eaten, their matter usually is absorbed in the soil where it feeds
plants, and the cycle starts again.
What is happening in the food web
Producers capture solar energy and convert it into chemical energy through
photosynthesis. They also take up nutrients from the soil and the air, and combine them to
make different kinds of organic matter. Energy and matter are passed from the producers up
along the food chain from one organism to another. The number and types of organisms in the
ecosystem depend on non-living factors (soil, water, temperature and light) and the interaction
between the organisms. Removal of one or more species (or group of species) from an
ecosystem has life changing effects on many others species. Removal of many species from
an ecosystem will often result in loss of energy and matter, and severely reduced productivity
of the system as a whole.
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Fig. 8. Food web
Source: CRS, USAID and MEAS, 2002
Broken food webs
Why is our field swamped with insect pests?
If we cut down most of the trees (for example, to make charcoal for sale in towns) the
birds will not have a place to make their nests or to sleep in safety away from predators. They
will settle elsewhere, and with a lot less birds around to eat insects, the population of insects
will explode. With more insects eating our crops, our crop yields will go down.
Why are there more mice and rats in our storage bins?
Wild cats and snakes eat rats. If we kill all the wild cats and snakes the number of mice
and rats will increase a lot, and they will eat much more of our stored grain.
Managing healthy ecosystems
As consumers, our lives depend on maintaining the productivity of our environment –
both the non-living parts and all living creatures. If we do not manage it well, it can become
less productive and our livelihood may be threatened.
Maintaining a balance of species in our environment can prevent problems related to
booming populations of species (for example, having too many insect pests or rats). In
unbalanced ecosystems the existence of many life forms is under threat. Increasing and
protecting the diversity of living creatures in our environment (plants, animals and other
living things) usually increases the productivity of our environment. A diverse environment
provides multiple sources of vital energy and nutrients. It is home to more organisms and
therefore also provides more economic opportunities. Also, having more diversity in predator
42
organisms in the environment improves pest control. Having a lot of diversity in the
environment increases our livelihood options and also helps us harvest healthier grains by
decreasing the need for chemical control of insects and other pests.
If we allow our soil and water resources to become degraded, we reduce our capacity to
generate food and income as well as endanger the livelihoods of future generations. As the
human population grows, we are using more resources at a faster rate. It is expected that it
will continue to grow at an even quicker rate in the near future. It is very important that we
manage resources well so that we do not destroy our own environment and our own
livelihoods.
Quiz
1. Which of the following are “primary consumers” (select all that apply)?
a. Rabbits
b. Mice
c. Hawks
d. Cats
e. Chickens
2. What will happen if all of the secondary consumers are removed from an environment?
a. The number of primary consumers will expand very rapidly.
b. The primary consumers will immediately die as well.
c. The biological diversity of the environment will be reduced.
d. Only a and c
e. All of the above
3. It is important to maintain diversity and balance in nature because:
a. It looks nice and feels good.
b. This will help prevent major pest and disease outbreaks.
c. It will help maintain energy and matter in our ecosystems, making them more
productive and sustainable.
d. It is easy to do.
4. Broken food webs may result in which of the following?
a. Our field swamped with insect pests
b. More mice and rats in our storage bins
c. Our crop yields will go up
d. All of the above
e. A and B above
5. Removal of one or more species (or group of species) from an ecosystem may result in
which of the following?
a. Loss of energy and matter
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b. Reduction of productivity
c. Increase the number of other species
d. All of the above
e. A and B above
6. Unbalance ecosystems may result in all BUT NOT of the following?
a. Booming populations of species
b. Threatening the existence of many life forms
c. Increasing productivity of our environment
d. Increasing livelihood options
e. Decreasing the need for chemical control of insects and other pests
B. True or false?
1. If we kill all the wild cats and snakes the number of mice and rats will increase a lot.
2. If we do not manage the ecosystem well, our livelihood may be threatened.
3. Cutting down most of trees may result in booming population of insects.
4. Our ecosystem is made up of all living and non-living things around us.
5. All living things in an ecosystem are connected in one way or another.
6. We are not part of any ecosystem.
7. In a food web, matter and energy are continually being transferred between organisms.
8. In a food web, some consumers only eat other consumers.
1. …............................... shows the flow of energy and matter from producers to primary
consumers, and from primary consumers to secondary consumers.
2. Plants can produce chemical energy from sunlight, which is why they are called
…...............................
3. Animals that eat only plants to get energy are called …...............................
4. Animals primarily eat other animals to get energy are called …...............................
5. Animals that eat both plants and other animals are called…...............................
6. …............................... refers to the process that producers capture solar energy and convert
it into chemical energy.
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Lesson 9
Energy Resources
Fossil fuels
Fossil fuels occur in many ways, depending on the kind of sediment, the kind of organic
matter trapped, and the changes that have occurred during the long geological ages since the
organic matter was trapped. Essentially all living organisms derive their energy from the Sun.
The only known exceptions to this statement are a few animals that live around submarine hot
springs on mid-ocean ridges; they derive their energy from the Earth‘s internal heat. The
principal energy-trapping mechanism of living organisms that derive their energy from the
Sun is photosynthesis. Plants combine water and carbon dioxide to make carbohydrates and
oxygen.
This combination process uses energy and plants get the energy from sunlight. The
oxygen formed during photosynthesis is passed into the atmosphere and in this way plants and
sunlight control the composition of the atmosphere.
The organic compounds in plants are the fuel that keeps animals alive and active; animals
are, therefore, secondary consumers of trapped solar energy. When one animal eats another a
little bit of trapped solar energy is once again passed along. When plants or animals die and
decay, oxygen from the atmosphere combines with carbon and hydrogen in the organic
compounds to form H20 and CO2 once again. In the process a small amount of energy is
released, so the photosynthesis reaction is reversed.
The rates at which organic matter is formed through photosynthesis, and broken down by
decay, are essentially the same; if they were not essentially equal, the world would soon be
covered by increasingly deep piles of organic matter. However, the growth and decay rates
are not exactly the same. In many sediments, a little organic matter is trapped and buried
before it is completely removed by decay.
In this way some of the solar energy becomes stored in rocks-hence, the term fossil fuel.
The amount of trapped organic matter is far less than 1 percent of the organic matter formed
by growing plants and animals. However, from the late Proterozoic (about 600 million years
ago) to the present, through which time the size of the biomass seems to have been as large as
it is today, the total amount trapped has grown to be very large.
The kind of organic matter that is trapped in sediments plays an important role in the
kind of fossil fuel that forms. In the ocean, tiny photosynthetic phytoplankton and bacteria are
the principal sources of trapped organic matter.
Shales are the sedimentary rocks that do most of the trapping. Bacteria and
phytoplankton contribute mainly organic compounds called proteins, lipids, and
carbohydrates and it is these compounds that are transformed (mainly by heat) to oil and
natural gas. On land, it is higher plants such as trees, bushes, and grasses that contribute most
45
of the trapped organic matter; they are rich in resins, waxes, and lignins, as well as
carbohydrates in the form of cellulose.
The trapped organic matter tends to remain solid and form coals although a certain
amount of natural gas can be formed too. In many shales, burial temperatures never reach the
levels at which the original organic molecules are completely broken down. Instead, what
happens is that an alteration process occurs in which wax-like substances with large
molecules are formed. This material, called kerogen, is the substance in oil shales; it can be
converted to oil and gas by applying sufficient heat.
What is coal?
Coal is a hard, black, combustible sedimentary rock-like substance. It is made up of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and various amounts of sulphur. There are three main
types of coal - anthracite, bituminous and lignite.
Anthracite coal is the hardest and has more carbon, which gives it a higher energy
content.
Lignite is the softest and is low in carbon content, high in hydrogen and oxygen content.
Bituminous is between. Today, the precursor to coal -peat- is still used as an energy
source in many countries.
Hydroelectric power
The production of hydroelectricity usually requires the construction of a dam across a
river, generally in a deep valley (Fig. 9). A large mass of water builds up behind the dam. The
water is conducted through pipes at the bottom of the dam and its potential energy is used to
drive water turbines. The turbines drive generators to produce electricity.
Fig. 9. Hydroelectric power

46
Tidal and wave power
Sometimes, where there is sufficient difference in water level between low and high tide,
it may be possible to build a barrier, or barrage, across an inlet of water (Fig. 10). Gates in the
barrage are opened on a rising tide to allow the basin behind to fill with water. The gates are
then closed before the tide begins to fall. Once a usable head of water has built up between the
basin and the sea outside, the trapped water is released through large turbine/ generator units.
Generating electricity from the power of the waves is also being investigated. The oscillating
water column (illustrated inside) is one way of harnessing this energy. Another method uses
floating booms and hinged flaps which move up and down with the motion of the waves.
Fig. 10. Tidal power

Wind power
There is a plentiful, free supply of wind -though it is rather spread around, or diffuse.
This means that large machines have only small power outputs. Machines with outputs of
about 300 kW are currently favored but even these are large. They may be 40 m to the tip of
the blade-just about as tall as a modern electricity pylon.
47
Fig. 11. Wind power
Solar power
Direct generation of electricity using photovoltaic cells is now an established technology.
A silicon cell generates a voltage of about 0.6 V and a normal module of cells produces 12 V.
Solar cells should not be confused with solar panels, used to heat hot water in some modern
houses.
Biomass
When organic materials decompose under the action of naturally occurring bacteria,
methane gas is produced. This gas can be burned to generate heat and drive electricity-
generating turbines as one form of biomass energy.
Geothermal power
There is considerable heat trapped in the rocks beneath the Earth‘s surface- heat
generated when the Earth was formed and from the continuing radioactive decay of the rocks
(Fig. 12).
48
Fig. 12. Geothermal power
Source: Brigitte Markner-Jager, 2008. Technical English for Geosciences. Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg.
Quiz
1. Which one of the following is not a fossil fuel?
a. Natural gas
b. Petroleum
c. Coal
d. Uranium
2. The sun's energy is often called ___.
a. Solar energy
b. Geothermal energy
c. Fossil fuels
d. Hydroelectric energy
3. Which of the following types of coal is the softest?
a. Anthracite
b. Lignite
c. Bituminous
4. Why is rapid rise in greenhouse gases a problem?
a. It is changing the climate faster than some living things may be able to adapt
b. New and more unpredictable climate poses unique challenges to all life
c. Earth‘s remaining ice sheets are starting to melt
d. All of the above
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e. A and B above
5. The most abundant greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere include all BUT NOT of the
following?
a. Water vapor (H20)
b. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
c. Methane (CH4)
d. Nitrous oxide (N20)
e. Ozone (O3)
f. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
g. Hydrogen (H2)
B. True or false?
1. The kind of organic matter that is trapped in sediments plays an important role in the kind
of fossil fuel that forms.
2. There is a plentiful, free supply of wind -though it is rather spread around, or diffuse.
3. Lignite coal is the hardest and has more carbon.
4. In many sediments, a little organic matter is trapped and buried before it is completely
removed by decay.
5. In the ocean, tiny photosynthetic phytoplankton and bacteria are the principal sources of
trapped organic matter.
6. The rate at which organic matter is formed through phytosynthesis is more important than
the rate at which it is broken down by decay.
1. …............................... refers to fuels such as coal, oil, and gas formed by the alteration and
decomposition of plants and animals from a previous geologic time.
2. …............................... refers to a sedimentary rock formed from plant material that has
been buried, compressed, and changed.
3. A type of energy involving in the use of flowing water such as in a reservoir to produce
electrical power is called…...............................
4. Electricity that is generated by tidal power is called…...............................
5. Complete the following paragraph:
biodegraded organic material crude oil generation of electricity

Natural gas pressure viscosities
Petroleum, or “(1) ………………………,” is a liquid fuel that is present in various
locations throughout the world. It has many uses, from the (2)………………………to the
manufacture of medicines, plastics, and other commercial items. Much like coal,
petroleum is formed from the remains of (3)………………………. When animals that
lived in the sea millions of years ago died underwater, their remains were gradually
covered by layers of very fine dirt known as “silt” on the ocean floor. Then, as the years
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passed, (4)……………………… from the layers built up and compressed the organic
material, forming the oil. Petroleum has many different “(5)………………………,” or
thicknesses. The viscosity depends on the amount of gases and solids that are present in
the oil. Often, (6)……………………… is dissolved in the liquid and can be extracted for
other uses. Petroleum takes three main forms: paraffin, asphaltic, and mixed-base. These
forms are based upon the chemical makeup of the hydrocarbon-based oil.
D. Further reading
Energy Policy for the Future
Hard Path Versus Soft Path
Energy policy today is at a crossroads. One road leads to development of so-called hard
technologies, which involve finding ever-greater amounts of fossil fuels and building larger
centralized power plants. Following this hard path means continuing "business as usual." This
is the more comfortable approach; it requires no new thinking or realignment of political,
economic, or social conditions. It also involves little anticipation of the inevitable depletion of
the fossil fuel resources on which the hard path is built.
Proponents of the hard path argue that environmental problems have occurred in some
countries because people have had to utilize local resources, such as wood, for energy rather
than, say, for land conservation and erosion control. Hard path supporters believe that the way
to solve these problems is to provide people with cheap energy that utilizes more intensive
industrialization and technology. Furthermore, the United States and other countries with
sizable resources of coal or petroleum should exploit these resources to prevent environmental
degradation of their own countries. Proponents of this view maintain that allowing the energy
industry the freedom to develop available resources ensures a steady supply of energy and
less total environmental damage than if the government regulates the energy industry. They
point to the present increase in the burning of firewood across the United States as an early
indicator of the effects of strong governmental controls on energy supplies. The eventual
depletion of forest resources, they maintain, will have a detrimental effect on the
environment, as it has in so many other countries. The hard path continues to dominate energy
planning in the United States.
The other road is designated as the soft path. One of the champions of this choice has
been Amory Lovins, who argues that the soft path involves energy alternatives that are
renewable, flexible, decentralized, and environmentally more benign than those of the hard
path. A promising technology for the soft path is the development and use of fuel cells that
produce electricity from chemical reactions. Cells, as discussed earlier, use hydrogen as a fuel
and, like batteries, may be arranged in a series to power vehicles or to provide electricity for
homes or other buildings. The only wastes produced are oxygen and water. Fuel cells can be
combined with photovoltaics; in fact, electricity from solar cells may be used to split water
into oxygen and hydrogen, providing fuel for fuel cells.
51
In the United States today, we annually consume approximately 100 EJ of energy.
Projections suggest that U.S. energy consumption in the year 2030 may be as high as 120 EJ
or as low as 60. Why is there such a big discrepancy? If we stay on the hard path, the high
value is probably appropriate. The soft path, which advocates intensive energy conservation
and increased efficiency, predicts that annual consumption of energy could be cut in half.
Actual energy consumption in the year 2030 will probably not be as low as 60 EJ; we hope it
will not exceed 100 EJ by much. Given the expected population increase, achieving this level
will require a substantial commitment to energy conservation and increased energy efficiency.
Sustainable Energy Policy
Energy planning for the future is complicated; we know that burning fossil fuels is
degrading our global environment. The soft path is called the environmental path because it
would help reduce environmental degradation by reducing emissions of carbon dioxide and
air pollutants. To be fair, some advocates of the hard path propose increased energy
conservation, increased efficiency, and cogeneration to reduce consumption and
environmental problems associated with burning fossil fuels. Although there is sufficient coal
to last hundreds of years, proponents of the soft path would prefer to use this source as a
transitional rather than a long-term energy source. In their view, development of a sustainable
energy policy means finding useful sources of energy that can be maintained and do not
pollute the atmosphere, cause climatic perturbations such as global warming, or present an
unacceptable risk.
A transition from the hard to the soft path would presumably involve continued
utilization of fossil fuels. Electrical power will continue to be essential for some purposes.
The energy path we take must be one capable of supplying the energy we require for human
activities without endangering the planet. This is the heart of the concept of sustainable
energy policy.
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Lesson 10
Global Warming and Climate Change
The Greenhouse Effect
The “greenhouse effect” is the warming that happens when certain gases in Earth‘s
atmosphere trap heat. These gases let in light but keep heat from escaping, like the glass walls
of a greenhouse (Fig. 13).
Fig. 13. Greenhouse effect

Source: Brigitte Markner-Jager, 2008
First, sunlight shines onto the Earth‘s surface, where it is absorbed and then radiates back
into the atmosphere as heat. In the atmosphere, “greenhouse” gases trap some of this heat, and
the rest escapes into space. The more greenhouse gases are in the atmosphere, the more heat
gets trapped.
Scientists have known about the greenhouse effect since 1824, when Joseph Fourier
calculated that the Earth would be much colder if it had no atmosphere. This greenhouse
effect is what keeps the Earth‘s climate livable. Without it, the Earth‘s surface would be an
average of about 60 degrees Fahrenheit cooler. In 1895, the Swedish chemist Svante
Arrhenius discovered that humans could enhance the greenhouse effect by making carbon
dioxide, a greenhouse gas. He kicked off 100 years of climate research that has given us a
sophisticated understanding of global warming.
Levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs) have gone up and down over the Earth‘s history, but
they have been fairly constant for the past few thousand years. Global average temperatures
have stayed fairly constant over that time as well, until recently. Through the burning of fossil
fuels and other GHp emissions, humans are enhancing the greenhouse effect and warming
Earth.
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Global warming and climate change
Scientists often use the term „climate change “instead of global warming. This is because
as the Earth‘s average temperature climbs, winds and ocean currents move heat around the
globe in ways that can cool some areas, warm others, and change the amount of rain and snow
falling. As a result, the climate changes differently in different areas.
Aren‘t temperature changes natural?
The average global temperature and concentrations of carbon dioxide (one of the major
greenhouse gases) have fluctuated on a cycle of hundreds of thousands of years as the Earth‘s
position relative to the sun has varied. As a result, ice ages have come and gone. However, for
thousands of years now, emissions of GHGs to the atmosphere have been balanced out by
GHGs that are naturally absorbed.
As a result, GHG concentrations and temperature have been fairly stable. This stability
has allowed human civilization to develop within a consistent climate. Occasionally, other
factors briefly influence global temperatures. Volcanic eruptions, for example emit particles
that temporarily cool the Earth‘s surface. But these have no lasting effect beyond few years.
Other cycles, such as El Nino, also work on fairly short and predictable cycles.
Now, humans have increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by more
than a third since the industrial revolution. Changes this large have historically taken
thousands of years but are now happening over the course of decades.
Why is this a concern?
The rapid rise in greenhouse gases is a problem because it is changing the climate faster
than some living things may be able to adapt. Also, a new and more unpredictable climate
poses unique challenges to all life.
Historically, Earth‘s climate has regularly shifted back and forth between temperatures
like those we see today and temperatures cold enough that large sheets of ice covered much of
North America and Europe. The difference between average global temperatures today and
during those ice ages is only about 5 degrees Celsius (9 degrees Fahrenheit), and these swings
happen slowly, over hundreds of thousands of years.
Now, with concentrations of greenhouse gases rising, Earth‘s remaining ice sheets (such
as Greenland and Antarctica) are starting to melt too. The extra water could potentially raise
sea levels significantly.
As the mercury rises, the climate can change in unexpected ways. In addition to sea
levels rising weather can become more extreme. This means more intense major storms, more
rain followed by longer and drier droughts (a challenge for growing crops), changes in the
ranges in which plants and animals can live, and loss of water supplies that have historically
come from glaciers.
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Scientists are already seeing some of these changes occurring more quickly than they had
expected. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, eleven of the twelve
hottest years since thermometer readings became available occurred between 1995 and 2006.
Source: Brigitte Markner-Jager, 2008. Technical English for Geosciences. Springer-Verlag Berlin
Heidelberg.
Quiz
A. True or false?
1. Human activities are responsible for almost all of the increase in greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere over the last 150 years.
2. Humans have increased the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by more than a
third since the industrial revolution.
3. Greenhouse gases keep heat from escaping.
B. Fill in the missing words
1. …............................... refers to the warming that happens when certain gases in Earth‘s
atmosphere trap heat.
water vapour greenhouse gases infrared radiation
atmosphere radiation ozone
surface temperature
The Earth has a natural (1)………………………control system. Certain atmospheric
gases are critical to this system and are known as (2) ………………………. On average,
about one third of the (3) ……………………… that hits the earth is reflected back to
space. Of the remainder, some is absorbed by the (4) ………………………but most is
absorbed by the land and oceans. The Earth’s (5) ………………………becomes warm
and as the result emits (6) ……………………. The greenhouse gases trap the infrared
radiation, thus warming the atmosphere. Naturally occurring greenhouse gases include (7)
………………………, carbon dioxide, (8) ………………………, methane and nitrous
oxide, and together create a natural greenhouse effect. However, human activities are
causing greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere to increase.
Source: UNEP; United Nations Environment Programme
C. Further reading
The Hydrologic Cycle
The ultimate objective of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) is to achieve the stabilization of greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the
atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climate system. Such a level should be achieved within a time frame sufficient to allow
ecosystems to adapt naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is not
threatened and to enable economic development to proceed in a sustainable manner.
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Defining what is dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system and,
consequently, the limits to be set for policy purposes are complex tasks that can only be
partially based on science, as such definitions inherently involve normative judgments.
Decisions made in relation to Article 2 will determine the level of GHG concentrations in the
atmosphere (or the corresponding climate change) that is set as the goal for policy and have
fundamental implications for emission reduction pathways as well as the scale of adaptation
required. The choice of a stabilization level implies the balancing of the risks of climate
change (risks of gradual change and of extreme events, risk of irreversible change of the
climate, including risks for food security, ecosystems and sustainable development) against
the risk of response measures that may threaten economic sustainability. There is little
consensus as to what constitutes anthropogenic interference with the climate system and,
thereby, on how to operationalize Article 2.
Although any definition of ‘dangerous interference’ is by necessity based on its social
and political ramifications and, as such, depends on the level of risk deemed acceptable, deep
emission reductions are unavoidable in order to achieve stabilization. The lower the
stabilization level, the earlier these deep reductions have to be realized.
At the present time total annual emissions of GHGs are rising. Over the last three
decades, GHG emissions have increased by an average of 1.6% per year1 with carbon dioxide
(CO2) emissions from the use of fossil fuels growing at a rate of 1.9% per year. In the
absence of additional policy actions, these emission trends are expected to continue. It is
projected that – with current policy settings – global energy demand and associated supply
patterns based on fossil fuels – the main drivers of GHG emissions – will continue to grow.
Atmospheric CO2 concentrations have increased by almost 100 ppm in comparison to its
preindustrial level, reaching 379 ppm in 2005, with mean annual growth rates in the 2000–
2005 period that were higher than those in the 1990s. The total CO2 equivalent (CO2-eq)
concentration of all long-lived GHGs is currently estimated to be about 455 ppm CO2-eq,
although the effect of aerosols, other air pollutants and land-use change reduces the net effect
to levels ranging from 311 to 435 ppm CO2-eq.
Despite continuous improvements in energy intensities, global energy use and supply are
projected to continue to grow, especially as developing countries pursue industrialization.
Should there be no substantial change in energy policies, the energy mix supplied to run the
global economy in the 2025–2030 time frame will essentially remain unchanged – more than
80% of the energy supply will be based on fossil fuels, with consequent implications for GHG
emissions. On this basis, the projected emissions of energy-related CO2 in 2030 are 40–110
% higher than in 2000 (with two thirds to three quarters of this increase originating in non-
Annex I countries), although per capita emissions in developed countries will remain
substantially higher. For 2030, GHG emission projections (Kyoto gases) consistently show a
25–90% increase compared to 2000, with more recent projections being higher than earlier
ones.
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The numerous mitigation measures that have been undertaken by many Parties to the
UNFCCC and the entry into force of the Kyoto Protocol in February 2005 are inadequate for
reversing overall GHG emission trends. The experience within the European Union (EU) has
demonstrated that while climate policies can be – and are being – effective, they are often
difficult to fully implement and coordinate, and require continual improvement in order to
achieve objectives. In overall terms, however, the impacts of population growth, economic
development, patterns of technological investment and consumption continue to eclipse the
improvement in energy intensities and decarbonization. Regional differentiation is important
when addressing climate change mitigation – economic development needs, resource
endowments and mitigative and adaptive capacities – are too diverse across regions for a
‘one-size fits all’ approach.
Properly designed climate change policies can be part and parcel of sustainable
development, and the two can be mutually reinforcing. Sustainable development paths can
reduce GHG emissions and reduce vulnerability to climate change. Projected climate changes
can exacerbate poverty and undermine sustainable development, especially in least developed
countries. Hence, global mitigation efforts can enhance sustainable development prospects in
part by reducing the risk of adverse impacts of climate change. Mitigation can also provide
co-benefits, such as improved health outcomes. Mainstreaming climate change mitigation is
thus an integral part of sustainable development.
Source: Rogner, H.-H., D. Zhou, R. Bradley. P. Crabbé, O. Edenhofer, B.Hare (Australia), L.
Kuijpers, M. Yamaguchi, 2007: Introduction. In Climate Change 2007: Mitigation.
Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change [B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)],
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.
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Lesson 11
Environmental pollution
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that causes
adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise,
heat or light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign
substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point
source or nonpoint source pollution (Fig. 14).
Fig. 14. Point source and non-point source

Forms of pollution
The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular contaminant
relevant to each of them:
Air pollution: the release of chemicals and particulates into the atmosphere. Common
gaseous pollutants include carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and
nitrogen oxides produced by industry and motor vehicles. Photochemical ozone and smog are
created as nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react to sunlight. Particulate matter, or fine dust
is characterized by their micrometer size PM10 to PM2.5.
Light pollution: includes light trespass, over-illumination and astronomical interference.
Littering: the criminal throwing of inappropriate man-made objects, unremoved, onto
public and private properties.
Noise pollution: which encompasses roadway noise, aircraft noise, industrial noise as
well as high-intensity sonar.
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Soil contamination occurs when chemicals are released by spill or underground leakage.
Among the most significant soil contaminants are hydrocarbons, heavy metals, herbicides,
pesticides and chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Radioactive contamination, resulting from 20th century activities in atomic physics, such
as nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons research, manufacture and deployment.
Thermal pollution is a temperature change in natural water bodies caused by human
influence, such as use of water as coolant in a power plant.
Visual pollution, which can refer to the presence of overhead power lines, motorway
billboards, scarred landforms, open storage of trash, municipal solid waste or space debris.
Water pollution, by the discharge of wastewater from commercial and industrial waste
into surface waters; discharges of untreated domestic sewage, and chemical contaminants,
such as chlorine, from treated sewage; release of waste and contaminants into surface runoff
flowing to surface waters (including urban runoff and agricultural runoff, which may contain
chemical fertilizers and pesticides); waste disposal and leaching into groundwater;
eutrophication and littering.
Sources and causes
Air pollution comes from both natural and human-made (anthropogenic) sources.
However, globally human-made pollutants from combustion, construction, mining,
agriculture and warfare are increasingly significant in the air pollution equation.
Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution. China, United
States, Russia, India Mexico, and Japan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions.
Principal stationary pollution sources include chemical plants, coal-fired power plants, oil
refineries, petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal activity, incinerators, large livestock
farms (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), PVC factories, metals production factories, plastics
factories, and other heavy industry. Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary
practices which include clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of
pesticides and herbicides.
About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year. The United
States alone produces about 250 million metric tons. Americans constitute less than 5% of the
world's population, but produce roughly 25% of the world’s CO2, and generate approximately
30% of world’s waste. In 2007, China has overtaken the United States as the world's biggest
producer of CO2, while still far behind based on per capita pollution - ranked 78th among the
world's nations.
In February 2007, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
representing the work of 2,500 scientists, economists, and policymakers from more than 120
countries, said that humans have been the primary cause of global warming since 1950.
Humans have ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions and avoid the consequences of global
warming, a major climate report concluded. But to change the climate, the transition from
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fossil fuels like coal and oil needs to occur within decades, according to the final report this
year from the UN's IPCC.
Some of the more common soil contaminants are chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy
metals (such as chromium, cadmium–found in rechargeable batteries, and lead–found in lead
paint, aviation fuel and still in some countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic and benzene. In
2001, a series of press reports culminating in a book called Fateful Harvest unveiled a
widespread practice of recycling industrial byproducts into fertilizer, resulting in the
contamination of the soil with various metals. Ordinary municipal landfills are the source of
many chemical substances entering the soil environment, emanating from the wide variety of
refuse accepted, especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills that
may have been subject to little control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been some unusual
releases of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, commonly called dioxins for simplicity, such as
TCDD.
Pollution can also be the consequence of a natural disaster. For example, hurricanes often
involve water contamination from sewage, and petrochemical spills from ruptured boats or
automobiles. Larger scale and environmental damage is not uncommon when coastal oil rigs
or refineries are involved. Some sources of pollution, such as nuclear power plants or oil
tankers, can produce widespread and potentially hazardous releases when accidents occur.
In the case of noise pollution the dominant source class is the motor vehicle, producing
about ninety percent of all unwanted noise worldwide.
Effects
Human health
Adverse air quality can kill many organisms including humans. Ozone pollution can
cause respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, throat inflammation, chest pain, and
congestion. Water pollution causes approximately 14,000 deaths per day, mostly due to
contamination of drinking water by untreated sewage in developing countries. An estimated
500 million Indians have no access to a proper toilet. Over ten million people in India fell ill
with waterborne illnesses in 2013, and 1,535 people died, most of them children. Nearly 500
million Chinese lack access to safe drinking water. A 2010 analysis estimated that 1.2 million
people died prematurely each year in China because of air pollution. The WHO estimated in
2007 that air pollution causes half a million deaths per year in India. Studies have estimated
that the number of people killed annually in the United States could be over 50,000.
Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes. Noise pollution induces hearing loss, high
blood pressure, stress, and sleep disturbance. Mercury has been linked to developmental
deficits in children and neurologic symptoms. Older people are majorly exposed to diseases
induced by air pollution. Those with heart or lung disorders are at additional risk. Children
and infants are also at serious risk. Lead and other heavy metals have been shown to cause
neurological problems. Chemical and radioactive substances can cause cancer and as well as
birth defects.
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Environment
Pollution has been found to be present widely in the environment. There are a number of
effects of this:
 Biomagnification describes situations where toxins (such as heavy metals) may pass
through trophic levels, becoming exponentially more concentrated in the process;
 Carbon dioxide emissions cause ocean acidification, the ongoing decrease in the pH of
the Earth's oceans as CO2 becomes dissolved;
 The emission of greenhouse gases leads to global warming which affects ecosystems
in many ways;
 Nitrogen oxides are removed from the air by rain and fertilise land which can change
the species composition of ecosystems;
 Soil can become infertile and unsuitable for plants. This will affect other organisms in
the food web.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution
Quiz
1. Tiny particles and gasses released into the air are called _____.
a. Pollution
b. Conservation
c. Fossil fuels
d. Emissions
2. If you practice _____, you are protecting, preserving, and managing Earth's natural
resources.
a. Littering
b. Pollution
c. Conservation
d. Smoking
3. An example of a point source of pollution would be which of the following?
a. Runoff from streets
b. Runoff from fields
c. Acid mine drainage
d. A pipe emptying into a river
4. The major sources of air pollution include which of the following?
a. Combustion
b. Construction
c. Mining
d. Agriculture
e. Warfare
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f. All of the above
g. A, B, C, and D above
5. The major forms of pollution may be which of the following?
a. Air pollution
b. Littering
c. Soil pollution
d. Water pollution
e. All of the above
f. A, C, and D above
6. Common gaseous pollutants include which of the following?
a. Carbon monoxide
b. Sulfur dioxide
c. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
d. Nitrogen oxides
e. All of the above
f. A, B, and D above
7. The most significant soil contaminants include which of the following?
a. Hydrocarbons
b. Heavy metals
c. Herbicides
d. Pesticides
e. All of the above
f. A, B, and D above
8. Sources of water pollution include which of the following?
a. Discharge of wastewater from commercial and industrial waste into surface waters
b. Discharge of untreated domestic sewage
c. Release of waste and contaminants into surface runoff flowing to surface waters
d. Waste disposal and leaching into groundwater
e. All of the above
9. Environmental pollution may result in which of the following adverse health effect(s)?
a. Death
b. Skin irritations and rashes
c. Hearing loss
d. Developmental deficits in children and neurologic symptoms
e. All of the above
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B. True or false?
1. Non-point pollution occurs at an identifiable location while point pollution is diffuse in
origin.
2. Common gaseous pollutants are produced by industry and motor vehicles.
3. Pollution can be the consequence of a natural disaster.
4. Environmental pollution and degradation of natural resources could seriously threaten our
capacity to generate food and income.
1. …............................... is the degradation of air/water/soil quality as measured by
biological, chemical, or physical criteria.
2. …............................... is characterized by their micrometer size PM10 to PM2.5.
3. …............................... is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that
causes adverse change.
silt evaporates processes
bacteria muddy percolate
climate minerals
Natural water quality varies from place to place, with the seasons, with (1)
………………………, and with the types of soils and rocks through which water moves.
When water from rain or snow moves over the land and through the ground, the water
may dissolve (2) ……………………… in rocks and soil, (3) ………………………
through organic material such as roots and leaves, and react with algae, (4)
………………………, and other microscopic organisms. Water may also carry
plant‚ debris and sand, (5) ………………………, and clay to rivers and streams making
the water appear (6) “………………………” or turbid. When water (7)
……………………… from lakes and streams, dissolved minerals are more concentrated
in the water that remains. Each of these natural (8) ……………………… changes the
water quality and potentially the water use.
Source: Brigitte Markner-Jager, 2008. Technical English for Geosciences. Springer-
Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
D. Further reading
Water pollution
Water pollution refers to degradation of water quality as measured by biological,
chemical, or physical criteria. This degradation is judged according to the intended use of the
water, its departure from the norm, and public health or ecological impacts. From a public
health or ecological point of view, a pollutant is any substance that, in excess, is known to be
harmful to desirable living organisms. In fact, the primary water pollution problem facing
billions of people today, especially in the third world, is the lack of clean drinking water that
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is free of disease-causing organisms or substances. The concentration at which a material
becomes harmful to living things is the subject of toxicology.
The greatest water pollution problem in the world today is lack of disease-free drinking
water for about 20 percent of the world's population. Another 20 percent have poor sanitation
conditions that favor waterborne diseases that kill about 2 million people a year. Most of the
deaths are of children under the age of 5. Chemical pollution is also an emerging problem on
a global scale that occurs almost everywhere where people live. Agricultural, industrial, and
municipal processes release chemical pollutants whose long-term effects on the environment
and human health are largely unknown.
Toxic Substances
Many substances that enter surface water and groundwater are toxic to organisms. We
will discuss three general categories of toxic substances—synthetic organic chemicals, heavy
metals, and radioactive waste.
Synthetic Organic Chemicals: Organic compounds are compounds of carbon that are
produced naturally by living organisms or synthetically by industrial processes. Up to 100,000
new chemicals are now being used or have been used in the past. It is difficult to generalize
concerning the environmental and health effects of synthetic organic compounds because
there are so many of them and they have so many uses and produce so many different effects.
Synthetic organic compounds have many uses in industrial processes, for pest control,
pharmaceuticals, and food additives. Some of these compounds are called persistent organic
pollutants, also known as POPs. Many of these chemicals were produced decades ago before
their harm to the environment was known and a number have now been banned or restricted.
POPs have several general properties useful in defining them. First, they have a carbon-based
structure and often contain reactive chlorine. Second, most are produced by human processes
and thus are synthetic chemicals. Third, they persist in the environment, do not break down
easily, are polluting and toxic, and tend to accumulate in living tissue. Fourth, they occur in a
number of forms that allow them to be easily transported by water and wind with sediment for
long distances.
Heavy Metals: Heavy metals such as lead, mercury, zinc, cadmium, and arsenic are
dangerous pollutants that are often deposited with natural sediment in the bottoms of stream
channels. If these metals are deposited on floodplains, they may become incorporated into
plants, including food crops, and animals. Once the metal has dissolved in water used for
agricultural or domestic use, heavy-metal poisoning can result. As an example, consider
mercury contamination of aquatic ecosystems. It has been known for decades that mercury is
a significant pollutant of aquatic ecosystems, including ponds, lakes, rivers, and the ocean.
Perhaps the best-known case history of mercury toxicity comes from Minamata, Japan.
Minamata is a coastal town on the island of Kyushu and was the site of a serious illness that
was first recognized in the middle of the twentieth century. It was first called the disease of
the dancing cats because the illness was first observed in cats that seemingly went mad and
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ran in circles foaming at the mouth. It was also noticed that birds flew into buildings or fell to
the ground. People were subsequently affected and most were families of fishermen. Some of
the first symptoms were fatigue, irritability, numbness in arms and legs, and headaches, as
well as difficulty in swallowing. Some of the more severe symptoms included blurred vision,
loss of hearing, and loss of muscular coordination. Some people complained of a metallic
taste in their mouths and suffered from diarrhea. By the time the disease ran its course, over
40 people died and over 100 were severely disabled. The people affected by the disease lived
in a relatively small area and their diet mostly came from fish harvested from Minamata Bay.
Arsenic is an example of a highly toxic natural metal that is found in soil, rock, and
water. There are many industrial and commercial uses of arsenic compounds including the
processing of glass, pesticides, and wood preservatives. Arsenic may enter our water supplies
through a number of processes including natural rain, snowmelt, or groundwater flow. It may
also be released with industrial wastewater and agricultural processes. Finally, it may be
released through the production of pesticides, the burning of fossil fuels, and as a by-product
of mining.
Arsenic has been known as a deadly poison since ancient times and more recently it has
been recognized that elevated levels of arsenic in drinking water may cause a variety of health
problems that affect organs such as the bladder, lung, and kidney. It may also cause disease to
the central nervous system. Finally, arsenic is known to be a carcinogen (capable of causing
or promoting cancer). The occurrence of arsenic in drinking water is now recognized as a
global problem. It certainly is not found in all water supplies, but it is found in many around
the world. For example, arsenic in groundwater in Bangladesh has affected many millions of
some of the poorest people on Earth. Ongoing research has the objective to identify those
locations where arsenic pollution occurs and to develop appropriate technology or methods to
avoid or reduce the hazard of exposure to arsenic.
Radioactive Waste: Radioactive waste in water may be a dangerous pollutant.
Environmentalists are concerned about the possible effects of long-term exposure to low
doses of radioactivity to people, other animals, and plants
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Lesson 12
Sustainable use – bringing it all together
Maintaining and increasing productivity
The lessons of this course clearly show that we need to very carefully manage our
existing soil, water and other natural resources. Good natural resource management in the
long term will increase our capacity to provide food and secure income, thus building rich
resources that we can pass on to our children.
Consequences of environmental degradation
We must not allow our soil, water and other natural resources to become polluted and
degraded. It could seriously threaten our capacity to generate food and income. We may even
have to leave farming altogether and look for work elsewhere, like in a nearby city.
If we allow the diversity of our local natural resources to degrade, it will have similar
effects. The capacity to withstand adverse events (like droughts, floods or insect plagues) will
be reduced. It will be more difficult to produce our crops. It will be difficult to get other
resources from nature – like wild foods, medicinal herbs, and even firewood and building
materials.
Lastly, as the number of people in our area grows, we will need to extract more from our
natural environment. If we do not put a good management system in place, it is likely that we
will use up or destroy all of the local natural resources very quickly. The result is the same –
our livelihood will be threatened.
Good practices for farming and natural resource management
 Protect the soil at all costs. Keep it covered as much as possible; minimize tilling and
exposing the soil to the weather; build up the organic matter in the soil; and “put back
whatever you take out” in terms of soil nutrients by adding either organic or inorganic
types of fertilizer.
 Capture and use rainfall. Capture as much of the rainwater as possible, either in the
soil (through infiltration) or in small dams. Use it carefully not wastefully.
 All excess water should “walk, not run” off the slope. This will prevent erosion by
ensuring excess water does not carry away the topsoil. Use various tools (such as
contour ditches and dams) to catch and channel this excess water safely down the
slope.
 Maintain a wide diversity of living organisms. Only cut down trees that must be
removed (both within your fields and in common-use areas). Only clear grass and
weeds from areas where it is absolutely necessary. Do not burn crop residues or
pasture lands. Do not over-graze common-use areas, as they may become bare and
lose their topsoil. Remember that all living things are connected and maintaining
balance is the goal. Diversify your farming system, by using different kinds of crops,
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trees, animals and income sources. This will provide stable production, a very valuable
asset in times of uncertainty or poor harvests. In the same way, diversifying your local
natural resources will also help make the environment more resilient.
Basics of land use management
 Steep slopes should be covered by trees and grass at all times. You may have to build
contour trenches on very steep slopes to protect the lower parts of the slope, usually
several trenches at regular intervals.
 Prevent erosion across the entire watershed – both in crop fields and in common-use
areas. This may require a number of technical solutions: keeping the soil covered with
living plants or mulch; setting up contour trenches and/or live barriers; plugging
gullies, and managing streams with small dams.
 Make sure that excess water moves slowly from higher to lower parts of the
watershed. Water should “walk, not run” down the slopes.
 Rainfall is precious – utilize and manage it carefully. Capture as much rainfall in the
soil as possible. After the soil is full, capture the excess water in small dams or
infiltration pits. This water can be used either for crop or livestock production, or in
homes for drinking and washing.
 Ensure that runoff from our land does not carry pollution downstream. Prevent
agricultural chemicals or fecal matter (from people or animals) from entering the
water. This will help ensure that the water leaving our community is clean and safe for
those communities downstream.
 Do not build homes or plant fields in areas prone to flooding (unless the crop can
withstand flooding). It is best to keep these areas covered with trees and grass. They
can provide common-use areas for grazing livestock or for forestry-related activities.
Ecosystem services
Our environment provides various “services” that all people need (e.g., clean, safe water and
clean air). The United Nations has identified four main types of these “ecosystem services”:
 Provisioning – providing water and food of all living organisms.
 Regulating – maintaining stable microclimates across the globe, which determine the
types of flora and fauna that can thrive there. Looking at threats to agricultural yields,
this affects the spread of pests and diseases. For example, mosquitoes cannot survive
in higher microclimates (it is too cold), and thus there are no mosquito transmitted
diseases at these elevations. However, if some areas warm up considerably (due to
global warming), mosquito populations may increase and bring the accompanying
diseases.
 Supporting – cycling of nutrients and pollination of both crops and wild plants by bees
and other insects. Pollination is vital for providing good yields for many key crops,
such as fruit trees (avocados and mangoes), many vegetable crops, and field crops
(sunflower and most legumes, such as beans, soybeans, cowpeas, pigeon peas etc.).
67
 Cultural – providing rural and wilderness areas that we use for spiritual and
recreational purposes.
All people – regardless if they live in cities or in rural areas – require ecosystem services
to survive. Ecosystem services provide food, clean water and clean air, which are essential for
life everywhere. This is why people in urban areas have a responsibility to contribute to
ensuring that ecosystem services function well. There are many locations on the planet where
clean water is becoming scarce. In other locations deforestation is so massive that it is
changing the local climate. As our population grows across the globe, maintaining ecosystem
services will become more and more important. But, at the same time, it will be increasingly
difficult to protect them. For this reason some governments are considering paying local
communities to protect vital natural resources, thus protecting these services. This idea is
called payment for ecosystem services.
Protecting resources and livelihoods for future generations
To use resources sustainably does not only mean managing resources well today, so that
we and our children enjoy healthy, prosperous lives. It is to think about future generations, so
that our children’s children and their children will also enjoy a productive and healthy
environment.
We should develop management plans – for our own land but also for the broader
community – that will maintain and increase the productivity of our local natural resources.
We need to teach our children to do the same.
In a way, we received these natural resources as a gift from our ancestors and our
parents. These resources do not belong to us. We are the current “caretakers” of these
resources, and we should use them responsibly and wisely while we struggle to build happy,
healthy and productive lives. But it is also our duty to pass them on in good condition to the
next generation, so that they may enjoy the same prosperity. We must teach our children to
follow our example and to use responsibly and preserve these natural resources for future
generations.
Quiz
1. Why is it important to manage soil, water and other natural resources?
a. To protect our ability to produce food and income
b. To protect vital ecosystem services
c. To ensure we pass on to our children rich, productive natural resources
d. All of the above
2. Which of the following are good farming practices?
a. “Put back what you take out” to manage soil fertility
b. Make sure that excess water “walks” off of the field and does not “run”
c. Grow only one crop to maximize production
68
d. Keep your soil bare to maximize rainwater infiltration
e. Only a and b
f. Only a, b and d
3. What are some key “ecosystem services” that our natural environment provides?
a. Clean water for drinking and other uses
b. Food to eat
c. Clean air to breathe
d. All of the above
4. What is climate change?
a. When it rains in some months and not in others
b. When it is hotter in some months and colder in others
c. The earth’s atmosphere is slowly getting hotter due to an increasing amount of
greenhouse gasses in the air.
d. Only a and b
5. Which of the following is NOT the significant negative effect of land use?
a. Urban sprawl
b. Soil erosion
c. Soil degradation
d. Salinization
e. Desertification
f. Land subsidence
6. Infiltration pits are made in order to?
a. Trap trash, stone, plants and other ground cover
b. Hold the water, give it more time to sink in to the ground
c. To plant trees into them in the future
B. True or false?
1. Most soil nutrients are found in the subsoil.
2. People and their livelihoods rely on the health and productivity of our landscapes, and
their actions as stewards of the land play a critical role in maintaining this health and
productivity.
3. Protecting the soil at all cost, capturing and using rainfall, and maintaining a wide
diversity of living organisms are some good practices of natural resource management.
1. The ecosystem service that maintains stable microclimates across the globe is
called…...............................
2. The ecosystem service that provides water and food of all living organisms is
called…...............................
69
3. The ecosystem service that refers to cycling of nutrients and pollination of both crops and
wild plants by bees and other insects is called…...............................
4. The ecosystem service that provides rural and wilderness areas that we use for spiritual
and recreational purposes is called…...............................
70
Appendix 1
Keywords in lesson
Lesson 1. Natural resources and environment
No English Vietnamese No English Vietnamese
1 Abiotic Vô sinh 20 Overexploited Khai thác quá mức

Participatory Quản lý có sự
2 Actual resource Tài nguyên thực 21
planning tham gia
3 Biosphere Sinh quyển 22 Petroleum Dầu mỏ
4 Biotic Hữu sinh 23 Phenomena Hiện tượng

Tài nguyên hữu Potential Tài nguyên tiềm
5 Biotic resources 24
sinh resource năng
6 Category Nhóm/loại 25 Renewability Tính có thể tái tạo
Renewable
7 Classification Phân loại 26 Tài nguyên tái tạo
resource
8 Composition Thành phần 27 Replenish Tái tạo
Replenish/
9 Crucial Thiết yếu 28 Bổ sung
Replenishment
10 Dam Đập 29 Reserve resource Trữ lượng
11 Diminished Thu hẹp 30 Safeguard Đảm bảo
12 Ecosystem Hệ sinh thái 31 Sedimentary Đá trầm tích

rock
Nguồn gốc hình
13 Exploitation Khai thác 32 Source of origin
thành
Stage of Giai đoạn phát
14 Intervention Sự can thiệp 33
development triển
15 Maintaining Duy trì 34 Sustainable Bền vững
Sustainable
16 Microorganism Vi sinhvật 35 Sinh kế bền vững
livelihood
Natural Hiện tượng tự
17 36 Top – down Từ trên xuống
phenomena nhiên
Non-renewable Tài nguyên không
18 37 Undisturbed Không bị xáo trộn
resource tái tạo
19 Organic material Vật liệu hữu cơ
71
Lesson 2. Natural resource management
1 Approach Tiếp cận 11 Interact Tương tác
Bottom-up Integrated coastal Quản lý tổng hợp

2 Tiếp cận từ dưới lên 12
approach management đới bờ
Co – (ICM)
Land use Quy hoạch sử dụng
3 Đồng quản lý 13
management planning đất
Coastal Life – supporting Khả năng hỗ trợ

4 Quản lý đới bờ 14
management capacity cuộc sống
5 Combination Kết hợp 15 Livelihood Sinh kế
Community – Quản lý dựa vào Chính quyền địa

6 16 Local authority
based cộng đồng phương
management Sức sản xuất/năng
7 Conflict Xung đột, mâu thuẫn 17 Productivity
suất
8 Enforcement Thực thi 18 Stakeholder Các bên liên quan
Top-down Tiếp cận từ trên

9 Framework Khung 19
approach xuống
10 Implementation Triển khai, thực hiện
Lesson 3. Water cycle
1 Agricultural Sản xuất nông 8 Precipitation Sự ngưng tụ, mưa

roduction nghiệp
2 Artificial Hồ chứa nhân tạo 9 Productivity Sức sản xuất
eservoir
3 Evaporation Sự bốc hơi 10 Siltation Sự lắng bùn
4 Flooding Lũ lụt 11 Soil erosion Xói mòn đất
Đồng cỏ (cho súc vật Dòng chảy

5 Grazing land 12 Surface runoff
ăn) mặt/dòng chảy bề
mặt
Đất tầng mặt, đất
6 Infiltration Sự thấm nước 13 Topsoil
trồng trọt
Sạt lở đất/trượt lở Sự thoát hơi nước
7 Mudslide 14 Transpiration
đất (của cây)
72
Lesson 4. Managing water
1 Capture Lưu giữ 5 Hillside Sườn đồi
2 Contour Đường đồng mức 6 Infiltration Sự thấm nước/sự

thấm đọng
3 Contour trench Rãnh đồng mức 7 Infiltration pit Hố thấm nước
(rãnh cùng độ cao)
Ground Lớp phủ mặt đất/ độ
4
cover/land cover che phủ đất
Lesson 5. Watersheds and watershed management
Promoting
1 Awareness Nhận thức 7 Thúc đẩy hợp tác
cooperation
2 Bare soil Đất trống 8 Rainfall Lượng mưa
Biological
3 Giải pháp sinh học 9 Soil cover Lớp phủ mặt đất
intervention
Toàn bộ lưu vực
4 Entire watershed 10 Stakeholder Các bên liên quan
sông
Upstream/
5 Gully Mương, rãnh 11 Thượng lưu/Hạ lưu
Downstream
Giải pháp cơ học/ kỹ

Physical thuật
6 12 Watershed Lưu vực sông
intervention thiệpvềmặtkỹthuậtlà
mgiảmxóimòn)
Lesson 6. Soil fertility, soil nutrients and nutrient cycles
1 Anthropogenic Nhân sinh 6 Desertification Sa mạc hóa
2 Commercial Phân bón hóa 7 Salinization Xâm nhập mặn

fertilizer học/phân vô cơ
3 Compost Phân trộn/ phân ủ 8 Straight fertilizer Phân đơn
73
Compound Top dressing Bón rải (bón phân
4 Phân hỗn hợp 9
fertilizer application lên bề mặt đất)
5 Deforestation Sa mạc hóa
Lesson 7. Plant health
1 Access to water Tiếp cận nguồn nước 5 Nutrient Sự thiếu hụt chất
deficiency dinh dưỡng
2 Discharge of Thải bụi 6 Nutrient Sự di chuyển các
dust movement chất dinh dưỡng
Limiting Chất dinh dưỡng Scare Nước khan
3 7
nutrient giới hạn water/Excess hiếm/Nước dư thừa
Nutrient Mức độ dễ tiêu/linh water
4
availability động của các chất
dinh dưỡng
Lesson 8. Life systems in nature (ecosystem)
1 Chemical energy Hóa năng 6 Population Quần thể
2 Ecosystem Hệ sinh thái 8 Primary consumer Sinh vật tiêu thụ

sơ cấp
Food chain/food Chuỗi thức ăn/Lưới Sinh vật sản
3 7 Producer/Consumer
web thức ăn xuất/Sinh vật tiêu
Secondary thụ
Sinh vật tiêu thụ
4 Omnivore Động vật ăn tạp 9
consumer thứ cấp
5 Photosynthesis Quang hợp
Lesson 9. Energy Resources
1 Alteration Quá trình biến đổi 10 Mid-ocean ridge Sống núi đại
process dương
Than anthracit
2 Anthracite (cứng nhất, nhiều 11 Natural gas Khí thiên nhiên
carbon)
74
3 Bituminous Than bitum 12 Organic matter Chất hữu cơ
4 Composition Thành phần 13 Photosynthesis Quang hợp
Nhiên liệu hóa Secondary Sinh vật tiêu thụ

5 Fossil fuel 14
thạch consumer thứ cấp
6 Generation of Phát điện 15 Sediment Trầm tích
electricity
7 Geological age Tuổi địa chất 16 Sedimentary rock Đá trầm tích
Năng lượng mặt

8 Higher plant Thực vật bậc cao 17 Solar energy
trời
9 Lignite Than nâu, than
lignit
Lesson 10. Global warming and climate change
1 Civilization Nền văn minh 6 Greenhouse gases Khí nhà kính

(GHGs)
Diversity of Đa dạng hệ sinh Intergovernmental Ủy ban liên
2 7
ecosystems thái Panel on Climate chính phủ về
Change (IPCC) biến đổi khí hậu
3 Emission Phát thải 8 Policymaker Nhà hoạch định
chính sách
4 Global warming Sự ấm lên toàn 9 Thermometer Nhiệt kế
cầu
5 Greenhouse Hiệu ứng nhà 10 Trap Bắt, giữ
effect kính
Lesson 11. Environmental pollution
Ô nhiễm không
1 Air pollution 12 Noise pollution Ô nhiễm tiếng ồn
khí
Non-point source Ô nhiễm dạng

2 Biomagnification Tích lũy sinh học 13
pollution diện
3 Contaminant Chất nhiễm bẩn 14 Particulate matter Hạt trong không

khí
Environmental Ô nhiễm môi Point source Ô nhiễm dạng
4 15
pollution trường pollution điểm
75
Greenhouse gas Phát thải khí nhà
5 16 Pollutant Chất ô nhiễm
emission kính
6 Hazardous waste Chất thải nguy 17 Principal/Main Nguồn thải cố

hại stationary định chính
7 Heavy metal Kim loại nặng 18 Radioactive
pollution source Nhiễm bẩn
contamination phóng xạ
8 Landfill Chôn lấp 19 Soil contamination Nhiễm bẩn đất
9 Light pollution Ô nhiễm ánh 21 Thermal pollution Ô nhiễm nhiệt

sáng
10 Littering Xả rác 22 Waste disposal Loại bỏ chất thải
11 Municipal landfill Chôn lấp chất

thải đô thị
Lesson 12. Sustainable use of natural resources
Hiện tượng thời

Adverse
tiết bất lợi/ Hiện Sự ấm lên toàn
1 event/Extreme 9 Global warming
tượng thời tiết cầu
weather event
cực đoan
Good practice/ Thực hành tốt/

2 Climate change Biến đổi khí hậu 10 Good agriculture Thực hành nông
practice (GAP) nghiệp tốt
3 Common-use area Khu vực sử dụng 11 Greenhouse gas Khí nhà kính
chung
4 Contour ditches Mương đồng mức 12 Land use Quản lý sử dụng
management đất
Deforestation/ Phá rừng/ trồng
5 13 Pasture land Đất đồng cỏ
afforestation rừng
6 Ecosystem service Dịch vụ hệ sinh 14 Payment of Chi trả dịch vụ hệ

thái ecosystem service sinh thái
7 Environmental Suy thoái/ xuống 15 Runoff Dòng chảy
degradation cấp môi trường
8 Excess water Nước (dư) thừa
76
Appendix 2
PHRASES SHOULD USE FOR PRESENTATION
1. At the beginning…
Hi/Good morning…, my name is…. and today I’m going to talk to you about…
2. Transitions between the Introduction and the First Main Point
The first point I’d like to talk about is…
Let’s begin with my first point…
Let’s begin by discussing…
I’d like to start out with my first main point…
3. Transitions between main points
The next/second/final point that I’d like to talk about is…
That brings us to the next part…
Now we come to my second/third/final point…
Let’s move on to…
4. Referencing and Explaining Visuals
As you can see from this graph/chart/table/picture…
As this graph/chart/table/picture shows…
This graph/chart/table/picture clearly illustrates…
This graph/chart/table/picture shows…
The next graph/chart/table/picture shows…
5. Signal the end
This brings me to the end of my presentation.
That covers everything that I wanted to talk about today.
6. Summarize the main points
To sum up, we talked about three main points, the first point was… the second point
was… the third point was…
Let’s review what I just talked about
I’d like to review the main points…
7. Thank the audience
Thank you for your attention
It was pleasure talking to you today
Thank you so much for listening to me today
77
8. Invite questions
Does anyone have any questions?
I’d be happy to answer any questions at this time.
9. Thanking the questioner
That’s a good/interesting question/comment
I’m glad you raised that point
Thank you for your question/comment
10. Clarifying questions
I’m afraid I didn’t quite catch that, could you ask that again?
Sorry, would you mind repeating that?
If I understand you correctly, you are saying/asking…
11. Saying you don’t know
I’m sorry I don’t have any information at this moment, but if you contact me,
I’d be happy to email it to you
I’m afraid I can’t provide you with the answer right now
12. Avoiding giving answers
That’s an excellent question. I’m afraid I don’t have time to answer it right
now, could we talk at the end of my presentation?
I’m afraid that topic wasn’t covered during my presentation today. Hopefully
I’ll be able to address it in future presentations.
78

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Lesson 1

Natural resources and environment

OVERCONSUMPTION: Our use of the world´s natural resources

Fig. 1. Management approach

Fig. 2. The water cycle

Fig. 3. Soil erosion

Fig. 4. Contour trenches

Fig. 6. Wind breaks

Fig. 7. Signs of nutrient deficiency

Fig. 9. Hydroelectric power

Fig. 10. Tidal power

biodegraded organic material crude oil generation of electricity

Fig. 13. Greenhouse effect

Fig. 14. Point source and non-point source

No English Vietnamese No English Vietnamese

1 Abiotic Vô sinh 20 Overexploited Khai thác quá mức

4 Biotic Hữu sinh 23 Phenomena Hiện tượng

11 Diminished Thu hẹp 30 Safeguard Đảm bảo

12 Ecosystem Hệ sinh thái 31 Sedimentary Đá trầm tích

No English Vietnamese No English Vietnamese

1 Approach Tiếp cận 11 Interact Tương tác

Bottom-up Integrated coastal Quản lý tổng hợp

Coastal Life – supporting Khả năng hỗ trợ

5 Combination Kết hợp 15 Livelihood Sinh kế

Community – Quản lý dựa vào Chính quyền địa

Top-down Tiếp cận từ trên

Lesson 3. Water cycle

No English Vietnamese No English Vietnamese

1 Agricultural Sản xuất nông 8 Precipitation Sự ngưng tụ, mưa

4 Flooding Lũ lụt 11 Soil erosion Xói mòn đất

Đồng cỏ (cho súc vật Dòng chảy

No English Vietnamese No English Vietnamese

1 Capture Lưu giữ 5 Hillside Sườn đồi

2 Contour Đường đồng mức 6 Infiltration Sự thấm nước/sự

Lesson 5. Watersheds and watershed management

No English Vietnamese No English Vietnamese

Giải pháp cơ học/ kỹ

Lesson 6. Soil fertility, soil nutrients and nutrient cycles

No English Vietnamese No English Vietnamese

1 Anthropogenic Nhân sinh 6 Desertification Sa mạc hóa

2 Commercial Phân bón hóa 7 Salinization Xâm nhập mặn

5 Deforestation Sa mạc hóa

Lesson 7. Plant health

No English Vietnamese No English Vietnamese

Lesson 8. Life systems in nature (ecosystem)

No English Vietnamese No English Vietnamese

1 Chemical energy Hóa năng 6 Population Quần thể

2 Ecosystem Hệ sinh thái 8 Primary consumer Sinh vật tiêu thụ

5 Photosynthesis Quang hợp

Lesson 9. Energy Resources

No English Vietnamese No English Vietnamese

4 Composition Thành phần 13 Photosynthesis Quang hợp

Nhiên liệu hóa Secondary Sinh vật tiêu thụ

Năng lượng mặt

Lesson 10. Global warming and climate change

No English Vietnamese No English Vietnamese

1 Civilization Nền văn minh 6 Greenhouse gases Khí nhà kính

Lesson 11. Environmental pollution

No English Vietnamese No English Vietnamese