EULER STUDENT NOTES

EULER STUDENT NOTES

Maths Enrichment
Euler Student Notes

M Evans & B Henry

Copyright © 2020 Australian Mathematics Trust

 Contents

Leonard Euler (1707–1783) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � iii

Preface � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � vii
Acknowledgements � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � ix
Chapter 1. Problems I Like — Michael Evans � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 1
Chapter 2. Primes and Composites � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 3
Chapter 3. Least Common Multiple � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 8
Chapter 4. Highest Common Factor and the Euclidean Algorithm� � � � � � 11
Chapter 5. Arithmetic Sequences� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 16
Chapter 6. Figurate Numbers � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 21
Chapter 7. Congruences � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 26
Chapter 8. Problems I Like Sharing — Alice Thomas � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 31
Chapter 9. Find That Angle � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 34
Chapter 10. Counting Techniques � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 51
Chapter 11. The Pigeonhole Principle � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 58
Chapter 12. Problems I Enjoy Sharing — Bruce Henry � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 62
Chapter 1 Solutions� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 65
Chapter 2 Solutions� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 68
Chapter 3 Solutions� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 77
Chapter 4 Solutions� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 80
Chapter 5 Solutions� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 83
Chapter 6 Solutions� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 91
Chapter 7 Solutions� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 107
Chapter 8 Solutions� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 113
Chapter 9 Solutions� � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 121
Chapter 10 Solutions � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 130
Chapter 11 Solutions � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 133
Chapter 12 Solutions � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 136
 Chapter 2: Primes and Composites
Chapter 2. Primes and Composites

A code is devised by Secret Sam. Sam has decided that he will

denote A as the smallest number with 1 factor, B the smallest
number with 2 factors and so on. He sets out his code as shown in
the table.
A 1
B 2
C 4
D 6
E 16
..
.
Z 12288
(a) Complete the table for the code.
(b) Secret Sam decides that he would like to punctuate his code
properly and use some mathematical symbols. For example,
he denotes ‘=’ as the smallest number with 39 factors. What
is this number?

Factors and Primes

The factors of 6 are 1, 2, 3 and 6.
The factors of 28 are 1, 2, 4, 7, 14 and 28.
The factors of 7 are 1 and 7.
A natural number a is a factor of a natural number b if there exists a
natural number k such that:

b = ak.

If a number greater than 1 has only factors 1 and itself it is said to be

a prime. Among the first 100 numbers, the following 25 are prime: 2, 3,
5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79,
83, 89, 97.
To consider whether a √ number n is prime, one method is to consider all
the numbers less than n and test if they are factors of n.
√
For example, if n = 97, 9 < n < 10. Therefore, we could test the
numbers: 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9. However, we do not need to test
numbers which are not prime, so we only need to test 2, 3, 5 and 7.
 Chapter 3: Least Common Multiple
Chapter 3. Least Common Multiple

A girl had been collecting 20c coins for many years. She had care-
fully counted them but had forgotten the total. However, she re-
membered that if the number of coins was divided by 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6
there was always 1 coin left over. A ‘nice’ property of the number
was that it was divisible by 7 and she had between 700 and 800
coins. How many 20c coins had the girl collected?

Least Common Multiple

The least common multiple of natural numbers m and n is the smallest
natural number which is a multiple of both m and n.
The least common multiple of 2 and 3 is 6.
The least common multiple of 4 and 6 is 12.
Note: The prime factorisation of two numbers will help us find the least
common multiple of these two numbers.
e.g. 1080 = 23 × 33 × 5 and 25200 = 24 × 52 × 32 × 7.
To find the least common multiple we choose the highest power of a
prime occuring in either number and take the product of these powers.
In the above example, the least common multiple

LCM = 24 × 33 × 52 × 7 = 75600.

This definition can be extended to more than 2 numbers. For example,

the least common multiple of natural numbers k, m and n is the smallest
natural number which is a multiple of k, m and n.
Example 1
Find the least common multiple of the first ten natural numbers.
Solution
These numbers and their prime factorisations are:

2 = 2, 3 = 3, 4 = 22 , 5 = 5, 6 = 3×2, 7 = 7, 8 = 23, 9 = 32 , 10 = 2×5.

Hence, the least common multiple of these numbers

= 23 × 32 × 5 × 7
= 2520.
 Chapter 4.
Chapter 4: Highest
Highest Common
Common Factor
Factor
andthe
and theEuclidean
Euclidean Algorithm
Algorithm

A button manufacturer finds he has produced 388 800 yellow but-

tons, 1 244 160 red buttons and 3 542 940 brown buttons. He wants
to package them so that:
(i) All packages have the same number of buttons.
(ii) All packages contain buttons of only one colour.
(iii) The packages are to contain the largest number of buttons
possible while satisfying properties (i) and (ii).
How many buttons are there in each package?

Highest Common Factor

A common factor of two natural numbers a and b is a natural number
which is a factor of both a and b. For example:
6 is a common factor of 24 and 54.
3 is a common factor of 81 and 333.
The highest common factor of two natural numbers a and b is the largest
number which divides both a and b, that is, the largest common factor.
The highest common factor of two natural numbers a and b will be de-
noted (a, b). For example:
The factors of 8 are 1, 2, 4, 8.
The factors of 12 are 1, 2, 4, 6, 12.
The highest common factor of 8 and 12 is 4, i.e. (8, 12) = 4.
Consider the numbers 140 and 110. The prime factorisations of these
numbers are:

140 = 22 × 5 × 7 and 110 = 2 × 5 × 11.

The highest number which is a factor of 140 and 110 must have prime
factors which occur in both factorisations. The exponent (power) of each
of these prime factors will be the smaller of the two exponents occurring
in the prime factorisation of both 140 and 110.
Thus (140, 110) = 2 × 5 = 10.
Example 1
Find the highest common factor of 588 and 441.
Solution 588 = 22 × 3 × 72 and 441 = 32 × 72.
Hence (588, 441) = 3 × 72 = 147.
 Chapter 5: Arithmetic Sequences
Chapter 5. Arithmetic Sequences

The King of Nanastam decided to have a reception for the marriage

of his daughter Hulu to the Prince of the Northland. Many invi-
tations were sent out to the four corners of the land. The guests
arrived in a strange way. The first time the drawbridge to the Lungi
castle was lowered three people crossed, on the second eight people,
on the third thirteen. The king noted that the number crossing the
drawbridge increased by five people with each lowering. When the
drawbridge had been lowered fifty times the king decided he would
have to refuse entrance to any more guests.
How many guests were in the castle?

Arithmetic Sequences
1, 2, 4, 8, . . . is an example of a sequence of numbers. The dots indicate
that the numbers continue.
Each number in a sequence is called a term. In the sequence 1, 2, 4, 8, . . .,
1 is the first term, 2 is the second term and 4 is the third term.
Another sequence is 1, 3, 5, 7, . . ..
This is an example of an arithmetic sequence. A sequence is arithmetic
if the difference between any two consecutive terms is always the same
(constant).
The sequence 1, 3, 5, 7, . . . is arithmetic as
3−1 = 2
5−3 = 2
7−5 = 2
..
.
Here are some examples of arithmetic sequences.
Example 1
Each of the diagrams below represent rows of beads.
1 2 3 ...

◦◦◦ ◦◦◦ ◦◦◦

◦◦◦◦ ◦◦◦ ◦◦◦
◦◦◦◦ ◦◦◦
◦◦◦◦
7 beads 10 beads 13 beads
 Chapter 6: Figurate Numbers
Chapter 6. Figurate Numbers

Here is an equilateral triangle. Each

side is seven units long. It is divided
......
... ..
as shown into smaller triangles.
.. ...
.............................
.
... .. ... .... (a) How many triangles are there with
.. .. . .
.................................................
....
.. .... ... ..... .... .....
. ......
. . all sides one unit long?
.. ..... .
.................................................................
.
.....
.. ... .. ... .. ... ... ....
... ... .... ........ .......
........................................................................................
. . (b) How many triangles are there with
.... . . ..
.
.
.. ... .. ... .. ... .. .. .. ..
.. .... .... .... .... ....... ........ ..... all sides two units long?
....................................................................................................................
.. .. . . . . .
.. ... ... ... .. .. ... .. .. .... .... ....
.
.. ... .. ... .. ...... ......
. ... .. ... .. .. .. .. .. ... .. ... .. ..
.. .
............................................................................................................................................ (c) For an equilateral triangle of side
.. . . . . .
... .. ... ... ...
.. ......... ....... ....... .......
. .
.................. ............................................................................................................ . length n units, how many triangles
are there with all sides one unit
long?

Patterns of Dots
We consider the following patterns:
Counting Numbers •......
•..... •.......
•...... •........ •.......
•..... •....... •....... •........
• •... •... •... •...
1 2 3 4 5
Triangular Numbers .
.....
.... .
•
.... ....
• ......
... ..
• ..
. .
..... .... •
.... . .... .. ..
• ..... • • ..... .... • • .... .... ...•
.... .. ..... ... ... ......... .
. ...
... .. .. .. ... ... ... .. ...
• .... • • ...... .... • • • ... ... • • • .
..... .
. •
.... .. ... ...... .. ... ... .
.
. .
. ...
.... ..
.. .
.... .. ... ...... ... .
. .. ..... ... .
.
. .
.
. ..
• ................
• • ..............................
• • • ...........................................
• • • • ..........................................................
• • • • •
1 3 6 10 15
Square Numbers •................•.............•............• .............• ...
..
.
•.................•............•.............•...... •.................•.............•.............•...... •.......
... .
•................•.............•....... •...................•............•....... •........ •...............• ... •
.............•
..
.
.
.... •
.
.
....
....
•.................•...... •.................•...... •....... •...................•...... •....... •....... •...................•...... •....... •....... •.......
.
• •.............•..... •............•..............•..... •.............•...............•..............•..... •.............•..............•...............•..............•.....
1 4 9 16 25
Pentagonal Numbers •
• • .....
......
.... ........
....
....
• • • . ....
....
....
....•........
.... . .
.....
• • • • ....... ...
.... .. ........ ....... .
..• •... .. ... .... .... ...
• .
........
•........... ...•...... ....• .
...
• • • •
.....
.. .......
... .... ....
...
..
.. ....
.
..

....... ...... ...... .... . .. ..

• • ... . •..... ..• .. ..•
. ..
.. • • • • ....
... ..
.
.. .... ....
. .
.................. ...............................................
• • • •.............•..............•... • • • •
1 5 12 22
 Chapter 7: Congruences
Chapter 7. Congruences

On a rainy Sunday afternoon Laura felt like developing a mathe-

matical result. Needing somewhere to begin her investigation, she
decided to look at powers of 2. The first thing she did was to
prepare a table of powers.
n 2n
1 2
2 4
3 8
4 16
5 32
6 64
7 128
8 256
9 512
10 1024
11 2048
12 4096
Laura noticed that there was a pattern in the last digits:
the sequence 2, 4, 8, 6, 2, 4, 8, 6, 2, 4, 8, 6.
(a) Find a formula for the powers of 2 with last digit:
(i) 2
(ii) 4
(iii) 8
(iv) 6
(b) Laura, finding a little satisfaction with this, decided to extend
the table and see if there was a similar pattern for the last two
digits. She found the pattern. Can you?
(c) Laura then investigated larger powers of 2 and found she could
predict the last two digits. She decided that finding the last
two digits of 22013 would be impressive. She managed to find
them. Can you?

Congruent Integers
In the previous chapters we have considered the natural numbers 1, 2,
3, . . .. It is desirable at this stage to enlarge our scope to include all
integers, i.e. . . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . ..
 Chapter 9: Find that Angle
Chapter 9. Find That Angle

A.
.
....
.. ..
.. ..
.. ..
... ....
. ..
.. ..
.. ..
.. ..
.. ...
.... ..
... ..
..
.
E .... .
..
.
.........................................................................................................................................................
.. ..
B
.... . .. ....
.... .
. .. ....
....
....
.
.. .. ......
.
..... .
. ... ...
.... .... .. .......
...... .. ....
.... .....
.. ........
. .
. . ........
. .... .. ..
..
.. .... .... ..
.. .... ....... ..
...
.. ......
.... ...
. .... ....... ..
..
... .... ..
... ... ... .. .... ..
... .. . . .... ....
.. ....... . ..... ..
. .
.......... .......
....
....
D C
A regular pentagon is a five-sided figure with all its sides equal in
length and all its interior angles equal. The regular five-pointed
star shown consists of a regular pentagon with its sides extended
until they meet. It can be drawn without removing the pen from
the paper. It poses a number of interesting questions:
(i) Are the angles at A, B, C, D and E equal?
(ii) Is it possible to draw other such regular stars with more points
without removing the pen from the paper? Indeed, is it possi-
ble to draw all such stars without removing the pen from the
paper?
(iii) Is the angle at each point of the star an integer number of
degrees?
(iv) For which, if any, regular star polygons are the angles at each
point an integer number of degrees?

In order to be able to answer such questions, one needs:

(a) a knowledge of facts concerning relationships between the angles of
various figures;
(b) ‘angle chasing’ persistence, by which is meant the tenacity to follow
leads which enable one to exploit observed angle properties in order
to deduce others.
 Chapter 10: Counting Techniques
Chapter 10. Counting Techniques

Show that the fraction of integers between 1 and 101000 inclusive

which contain no digits other than 2 and 5 is
 
1 1
2 − .
51000 101000

Introduction
We are often confronted with questions of the type:
What proportion of . . .?
What is the probability that . . .?
In how many ways can . . .?
Many cases require some systematic thought and a little bit of extra
information, e.g. How many different routes can I drive from Newcastle
to Mudgee? In how many ways can the first three horses be placed if there
are six horses in the race?
While there are several mathematical principles and techniques that are
useful in a variety of situations, many questions can be answered directly
by applying some systematic counting techniques. By systematic count-
ing, we mean listing the possible outcomes in some systematic order and
then counting these or developing counting patterns.
Some solutions may seem ingenious when first seen (and indeed many of
them are!) but, to paraphrase the eminent problem solver George Pólya,
when we can apply these ingenious methods again in similar and related
situations, we have then developed a technique.
Counting techniques are also important in a variety of probability situ-
ations, which can be solved by simply comparing the different numbers
of ways that certain events can occur.
There is a variety of ways of tackling the problem above: we will state four
principles which help students solve a wide class of counting problems,
give examples of the use of these and then look at some less routine and
more ingenious methods.
 Chapter 11: The Pigeonhole Principle
Chapter 11. The Pigeonhole Principle

Six people sit down to dinner at a circular table. It is soon discov-

ered that nobody is sitting in his/her correct place. Show that, by
rotating the table, it is always possible to place at least 2 people
correctly.

Some Examples
Example 1
If 5 pigeons fly into 4 pigeonholes, then at least one hole contains two or
more pigeons.
In general, if n + 1 pigeons are in n pigeonholes, at least one of the holes
will contain two or more pigeons.
Example 2
I select some socks from a drawer containing socks of three different
colours. If I make a ‘hole’ for each colour sock then I will have 3 ‘holes’.
If I select 4 socks then at least one of my holes contains two or more
socks. So if I select 4 socks I will always have one pair.
This is a very simple example and it can help us solve some simple
problems.
Example 3
If I have 13 pigeons in 4 holes, then at least one hole will contain 4 or
more pigeons.
In general, if I have more than k times as many pigeons as pigeonholes,
then at least one hole will contain k + 1 or more pigeons.
Exercises

1. What is the least number of people that must be chosen to be sure

that at least 2 have the same first initial?
2. In a group of 8 people show that at least 2 have their birthday on
the same day of the week.
3. A consumer organiser selects 11 phone numbers from the phone
book. Show that at least 2 have the same last digit.
4. If I put more than 100 marbles in two bags, show that at least one
bag contains more than 50 marbles.