INTRODUCTION OF CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION

INTRODUCTION
This course will present the following areas of control and instrumentation:

1) Control Loop definition, elements, and types

2) Study of elements of the control Loop:
a) Set point, controllers, and amplifiers
b) Sensors and transducers
c) Instrument and measurements
d) Motors, valves, and actuators
e) Final Control Elements
i) Electrical such as heaters, generators, etc.
ii) Mechanical such as valves, levers, etc
3) Basic of motor controls
4) Control circuit diagrams

Instrumentation and control is the nervous system of industrial complexes, power

generation, and basically all the processes that require some intelligence to accomplish
the task of producing a product or process.
When a process is modified to improve its function, the best and most economic change
of the system is to improve the control and occasionally the instrumentation areas.
Quality, quantity, and efficiency are directly related to the control and instrumentation
systems. The efficiency of the controls reflects directly in the profitability and quality of
the product or service obtained from a process or system.
Examples of other benefits obtained by applying control systems are evident in
environmental controls, which help to manage the waste and regulate the interface
between the system and the environment. One application in this area is seen in control of
emissions which use specialized instruments and controls to decrease the impact of
pollutants in the atmosphere.
The growth of the computer industry and its techniques has provided expanding
technology in the controls area, consequently producing more efficient and sophisticated
systems. These systems now control more precisely the production of goods and
information given to operators to refine the quality of products and services.
This course will walk you through the elements that make a control system and present to
you the most common instrumentation used in industry.

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Definitions

Instrumentation:
Use of technology and devices to detect and control physical and chemical characteristics
of materials; this includes motion, light, color, acidity, etc.

Control System
A system that takes the information from instruments of a process manipulating it using
logic (algorithms) then applying the results to a process or system to change its
characteristics.

Process Control
A control system that is used in the process and chemical industries. A process control
has the characteristic of automatically regulating a process. Automatic in this context
means that the process is controlled without the need of human intervention.

Variables
Are defined as the characteristic of the process. Some variables are temperature, speed,
humidity, viscosity, density, etc. There are two basic types of variables: measured or
controlled, and manipulated.

Control Loop
Control loop is a control system architecture that will manage a process using elements
that sense, adjust, and act upon the process. We can define it as the configuration by
which the control system manipulates the control parameters.

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Figure 1

CONTROL LOOP DESCRIPTION, ELEMENTS, AND

TYPES
Open Loop
The control loop configuration should be open, as in the control of a valve to open. The
controller receives the signal to open the valve. That operation is completed without
additional action. The loop is open because it starts at the open command and ends at the
valve opening. This is known as an open-ended control.

Closed Loop
A closed loop defines the action of sending a signal to a modulating valve to open it half
way; the controller applies the open signal until the valve reaches the half way point. The
position of the valve is determined by an instrument that detects the position and sends
the signal back to the controller to close the loop. The loop is made from the controller to
the valve actuator to the position device to the controller. See Figure 1 for a closed loop
control.

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Comparison between Closed and Open Loops

Open Loop Closed Loop

A measurement is detected A measurement is detected
Monitoring is performed (usually manually) Measurement is compared to a set
value
No adjustment is made Adjustment is made to the process
Return to measurement Return to measurement, repeating the
adjustment until the set value and
measurement are equal.
EXAMPLES
A conveyor belt carrying material Tank level control
A measurement is made (scale) A level sensor feeds measurement to a
transducer
An alarm bell performs monitoring A comparison is made to set point at
the controller
Reporting: Activation of alarm is made if Action: If level is low a signal is sent
weight is exceeded to an inlet valve to open.
If level is high or equal to the set
point a signal is set to inlet valve to
close
Table 1 – Open and Close Loop Examples

Figure 2

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Elements of a Control Loop

Process:
The controlled system is called the process. It could be defined as a conditioned situation
that produces results which must be kept under an expected value or range of values. As
in Figure 2, the process deals directly with the product. Product in this case could be
taken as a material, fluid, or whatever is produced, manufactured, or treated.

Primary Sensor:

The primary sensor is normally an instrument that has properties to detect the physical
property desired to be measured. An example is a thermocouple which produces a change
in an electrical circuit proportional to the temperature; this signal is sent to a transducer to
be detected and interpreted.

Transducer:

The transducer is a device that translates the signal from the sensor into a processed
electric signal that can be amplified and used by the controller.

Set Point:

This is a fixed value that is contained in the controller, set by the operator or by an
intelligent algorithm or device. This value is compared to the measured value from the
transducer. The difference of this comparison is called the Error.

Controller:

The controller is normally an electrical or electronic device that has the following
functions:
Compares the sensing signal from the transducer to the Set point (at the
summation point)
Produces an Error signal from the comparison
Processes the error signal:
o To convert it into an actuation signal
o To manipulate it to condition it by an algorithm, this algorithm will make
it:
proportional to the error
as a function signal that anticipate changes
as a function signal that uses history of changes to apply the
correction
as a function signal with a combination of the above features.

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The manipulation of the error signal is processed by a mathematical operator called a

control algorithm. An example of an algorithm is the PID or Proportional, Integral,
Derivative algorithm. This Algorithm uses:

the mathematical constant K or proportional multiplier actuating the final control

element in a linear way proportional to the value of the error
the integral operator to produce an actuator signal based on the history of the
previous errors
the derivative operator to produce an actuator signal anticipating the next change
based on the slope of the error function

Other algorithms are available easily today in the controllers; an example could be the
rate-lag operator which uses a combination of PID elements.

Amplifier:

The amplifier increases the intensity of the signal until it is large enough to be able to be
used by the actuator.

Actuator:

It is an electromechanical device that takes the actuation signal and converts it into
motion following the actuation signal. This motion could be a position as in the case of a
solenoid valve, on or off, or a motion, as in the positioning of a modulating or control
valve.

Final Control Element:

It is the element upon which the actuator operates. This device is in contact with the
process itself.
An example would be a valve which closes or opens as operated by the actuator and
controls in such a way the flow of a process, liquid, or gas.

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PRIMARY SENSORS
Primary sensors detect the variable to be measured. The following sensing instruments
will be presented in this portion of the course:

Pressure
Temperature
Level
Flow

Instrument Characteristics
The following table presents the most important general characteristics of instruments
and their commonly accepted definitions

Characteristics
Static Dynamic
Applicable to variables that are not changing Apply when variables are changing
Accuracy: Fidelity
Is the instrument characteristic or capability to is the capability of the instrument to correctly
present the real or actual measured variable? indicate or record a change in a measured
If applied to a control system: it is the variable?
capability of the control system to maintain the For a control system, it is the ability of the
actual measured value during the control controller to follow the changes in the input
process variable with the correct output signal
Static error: Dynamic error is the deviation of the controller
The difference between the actual or true value output from its correct value
and the measured or indicated value
Static error in a control system refers to the
deviation from the desired control value
contributed by the control system
Reproductivity Responsiveness
The ability of the instrument to is characteristic of the instrument to
produce identical values of the same follow variable changes
measured variable when the measured Measuring lag
value is the same under the same is the measured inability of the
previous conditions instrument to follow a variable change?
A displacement from the same the measured duration of this lag is
previous value is called drift called dead time

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Characteristics
Static Dynamic
Sensitivity
is the magnitude of the smallest value that an
instrument can measure?
Dead Zone
For instrumentation, it is the range where the
instrument cannot measure
For control systems, it is the area of control
where the system cannot respond

Table 2

PRESSURE
Definition
Pressure is a physical function of force and surface. The mathematical definition of
pressure is F/A where F is force and A is area.
Mathematically:

F
P =
A

Force is an action that causes distortion or movement.

Surface is a section of the two-dimensional presentation of space.

Other expressions of pressure:

Hydraulic pressure in a press or tank: It can be expressed in water column height,

mercury column height, psi, etc. This pressure is due to the weight of the mass of water
plus the weight of the mass of air on the water surface. It has been found that the pressure
of a liquid can be expressed as a function of the height of the column of liquid.

These expressions of pressure are based on experimental observations as well as

calculations and deductions using physical laws. The equivalence of these measurements
can be also be performed using dimensional analysis.

To demonstrate the above concepts, we will use the case of the column of water pressure
measurement.

See Figure 3 for reference to the following calculations.

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One of the characteristics of matter is density. It is defined by the ratio between mass and
volume that it occupies. Water density has been given the value of 1.
The relation that expresses density is:

Mass
= 1 for water
Volume
For specific density, we can replace mass by weight and the equation becomes:

Weight
sd = 1 for water
Volume

weight sd (Volume)

F Weight sd (Volume)
P = = =
A A A
But Volume = Area times height or

sd ( Ah)
P = = (sd) h, since for water sd = 1
A
P = h for water.

The pressure exerted by the water column represented in Figure 3 is the height of the
water column (A to B). For another fluid, its P is AB times the fluid specific density.

Figure 3– Pressure vessel

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Atmospheric Pressure

The column of atmospheric air has weight. Air applies pressure everywhere on earth that
is exposed to the atmosphere. Because pressure depends on the height of column of fluid,
atmospheric pressure is smaller at higher altitudes. This property is the basis of earlier
altitude instruments. Also, water will boil using less heat at a higher altitude. Water will
boil at a lower temperature in Mexico City than in New York City.
To measure atmospheric pressure:

Fill the bottom sealed tube with mercury

Seal the other end of the tube with your finger
Turn the tube upside down
Submerge the end sealed with the finger inside a tank containing mercury
Let go of the finger as soon as the tube is vertical position
Measure the height of the mercury column in inches, it is the atmospheric
pressure given in inches pf mercury

Gauge, Absolute and Differential Pressure

Pressure can be expressed as gauge, differential and absolute pressure. Gauge pressure
is the pressure that results of subtracting the atmospheric pressure from the pressure true
value or Absolute Pressure. Absolute pressure is the true pressure measuring it in
reference to zero pressure or vacuum. Differential pressure is the pressure of a system
compared to the pressure of another system.

Other pressure units

Pascal:
The Pascal is the SI (The International System of Units, abbreviated SI from the French
Le Système International d'Unitéspressure measurement).
The dimensional analyses is:
F
P =
A
Force is given in newton and the area in square meter or a pascal is equal to 1 newton
force per square meter area.
Pascal is used in metrology expressed in a larger unit multiplied hundred times or
hectopascal.
1 hectopascal or hpa is equal to 100 pascal or 100 pa. As a physics reminder: 1 newton is
the force that accelerates the mass of one kilogram to one meter per second.

When the height of the column of mercury is measured, the value is 29.9 in. at sea level.
This pressure is indicated as 29.9 in of mercury.
These units are equivalent to 14.7 psi or pounds per square inch = 1 atmosphere (atm) =
101.3 kPa (kilopascals) = 14.7 psi (pounds per square inch) = 760 torr.

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Pressure Sensors

Instrument Description Application

Manometer It is a U tube that contains a Measurement of
liquid. Levels at both sides are pressure in liquid and
equal. gases
One end of the tube is then Blood pressure
closed; the other end is left measurements.
open. See Figure 4
The pressure to be measured is
applied to the open end.
The level will rise on the closed
end and it will sink in the open
end.
The pressure is given by the
difference in the levels.
Bourdon-tube It is a mechanical instrument Many industrial
that senses pressure and applications for fluid
converts it to displacement and gas pressures
The pressure indication is Hydraulic systems
mechanically amplified using a (hydraulic gauges)
pointer or indicator needle Low-pressure
The Bourdon-tube displacement Bourdon tubes
is a function of the pressure (pressures up to 2000
applied psi) are often made of
A set of two bourdon tubes bronze.
mounted in one case is called a High-pressure
duplex gauge Bourdon tubes
(pressures above 2000
psi) are made of
stainless steel or other
high-strength
materials

Bellows Elastic A bellows elastic element is a Used mostly for

Elements - Helical convoluted unit hydraulic fluid
It expands and contracts axially measurements.
with changes in pressure.
See Figure 5 - Bourdon Tube
The pressure to be measured can be
Manometer and Figure 6 -
applied to either the outside or the inside
Helical Bourdon Pressure
of the bellows
Instrument for its components

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Instrument Description Application

Simple Bellows Bellows elastic elements are The principle used in this
Element made of brass, bronze, stainless instrument can be used also to
steel, beryllium-copper, or other measure differential pressure.
metal In this case, there are two
Motion of the element (bellows) bellows chambers with
is transmitted by suitable mechanisms that subtract the
linkage and gears to a dial two pressure produced
pointer. movements.
Most bellows gauges are spring-
loaded with a spring that
opposes the bellows force and
prevents full expansion of the
bellows.
Pressure Switches To determine specific pressures, such as Single pole single throw
a high or low pressure, pressure switches are frequently used
switches are used to activate a signal for these applications.
that is sent to the monitoring and alarm Electronic switches are also
systems. used in newer devices. See
Figure 8.
Table 3

Pressure Instrument Calibration

The calibration of a pressure instrument has been traditionally done using a method
called the dead weight calibration.
A typical test set-up is shown in Figure 9.
The setup works ion the following manner:

Step Procedure
1 Load the measuring piston with calibrated weights
2 Add or retrieve load until the loaded measuring piston rises and appears to float
on the fluid
3 F
Calculate the pressure using the formula P =
A
4 Use the weights as the force and the area of the piston as the A

Table 4

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Pressure Instruments Figures

Figure 4 – U-Tube Manometer

Figure 5 - Bourdon Tube Manometer

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Figure 6 - Helical Bourdon Pressure Instrument

Figure 7 – Simple Bellows Gauge

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This section will present the basic concepts of temperature, its measurements, and
techniques. Definitions and a small section of the physics of temperature will begin the
section; later a presentation of the most commonly used temperature sensors and
transducers will be outlined including reference material for practical engineering use.

Definitions

Temperature is defined as the degree of heat or cold that an element exhibits. This
concept comes from practical evaluation of the thermal behavior of substances, most
commonly water.
A more sophisticated definition would be: the measurement of temperature is the
measurement of the average thermal energy per molecule contained in a material.
The unit used to describe the thermal energy per molecule of a certain material is the
degree of temperature. These units are arranged in a scale called the temperature scales.
An important place to calibrate a temperature scale is a point of equilibrium thermal
equilibrium in the substance. This point is seen as a temperature in which the substance
remains at an equilibrium, (ie. ice and water mixture or water an steam).
In water, there are several points of thermal equilibrium at a given pressure.
The most notable point for water is the point in which solid, liquid, and gas are at
equilibrium (triple point). This point exits at normal atmospheric pressure of one
atmosphere and it is the zero-degree point for the Celsius thermal scale.
Another point of the scale calibration could be found at the point where liquid and gas
water are at equilibrium at one atmosphere. This point was arbitrarily given the value of
100 on the Celsius scale. Then the scale was built dividing it into 100 equal divisions.
Other scales use other equilibrium points; the Fahrenheit scale uses a zero point as the
point where a mixture of salt (NaCl) and water allows the existence of liquid and solid
water to remain at equilibrium.
The relations shown below can help to convert Celsius to Fahrenheit and Fahrenheit to
Celsius
5
C = (F-32)
9
9
F= C +32
5

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Temperature Sensors

Temperature is measured using the fact that when exposed to temperature changes, some
materials change. Some changes are changes in physical properties and physical
dimensions.
There many types of change that are related to thermal variations such as:

Length
Electrical properties
Energy

Length
Some metals change in length of as well as expand and contract when subjected to
temperature changes. These changes are used to design temperature sensors.

Electrical

Generation
When temperature changes are applied to two different materials in physical contact,
there is a migration of electrons from one of the materials to the other due to the
difference of each material’s electrochemical properties. This effect is used in
thermocouples.

Resistance
Because resistance is a thermal property of materials (discovered by Joule), it would be
expected that a change in temperature would produce a change in resistance; this is used
by RTDs.

Energy

Infrared
Infrared temperature measurement is used to measure temperature in radiating bodies and
at a distance. Such measurement could be the temperature of an oven or the temperature
of a remote hot object. The explanation of this method of temperature measurement uses
quantum mechanics starting with Plank’s radiation law.

Temperature Sensors – Length Based

The most commonly used sensor based on length changes is the bimetallic sensor. Its
importance is due to its practical use and price. Bimetallic sensors are used in many
electrical applications, including motor overload trip devices and temperature measuring
indicators.

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A metal exposed to heat will expand or contract with heat. The length that a metal will
expand at given temperature is different for each metal.

When two strips of different metals are joined together at both ends they will bend as the
temperature is increased. One metal will expand more than the other, forcing the pair to
bend. The distortion depends on the amount of temperature surrounding the metals.
This property can be used to create a thermometer as shown in Figure 10.

The instrument shown in Figure 10 is made with a spiral wound bimetallic wire. As the
wire gets hot the wire size increases and bends due to the constraint of one metal by the
other.

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Electrical Based Temperature Sensors

Thermocouples

Generation of electricity is a phenomenon that occurs when two dissimilar metals are
joined together. Each metal has a different level of energy due to its electronic level. This
is referred sometimes as the energy well of the metal.
When two different metals are joined together with a small separation between them,
there is a thermos-ionic migration from the metal that has the smallest energy level.
This effect is called the tunnel effect and occurs for very small distances, small enough to
allow the electronic energy level of each metal superimpose each other.
A distance of 10-7 centimeters would allow this effect to happen. A detailed explanation
of this effect is beyond the intent of this course.
The previously described effect is called thermocouple effect. The increase in
temperature will increase the amount of energy in the junction and more current will flow
from one metal to the other.

Resistance Temperature Detectors or RTD

Resistance is always part of a conductor. Heat generated by a conductor by the flow of

electrical current is intimately related to resistance. The temperature of a conductor will
alter the value of the resistance of the conductor. An RTD is a device that detects
temperature based on this property.
Normally a RTD is made with of a fine coil of metal wrapped around a ceramic or glass
core. To protect this delicate arrangement, it is placed inside a sturdy probe.
The resistance of the metal used in the RTD is well documented at various temperatures,
via testing of the RTD response to various temperatures. Many selected materials have
well established and documented change in resistance as the temperature changes.
To measure the temperature using an RTD, use RTD reference tables which are based on
specific values of the RTD resistance versus temperature.

RTDs are used when the following important factors are required:

Accuracy
Stability
Repeatability
Immunity to electrical noise

Additionally, the time response of RTDs is better than other similar thermal instruments
used in the same applications, such as thermocouples.

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Both thermocouples and RTDs are placed in thermowells when the temperature is to be
sensed inside a tank or a pipe. See Figure 11 –Thermowell.

Figure 11 –Thermowell

Energy Based Sensors

Infrared detection is produced detecting light in the infrared frequency emitted by
materials. The detectors use materials that will react to the energy content of infrared
waves and their reaction can be quantified and translated into temperatures. In quantum
theory, using the Stefan-Boltzmann Law, we can say that the total radiation energy
(emitted by the material) is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature.
The early twentieth century scientist Wien indicated in his “Displacement Law” that the
product of the peak wavelength and the temperature is a numerical constant. He was
awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics for the year 1911.
This relationship can be used to measure temperatures.

The sensor in an IR (Infra-Red) thermometer collects a small amount of energy (usually

0.0001 watt) radiated from the target, then it generates an electrical signal that is
amplified by a sensitive amplifier and converted into voltage output.
An analog to digital chip (such as a 16 bit Analog-to-Digital Converter) digitizes the
signal sending the signal to an Arithmetic Unit which solves a temperature equation
based on Planck’s Radiation Law; it uses an algorithm to compensate for the ambient
temperature and emissivity. The result of these manipulations produces a temperature
reading.

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LEVEL

Level Sensors
Level measurements are an essential part of modern industry. Tanks containing fluids and
solids have their levels continuously monitored to determine the amount of material, to
prevent spills or overflow, and to determine the need to add more material.
One way to classify level sensors is by how the measurement is made, either directly or
indirectly, depending on the material that is being monitored.
Direct methods are used to measure liquid levels, granular material such as grains, and
powder, or flour and salts.
Indirect methods use other physical properties to indirectly determine the level of
materials. Among these physical properties are: pressure which could vary with the
increase or decrease of material in a container, or weight inside the container.

Another way to classify these instruments is how the sensor senses the material. In this
case, the detection could be either continuous detection or a single point detection. The
continuous detection sensors detect the level as it changes. This detection method senses
the level at a certain specific point. One example would be a low-level point; another
point would be a high-level point. This type of sensor is normally a switch or switches
located to be activated as the corresponding level is reached.
The following table will present the most common level sensors.

Level sensors
Sensor Type/Description
Floats This type of sensor is a direct measurement and point detection sensor.
Traditionally it has been a floating ball connected to the controller by
means of a rod or link, the movement of the ball positions a linked
lever that actuates the corresponding switch.
More modern units use a floating cylinder containing a ferromagnetic
material. See Figure 12. This cylinder slides on a shaft that contains a
magnetic link or rod. The link or rod moves as the level varies, the
position of a cam on the other end of the link or rod actuates switches
mounted in the switching housing.
Pneumatic This type of sensor is a direct measurement as well as point detection
sensor.
Pneumatic level sensors are used in hazardous areas, such as those
classified as IE by the NEC, or where there is no electric power, and in
applications involving material such as sludge.
The mechanism of these devices is as follows:
When the level of the material changes, it compresses a column of air
which is in contact with a diaphragm. This diaphragm actuates a
switch, which is in turn is used for determining the level.
Conductivity probes This type of sensor is a direct measurement and point detection sensor.
See Figure 14.
Conductive probes use low voltages and currents. The current and
voltage in this unit is very small; due to this feature these sensors could
be classified according to the NEC as “Intrinsically Safe” since they

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cannot sustain ignition.

Conductive sensors are made of solid-state materials.
Some disadvantages are inherent of the units when used to measure
materials that can coat the sensor, insulating it, and thus decreasing its
conductive sensing capability.
Also, since the signals are very small, a good ground must be present
in the probe circuit to isolate noise and other parasitic signals.
The sensor has two electrodes fed by a low voltage, low current signal
that establishes a conductivity value. This value is matched to the
liquid conductivity. This conductivity in turn is a function of the level.
See Figure 14.
Vibrating Level These sensors use a vibrating device which vibrates at its resonant
frequency. When the material contacts the probe, it stops vibrating and
the level switch is activated.
There are two common types. The piezoelectric probes and the tuning
fork type probe.
This system is used for detection of very fine powders and granular
solids. The position of the probes is important to prevent false level
detections.
Capacitive The system uses a capacitive sensing system between the probe and
the material of which the level is sought. The circuit uses radio
frequency signals. The sensors are designed to sense the dielectric
property of the material, dielectric constants as low as 1.1 (ash) and as
high as 88 (water) are within the detection range of these systems.
Another use of this system is the detection of the interface between
two non-mixing liquids each having a substantially different dielectric
constant from the other. The detection of this interface uses a two-
probe system.
The capacitance system is sensitive to electrostatic discharges, for this
reason as in the conductivity system a good grounding system is
required.
See Figure 13.

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Ultrasonic Ultrasonic probes are used to measure level at a distance. These

instruments are of the non-contact type.
The sensor does not need to be in contact with the substance being
measured, but it needs a clear view of the surface.
Some of the most common applications of these devices are measuring
level for corrosive substances, for liquids such as slurries and grease,
and waste applications. Also, you will find them measuring levels in
grain silos and cement containers.
The sensors work by emitting and receiving an ultrasonic frequency
signal that is reflected from the surface of the material. The duration of
the travel from the sensor and back is calibrated to reflect a distance.
This distance is then computed using the dimensions of the system and
then expressed as a level.
The receiving sensor is usually part of the same housing with the
emitter. Some problems are accuracy and repeatability of
measurements when humidity changes around the signal. This is
because the speed of sound depends on the density of the medium
where it is transmitted. The temperature variations also affect the
measurement. For these reasons temperature and humidity
compensation is sometimes an essential part of this level measuring
system.
Radar Level Sensor Radar transmitters are the logical extension of ultrasonic sensors in
applications requiring non-contact measurement of liquid levels. They
are the correct application for areas where vapor, dust, or a foaming
surface makes ultrasonic measurement inaccurate. Radar sensor uses a
microwave pulse to target liquids from the tip of the sensor to the
bottom of a tank. This signal is a reliable pulse minimally affected by
environmental conditions. See Figure 15.
Table 5

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Level Sensor and Transducers Figures

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Figure 15 – Radar Instrumentation

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FLOW
Flow is the movement of a fluid in a contained path. Flow measurements are normally
classified using two features of flow: Flow rate and Total flow.
Flow rate is the amount of flow that moves past a certain point per unit time.
Total Flow is the amount of flow that passes a given point during a period.

Flow instruments

Flow instruments are designed to measure either flow rate or total flow. An instrument
that can measure a combination is also available.

The following table presents the most common flow instruments:

Flow Rate Instruments

Instrument Type and description
Flow Rate
Differential Pressure The principle of operation of differential pressure flow meters is
based on the property that the pressure drop across the meter is
proportional to the square of the flow rate. The mathematical
operation to obtain the flow rate is done by measuring the pressure
differential and extracting the square root.
A DP flow meter is made of two elements:
Primary element – creates the differential pressure
(causing a change in the kinetic energy of the fluid)
Secondary element - Measures the DP. The element
contains the sensor and transducer that provides the signal
or read-out converted to the actual flow value
Design considerations:

The unit must be properly matched to:

the pipe size
flow conditions
the liquid's properties

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Differential pressure The orifice plate is a flat piece of metal that has an orifice or hole
Primary elements: drilled or cut in it. The orifice is usually circular or concentric to
the pipe but other shapes are also used. Installation is made
Orifice Plates locating the plate between two flanges.
The orifice plate, by constraining the surface, reduces the flow,
and increases the velocity of the fluid, creating a different pressure
at the exit of the fluid than at the inlet. Thus, there is a differential
pressure across the plate.
A pressure measurement on both sides of the plate is made and the
differential pressure used to calculate the flow rate as indicated
above.
One disadvantage of the orifice plate is that it adds losses to the
flow because it restricts the flow which in turn, due to friction,
adds resistance to the fluid flow.

Figure 16 – Orifice Plate

Differential pressure A Venturi tube uses the same principle of the orifice plate. The
Primary elements: fluid is constricted while passing through a reduced diameter flow
way.
Ventury Tube The difference is that the device instead of being a plate with a
hole is a section of pipe with a tapered entrance and a straight
throat. See Figure 17.
These sensors do not have moving parts and they are more
accurate, although considerably more expensive.

Figure 17 – Venturi Tube

Table 6
Differential pressure The flow nozzle is an intermediate step between the orifice plate and
Primary elements: the Venturi Tube. It looks very like the Venturi Tube and resembles
half of a Venturi Tube.

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Flow Nozzle The cost is less than a Venturi Tube but its accuracy is almost as
much as the Venturi Tube

Figure 18 – Flow Nozzle

Location of the pressure Pressure taps to measure differential pressure are located at a
taps distance from each other to be able to detect the pressure at the
normal flow and the pressure after the constriction.

Figure 19 – Pressure tube location for DP measurements

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Other Methods for Measuring Flow Rate

There are other methods to measure flow that are also used for conditions that do not
require the same accuracy as that obtained by the differential pressure methods.
Rotameter – The pipe area is varied using an inside float. The pipe at this point is
vertical and the float moves along a scale calibrated in flow rate units. It is used
for measuring the flow in gases and liquids
Open channel methods: Weir, flumes, open nozzles

Total Flow Instruments

Instrument Type and description

Total Flow
Positive displacement This method uses a counting technique to measure the flow. The
system consists of:
Chambers (three in the figure) in which the fluid enters.
Rotating elements (also three in the figure) and shaft

As one chamber charges and discharges with the flow, this event is
counted as one count. The calculations must consider the volume
of the chamber. Each time a chamber is filled determines a volume
of fluid that has moved along the pipe. The number of times the
chamber is filled multiplied by the volume is divided by unit time
to determine the total flow.

Figure 20 – Positive displacement flow meter

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Instrument Type and description

Total Flow
Ultrasonic Measurement This method uses modern technology and its accuracy is high.
The set up involves two probes located in the path of the flow. The
figure below shows one type of installation.

Figure 21 – Ultrasonic Flow Generic Probe Locations

In the figure below, the flow is measured by sending an ultrasonic
wave at point A and receiving it at point B. The duration of the
wave from A to B determines the flow. The unit is calibrated at
zero flow to establish speed and duration of wave at rest.

Figure 22 – Location of Ultrasonic Probes

This installation measures the flow comparing the travel time of
the sound wave towards and against the flow and comparing the
difference in speed.
Table 7

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