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INDEX
1.33 Carbon found in Mars ...................................... 22

1. Space Technology ............................. 6
1.34 Parker Solar Probe........................................... 22
Introduction ........................................... 6 1.35 Artemis- I Programme ...................................... 23
1.1 Types of Orbits ................................................... 6 1.36 Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer ............... 24
1.2 Types of Satellites ............................................... 7
Other Space Agencies ........................... 24
1.3 Launch Vehicles ................................................. 7
1.37 Divine Vessel .................................................... 24
1.4 PSLV ................................................................... 8
1.38 EnVision ........................................................... 25
1.5 GSLV .................................................................. 8
1.39 Nauka................................................................ 25
1.6 GSLV MK III ...................................................... 8
1.40 Beresheet 2 ....................................................... 26
1.7 RLV-TD .............................................................. 8
1.41 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) ..... 26
1.8 Small Satellite Launch Vehicle ........................... 9
1.42 Eutelsat Quantum Satellite ............................... 27
1.9 Sounding Rockets ............................................... 9
1.43 JAXA’s Aim to Bring Mars Samples Soon ........ 27
1.10 Vikas Engine ....................................................... 9
1.44 Samples from Moon by Chang’e-5 ................... 27
1.11 Cryogenic Engine ............................................. 10
1.45 Matosinhos Manifesto....................................... 27
1.12 Scramjet Engine - TD ....................................... 10
1.46 Space Junk ........................................................ 28
1.13 Green Propellants ............................................ 11
1.47 ExoMars ........................................................... 29
1.14 The International Space Station (ISS) .............. 11
1.48 ESA Vigil Mission ............................................. 29
Indian Missions in News ........................ 11 1.49 Reconnaissance Satellite .................................. 29
1.15 EOS-04 ............................................................. 11
Private Sector in Space ......................... 30
1.16 Lunar Missions ................................................. 12
1.50 IN-SPACe ......................................................... 30
1.17 SC120-LOX ...................................................... 12
1.51 Boeing’s Starliner ............................................. 30
1.18 GSAT 7B ........................................................... 12
1.52 Inspiration4 ...................................................... 30
Other Notable Missions ......................... 13 1.53 Indian Space Association.................................. 31
1.19 Gaganyaan ....................................................... 13 1.54 Internet from the Sky......................................... 31
1.20 GSLV-Mk III - M1 / Chandrayaan-2 Mission... 15
2. Planetary Systems .......................... 32
1.21 Aditya-L1 Mission ............................................ 16
1.22 Mangalyaan Mission ........................................ 17 Introduction ......................................... 32
1.23 GEMINI system ................................................ 18 2.1 Definition of a Planet ....................................... 32
1.24 Mission Venus................................................... 18 2.2 Sun’s Atmosphere ............................................. 32
2.3 Solar Cycles and Sun spots ............................... 32
Global Missions ..................................... 18
2.4 Asteroid & Comet ............................................. 32
NASA .................................................... 18 2.5 Heliosphere, Heliopause and Interstellar Space
33
1.25 NASA’s Missions to Venus................................ 18
2.6 Arrokoth............................................................ 33
1.26 New Shephard................................................... 19
2.7 TRAPPIST-1 ..................................................... 33
1.27 CIBER-2 ........................................................... 19
2.8 Saraswati - Supercluster of Galaxies ............... 34
1.28 Landsat 9 .......................................................... 19
1.29 Lucy Mission - First Mission to Trojans .......... 20 Recent Developments ........................... 34
1.30 NASA’s DART Mission ..................................... 21 2.9 Quark-Gluon Plasma........................................ 34
1.31 Sampling Process of Perseverance Rover ........ 21 2.10 Gamma-Ray Burst ............................................ 34
1.32 Laser Communications Relay Demonstration .. 22 2.11 Moon Wobble.................................................... 35
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2.12 Merging of 3 Super-massive Black Holes ......... 35 4.19 Hypersonic Missiles .......................................... 54
2.13 Near-surface Shear Layer ................................ 36 4.20 MANPADS ........................................................ 55
2.14 Solar Storm & Internet ..................................... 37
Aircrafts ............................................... 55
2.15 Planet Nine ....................................................... 37
4.21 Black Box .......................................................... 55
2.16 Leonids Meteor Shower .................................... 37
4.22 Light Combat Aircraft Programme .................. 56
2.17 Proxima Centauri ............................................. 38
4.23 P-8I Aircraft ..................................................... 56
2.18 Detection of Dark Energy ................................. 38
4.24 Advanced Light Helicopter MK III ................... 57
2.19 Fastest Spinning White Dwarf .......................... 39
2.20 Kamo’oalewa ................................................... 39 Drones .................................................. 57
2.21 Supermassive Black Hole & Gravity ................ 40 4.25 Kamikaze Drones.............................................. 57
2.22 Magnetar .......................................................... 40 4.26 HANSA-NG ....................................................... 57
2.23 Carbon Enhanced Metal-Poor Stars ................ 41
Submarines ........................................... 58
2.24 Binary Star ....................................................... 41
2.25 Solar Jets .......................................................... 42 4.27 India’s Submarine Strength .............................. 58
2.26 Eugene Parker .................................................. 43 4.28 INS Vela ............................................................ 59
3. Telescopes & Observatories ............. 43 Other Naval Ships ................................. 59
3.1 Study on Astronomical Observatories .............. 43 4.29 IAC-1 Vikrant ................................................... 59
3.2 PASIPHAE ....................................................... 44 4.30 RoIP in Syama Prasad Mookerjee Port ............ 60
3.3 Hubble Telescope in Safe Mode ....................... 44 4.31 EW Suite Shakti ................................................ 61
3.4 James Webb Space Telescope .......................... 45 4.32 Coast Guard Ship ‘Sarthak’ ............................. 61
3.5 Neutrino ............................................................ 46 4.33 Sagar Nidhi....................................................... 61
3.6 X-particles in Quark-gluon Plasma .................. 46 4.34 INS Khukri ........................................................ 62
3.7 SARAS 3 Radio Telescope ................................ 47 5. Health ............................................. 63

4. Defense ........................................... 47 COVID-19.............................................. 63
Artillery ................................................ 47 5.1 Naming of Coronavirus Variants using Greek
Letters 63
4.1 Enhanced Pinaka Rocket .................................. 47
5.2 Delta Variant of Coronavirus ........................... 64
4.2 Arjun Mark-1A ................................................. 48
5.3 Delta Plus Variant of Coronavirus ................... 64
4.3 Cluster Bombs and Vacuum Bombs.................. 48
5.4 Lambda Covid Variant ..................................... 64
4.4 Articulated All-Terrain Vehicles ...................... 49
5.5 Mu Variant ....................................................... 65
Missiles................................................. 49 5.6 Big Cats at Coronavirus Risk ........................... 65
4.5 Agni P ............................................................... 49 5.7 Monoclonal Antibodies ..................................... 65
4.6 Man Portable Anti-tank Guided Missile ........... 49 5.8 Mixing Covid-19 Vaccines................................ 66
4.7 South Korea’s Iron Dome ................................. 49 5.9 Corbevax .......................................................... 66
4.8 Akash Prime Missile ......................................... 50 5.10 Soberana ........................................................... 67
4.9 North Korea’s 1st Strategic Cruise Missile Test 50 5.11 UV-C Air Duct Disinfection System ................. 67
4.10 Agni-5 ............................................................... 50 5.12 Fourth Sero Survey ........................................... 68
4.11 China’s Hypersonic Glide Vehicle ................... 51 5.13 New Zealand Zero Covid Strategy .................... 68
4.13 HEAT Abhyas ................................................... 52 5.14 Breakthrough Infections ................................... 69
4.14 Pralay ............................................................... 53 5.15 R Value ............................................................. 69
4.15 Supersonic Missile Assisted Torpedo System ... 53 5.16 Cuba is Vaccinating Children .......................... 69
4.16 Stand-Off Anti-Tank Missile ............................. 53 5.17 Superiority of Hybrid Immunity ........................ 70
4.17 Advanced Variant of BrahMos ......................... 54 5.18 Zeolite Oxygen Concentrators .......................... 70
4.18 Man Portable Anti-Tank Guided Missile .......... 54 5.19 i-Drone ............................................................. 71

5.20 Additional Covid-19 Vaccine and Booster Shot - 5.60 Silicosis ............................................................. 90
Difference ..................................................................... 71
5.61 Wolbachia Mosquitoes ..................................... 91
5.21 Pseudoephedrine .............................................. 72
5.62 Muscle Dysfunction and Vitamin D .................. 91
5.22 Intranasal Covid-19 Vaccines .......................... 72
5.23 NeoCoV & Zoonotic Spillover .......................... 73 6. Bio-Technology ............................... 92
Diseases in News ................................... 74 Introduction ......................................... 92

5.24 H10N3 Bird Flu ................................................ 74 6.1 Stem Cells ......................................................... 92
5.25 Antibodies against Nipah in Bats ..................... 75 6.2 Gene Editing ..................................................... 93
5.26 Epstein-Barr Virus - Leading Cause of Multiple 6.3 Genomic Sequencing ........................................ 94
Sclerosis ....................................................................... 75
Recent Developments ........................... 95
5.27 Filoviruses ........................................................ 75
6.4 Three-step Synthesis Route for Molnupiravir ... 95
5.28 H5Nx Virus ....................................................... 76
6.5 ASPAGNII ........................................................ 96
5.29 Zika Virus Disease ............................................ 76
6.6 Cryptogamic Garden ........................................ 96
5.30 Monkey B Virus ................................................ 77
6.7 Harit Dhara ...................................................... 97
5.31 National Action Plan for dog Mediated Rabies
Elimination by 2030 ..................................................... 77 6.8 Gamma Irradiation Technology ....................... 97
5.32 Dengue ............................................................. 78 6.9 Fortification of Rice.......................................... 98
5.33 Gambusia Fish to Control Dengue ................... 78 6.10 Junk DNA ......................................................... 98
5.34 Corticosteroids for MIS-C ................................ 79 6.11 DNA Fingerprinting ......................................... 99
5.35 Norovirus .......................................................... 79 6.12 Synthetic Biology ............................................ 100
5.36 Papilloma virus and Cervical Cancer .............. 80 6.13 Xenobots ......................................................... 101
5.37 Parvovirus ........................................................ 80 6.14 Dark Genome.................................................. 101
5.38 Immune Amnesia .............................................. 81 6.15 IndiGau Chip .................................................. 102
5.39 Lassa Fever ...................................................... 81 6.16 Nutraceuticals................................................. 102
5.40 Immunosensor for Japanese Encephalitis Virus82 6.17 Kalanamak Rice.............................................. 102
5.41 Fusobacterium .................................................. 82 6.18 Precision-guided Sterile Insect Technique (pgSIT)
103
5.42 Mosquirix ......................................................... 82
5.43 First CAR-T Cell Therapy ................................ 83 7. Nuclear technology ....................... 103
5.44 Rheumatic Heart Disease ................................. 83 7.1 China’s Artificial Sun ‘EAST’ ........................ 103
5.45 Treatment for Prostate Cancer ......................... 84 7.2 Nuclear Fusion ............................................... 104
5.46 Aducanumab ..................................................... 84 7.3 AFR Facility ................................................... 104
5.47 Peter Pan Syndrome ......................................... 84
5.48 Rise in Myopia in Children............................... 85 8. Innovations................................... 105
5.49 Esotropia .......................................................... 85 8.1 AmbiTAG ........................................................ 105
5.50 Autism Spectrum Disorder ............................... 86 8.2 Train Collision Avoidance System .................. 105
5.51 Type 1 Diabetes ................................................ 86 8.3 High Strength Metastable Beta Titanium Alloy
105
5.52 Sickle Cell Anaemia.......................................... 87
8.4 Viscose ............................................................ 106
5.53 Goitre ............................................................... 87
8.5 Xenotransplantation to Humans ..................... 106
5.54 Wilful Control of Dopamine ............................. 88
8.6 Ubreathe Life .................................................. 106
5.55 Havana Syndrome ............................................ 88
8.7 Fabricated Guar gum-Chitosan Film ............. 107
5.56 Gaming Disorder .............................................. 88
8.8 Lyocell Fibre .................................................. 107
Issues ................................................... 89 8.9 Crumb Rubber ................................................ 108
5.57 Doctor to Population Ratio .............................. 89 8.10 Aquamation..................................................... 108
5.58 Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances 89 8.11 Perovskite-based Solar Cells .......................... 108
5.59 Quick Reaction to Negative Smells ................... 90 8.12 Solid-state Batteries........................................ 109

8.13 Aluminium ...................................................... 109 10. Nano Technology .......................... 130

8.14 Gallium nitride ............................................... 110 10.1 Nanofibers ...................................................... 130
10.2 Nanosniffer ..................................................... 130
9. IT & Computer .............................. 110
10.3 Nano Urea Liquid ........................................... 130
9.1 How Digital Currencies Work ........................ 110
10.4 Electrically Configured Nanochannels........... 130
9.2 Regulatory Clarity on Crypto Assets .............. 112
10.5 Soft Robotic Actuators .................................... 131
9.3 The Legal Considerations of Blockchain Gaming
in India ....................................................................... 113 10.6 Nanoantenna................................................... 131
9.4 P versus NP Problem ..................................... 115
11. Government Programmes/Initiatives
9.5 Pegasus Spyware ............................................ 115 132
9.6 Banking Malware ‘Drink’ .............................. 116 11.1 India Semiconductor Mission (ISM) ............... 132
9.7 Planetarium Innovation Challenge ................ 116 11.2 Possibility of a Semiconductor Crisis ............. 133
9.8 Internet Freedom Index .................................. 117 11.3 Graphene ........................................................ 134
9.9 Hybrid Cloud and the Remote Reality ............ 117 11.4 Bullet Train ..................................................... 134
9.10 Outage of Facebook ....................................... 117 11.5 Vande Bharat Trains ...................................... 135
9.11 Challenges posed by Automation ................... 118 11.6 Aviation Turbine Fuel..................................... 135
9.12 Web3.0 Imagines a Decentralized Web .......... 119
9.13 5G Technology ............................................... 120 12. Awards .......................................... 136
9.14 6G ................................................................... 121 12.1 History of Nobel Prize .................................... 136
9.15 Quantum Technologies ................................... 122 12.2 Nobel Prize in Physics 2021 ........................... 136
9.16 Satellite Broadband Service ........................... 123 12.3 Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2021 ....................... 136
9.17 Log4Shell Vulnerability .................................. 123 12.4 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2021 . 137
9.18 Millimetre Wave Band in 5G Auctions ........... 124 12.5 Nobel Prize in Literature 2021 ....................... 138
9.19 Geomagnetic Storm that killed Starlink Satellites 12.6 Nobel Peace Prize 2021 ................................. 139
124 12.7 Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences
9.20 Doxxing .......................................................... 125 2021 139
9.21 Radio Frequency Identification ...................... 125
13. Others .......................................... 139
9.22 M2M Communication ..................................... 125
13.1 Using Magnets to Produce Hydrogen ............ 139
9.23 Param Pravega............................................... 126
13.2 Blood Honey ................................................... 140
9.24 PARAM Ganga ............................................... 126
13.3 Indian Royal Jelly ........................................... 140
9.25 AI Research SuperCluster .............................. 126
13.4 Suffering from ‘Climate Change’ ................... 141
9.26 Meta's AI Supercomputer ............................... 127
13.5 Technical Textiles ........................................... 141
9.27 Lapsus$ Attack ............................................... 128
13.6 The Taproot .................................................... 141
9.29 Central Equipment Identity Register .............. 129
13.7 Anti-Doping .................................................... 142
13.8 Shackleton’s Ship............................................ 143

1. SPACE TECHNOLOGY
Introduction
1.1 Types of Orbits

 There are many different satellite orbits that can be used depending upon satellite’s functions and area it is to
serve.
 The lower the satellites orbit the Earth, the stronger the gravitational pull, and this means that the satellite must
travel faster to counteract this pull. Further away the gravitational field is less and the satellite velocities are
correspondingly less.
 A satellite orbits the Earth in one of two basic types of
orbits such as Circular and Elliptical satellite
orbit.
 For a circular orbit, the distance from the Earth
remains the same at all times whereas the elliptical
orbit changes the distance to the Earth.
 Circular orbits are classified into Low Earth Orbit
(LEO), Medium Earth Orbit, Geosynchronous orbit etc.
 Most satellites, the International Space Station, the
Space Shuttle, and the Hubble Space Telescope are all
in Low Earth Orbit.
 LEO (180 – 2000 Km) is convenient for installing new instruments, fixing things that are broken, and inspecting
damage.
 A geosynchronous orbit, located at 35,790 km has the same orbital period as the sidereal rotation period of
the Earth.
 It allows satellites to synchronize with the rotation of the Earth (only in time and not in direction).
 This makes geosynchronous satellites particularly useful for telecommunications and other remote
sensing applications.
 One particular form of geosynchronous orbit is known as a geostationary orbit, in which the satellite rotates
in the same direction as the rotation of the Earth and has
an approximate 24 hour period.
 The satellite placed in geostationary orbit remains in the
same position relative to the Earth.
 It is used by many applications including direct
broadcast as well as communications or relay systems.
 While geosynchronous satellites can have any inclination,
geostationary orbit lie on the same plane as the equator.
 Polar Orbit –Satellites placed in polar orbits have an
inclination of about 90 degrees to the equator and travels
north-south over the poles at lower altitudes.

 A satellite in the polar orbit approx. takes 90 minutes for a full rotation. As a result, a satellite can observe the
entire surface in the time span of 24 hours.
 They are often used for applications such as monitoring crops, forests and even global security.
 Sun Synchronous Orbit –It is a special case of Polar Orbit moving from pole to pole allowing satellite to pass
over any given point of the planet's surface at roughly the same local time each day.
 Since there are 365 days in a year and 360 degrees in a circle, it means that the satellite has to shift its orbit by
approximately one degree per day.
 These orbits are used for satellites that need a constant amount of sunlight and are useful for imaging, spy, and
weather satellites.
1.2 Types of Satellites

 Communication Satellitesprovide services to telecommunications, television broadcasting, satellite
newsgathering, societal applications, weather forecasting, disaster warning and Search and Rescue operations.
 The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) series of satellites in Geostationary Orbit (INSAT-3A, 3C, 4A, 4B, 4CR)
are used for communication purposes.
 GSAT series also joins the constellation of INSAT system in providing communication services.
 Earth Observation Satellitesare used for several applications covering agriculture, water resources, urban
planning, rural development, mineral prospecting, environment, forestry, ocean resources and disaster
management.
 Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) series of satellites in Sun-synchronous polar orbit are Earth observation satellites.
 Satellites in - Sun-synchronous orbit – RESOURCESAT-1, 2, 2A CARTOSAT-1, 2, 2A, 2B, RISAT-1 and 2,
OCEANSAT-2, Megha-Tropiques, SARAL and SCATSAT-1
 Satellites in Geostationary orbit - INSAT-3D, Kalpana & INSAT 3A, INSAT -3DR
 Navigation Satellitesare used to meet the emerging demand of positioning, navigation and timing and also
civil aviation requirements. GAGAN and IRNSS (NAVIC) are navigation satellite system in use.
 GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation (GAGAN), is implemented jointly by ISRO and Airport Authority
of India (AAI).
 The main objectives of GAGAN are to provide Satellite-based Navigation services with accuracy and integrity
required for civil aviation applications and to provide better Air Traffic Management over Indian Airspace.
 The GAGAN Signal-In-Space (SIS) is available through GSAT-8 and GSAT-10.
 Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS), NavIC is an independent regional navigation
satellite system to provide accurate position information service.
 Space Science and Exploration Satellites encompasses research in areas like astronomy, astrophysics,
planetary and earth sciences, atmospheric sciences and theoretical physics.
 E.g – Mars Orbiter Mission, AstroSat, Chandrayaan -1,2.
1.3 Launch Vehicles

 Launch Vehicles are used to carry spacecraft to space.
 Following are the various launch vehicles used by ISRO
 Historic launchers - Satellite Launch Vehicle - 3 (SLV-3) and Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV).
 SLV was India's first experimental satellite launch vehicle with solid engines in all 4 stages. ASLV has 3 times
augmented capacity of SLV-3.
 Operational launchers - Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) and Geosynchronous Satellite Launch
Vehicle (GSLV) and Sounding Rockets.
 Future launchers – GSLV MK-III, Reusable Launch Vehicle (RLV-TD), Scramjet Engine – TD.

1.4 PSLV
 It is the3rd generation launch vehicle and first Indian launch vehicle to be equipped with liquid stages.
 PSLV emerged as the reliable and versatile workhorse launch vehicle of India with consecutively successful
missions.
 It successfully launched two spacecraft such as Chandrayaan-1 in 2008 and Mars Orbiter Spacecraft in 2013.
 3 variations in PSLV - PSLV-G (General), PSLV-XL variants and PSLV-CA (Core Alone).
 It has 4 stages in its operation to provide thrust in launching spacecraft to different orbits.
 Stage I: It uses solid rocket motor that is augmented by 6 solid strap-on boosters. Strap on boosters are used
only in G and XL variation.
 Stage II: It uses an Earth storable liquid rocket engine, known as the Vikas engine.
 Stage III: It uses solid rocket motor that provides high thrust after the atmospheric phase of the launch.
 Stage IV: It comprises two Earth storable liquid engines.
 Capacity - 1,750 kg of payload to Sun-Synchronous Polar Orbits of 600 km altitude and to 1,425 kg of payload
to Geosynchronous and Geostationary orbits, like satellites from the IRNSS constellation.
 PSLV launches– PSLV-C48/RISAT-2BR1, PSLV-C47 / Cartosat-3, PSLV-C46/RISAT-2B, PSLV-
C45/EMISAT MISSION, PSLV - C44/Microsat, Kalamsat etc
1.5 GSLV
 It is the 4th generation launch vehicle, a three-stage vehicle with four liquid strap-on boosters.
 GSLV Mk II is the largest launch vehicle developed by India, which is currently in operation.
1. Stage I: It uses solid rocket motor with 4 liquid strap-ons.
2. Stage II: It uses liquid rocket engine (similar to vikas engine of PSLV stage II).
3. Stage III: It uses India’s first cryogenic engine (CE-7.5) in the upper stage. It enabled the launching of
2000 kg of communication satellites.
 Capacity - It can take up to 5000 kg of pay load to Low Earth Orbits, 2500 kg of payload to Geosynchronous
Transfer Orbit (GTO) which are primarily INSAT class of communication satellites.
 GSLV Launches – GSLV – F11/GSAT-7A and GSLV – F08/GSAT – 6A mission.
 The next variant of GSLV is GSLV Mk III, with indigenous high thrust cryogenic engine.
1.6 GSLV MK III

 GSLV Mk III is a three-stage heavy lift launch vehicle which has two solid strap-ons, a core liquid booster and a
cryogenic upper stage.
 The cryogenic upper stage C25 is powered by CE-20 which is India's largest cryogenic engine.
 It is designed to carry 4000 kg classes of satellites into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) or about 8000
kg classes to Low Earth Orbit (LEO), which is about twice the capability of GSLV Mk II.
 Recent Launches – GSLV-Mk III - M1 / Chandrayaan-2 Mission, GSLV Mk III-D2 / GSAT-29, GSLV MK III
D1/GSAT – 19 and LVM-3 /CARE (Crew module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment) mission.
 It is the designated launch vehicle for India’s upcoming second moon mission and the first human space flight
scheduled for 2022.
1.7 RLV-TD
 Reusable Launch Vehicle – Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) is a fully reusable launch vehicle to enable low
cost access to space.
 The configuration of RLV-TD is similar to that of an aircraft and combines the complexity of both launch
vehicles and aircraft.

 The winged RLV-TD has been configured to act as a flying test bed to evaluate various technologies, namely,
hypersonic flight, autonomous landing and powered cruise flight.
 In future, this vehicle will be scaled up to become the first stage of India’s reusable two stage orbital launch
vehicle.
 Objectives of RLV-TD - Hypersonic aero thermodynamic characterisation of wing body, Evaluation of
autonomous Navigation, Guidance and Control (NGC) schemes, Integrated flight management and Thermal
Protection System Evaluation
 It was successfully flight tested in 2016 from Sriharikota.
1.8 Small Satellite Launch Vehicle

The first developmental flight of Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) is scheduled in fourth quarter of 2021 from
Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota.
 SSLV was developed by the ISRO as a cost-effective, three-stage, all-solid launch vehicle.
 It has a payload capability of 500 kg to 500 km planar orbit or 300 kg to Sun Synchronous Polar Orbit.
 It is shorter in length than the PSLV and GSLV. Unlike the PSLV and GSLV, the SSLV can be assembled both
vertically and horizontally.
 The major technologies developed as part of realization of SSLV are,
1. Flexible nozzle control with electro-mechanical actuators for all stages,
2. Miniaturized avionics and
3. A velocity trimming module in the upper stage for precise satellite injection.
 SSLV is ideal for on-demand, quick turn-around launch of small satellites.
1.9 Sounding Rockets

 Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has launched RH-560, a sounding rocket to study attitudinal
variations in the neutral winds and plasma dynamics.
 Sounding rockets are one or two stage solid propellant rockets used for probing the upper atmospheric regions
and for space research.
 They serve as platforms to test or prove
prototypes of new components or subsystems
intended for use in launch vehicles and
satellites.
 It is possible to conduct coordinated
campaigns by simultaneously launching
sounding rockets from different locations in a
single day.
 ISRO started launching indigenously made
sounding rockets from 1965.
 In 1975, ISRO consolidated all its sounding
rocket activities under the Rohini Sounding
Rocket (RSR) Programme.
 RH-75 was the first truly Indian sounding rocket from the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station
(TERLS) [Numbers in the name indicates the diameter of the rocket in mm]
1.10 Vikas Engine

ISRO successfully conducted a 25-second qualification test for its liquid propellant-based Vikas engine to be used
under the Gaganyaan mission.
 Vikas is a family of liquid fuelled rocket engines that powers India’s launch vehicles PSLV and GSLV.
 The engine uses up about 40 metric tons of Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) as fuel and Nitrogen
tetroxide (N2O4) as oxidizer with a maximum thrust of 725 kN.

 It is aimed at improving the payload capability of PSLV, GSLV and GSLV Mk-III launch vehicles.
 The Vikas Engine is the workhorse liquid rocket engine powering
o The second stage of India’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV),
o The second stage and the four strap on stages of Geosynchronous Launch Vehicle (GSLV) and
o The twin engine core liquid stage (L110) of GSLV Mk-III.
 ISRO has recently improved the thrust of the Vikas engine which is expected to boost the rocket engine.
 The main beneficiary of the high-thrust Vikas engine is GSLV-Mark III launcher, which is expected to lift 4,000-
kg satellites to space.
 GSLV-Mark III uses twin engine core liquid stage (L110).
 GSLV – Mark III with upgraded Vikas engine would be the third Mk-III and the first working one to be
designated MkIII Mission-1 or M1.
1.11 Cryogenic Engine

 Cryogenics is the science that addresses the production and effects of very low temperatures.
 A cryogenic rocket engine uses a cryogenic fuel or oxidizer, which are gases liquefied and stored at very low
temperatures.
 Notably, these engines were one of the main factors of NASA's success in reaching the Moon.
 Amongst all rocket fuels, hydrogen is known to provide the maximum thrust.
 But hydrogen, in its natural gaseous form, is difficult to handle, and, therefore, not used in normal engines in
rockets like PSLV. However, hydrogen can be used in liquid form.
 The problem is hydrogen liquefies at very low temperature, nearly 250 degrees Celsius below zero.
 To burn this fuel, oxygen also needs to be in liquid form, and that happens at about 90 degrees Celsius below
zero.
 Creating such a low-temperature atmosphere in the rocket is a difficult proposition, because it creates problems
for other material used in the rocket.
1.12 Scramjet Engine - TD

 Usually, launch vehicles carry oxidiser along with the fuel for combustion to produce thrust to launch satellites
into orbit.
 Nearly, 70% of the propellant (fuel – oxidiser) by weight consists of oxidiser which makes it to carry only 2-4%
of their lift-off mass to orbit.
 Therefore, air-breathing propulsion system which can utilise the atmospheric oxygen during their flight and
reduce the total propellant required to place a satellite in orbit is being developed by various space agencies.
 Ramjet, Scramjet and Dual Mode Ramjet (DMRJ) are the three concepts of air-breathing engines.
 A ramjet is a form of air-breathing jet engine that uses the vehicle’s forward motion to compress incoming air
for combustion without a rotating compressor.
 Fuel is injected in the combustion chamber where it mixes with the hot compressed air and ignites.
 It works most efficiently at supersonic speeds around Mach 3 (three times the speed of sound) and can operate
up to speeds of Mach 6.
 However, the ramjet efficiency starts to drop when the vehicle reaches hypersonic speeds.
 A scramjet engine is an improvement over the ramjet engine as it efficiently operates at hypersonic speeds and
allows supersonic combustion. Thus, it is known as Supersonic Combustion Ramjet, or Scramjet.
 A dual mode ramjet (DMRJ) is a type of jet engine where a ramjet transforms into scramjet over Mach 4-8
range, which means it can efficiently operate both in subsonic and supersonic combustor modes.
 ISRO’s Advanced Technology Vehicle (ATV), which is an advanced sounding rocket, was the solid rocket booster
used for test of Scramjet engines at supersonic conditions.

 ATV is a two- stage solid launch vehicle capable of carrying Scramjet engines weighed 3277 kg at lift-off.
 India is the fourth country (after USA, Russia and European Space Agency) to demonstrate the flight testing of
a Scramjet Engine.
1.13 Green Propellants

 ISRO is developing green propellants to eliminate the emission of chlorinated exhaust products from rocket.
 The propellants are based on Glycidyl Azide Polymer (GAP) as fuel and Ammonium Di-Nitramide (ADN) as
oxidizer.
 ISRO is also carrying out various technology demonstration projects involving green propellant combinations
such as Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2), Kerosene, Liquid Oxygen (LOX), Liquid Methane etc.
 It has successfully developed ISROSENE, which is a rocket grade version of kerosene as an alternative to
conventional hydrazine rocket fuel.
 It has already used Liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen combination in cryogenic upper stage of GSLV MK-III.
1.14 The International Space Station (ISS)

 It is a modular space station (habitable artificial satellite) in low Earth orbit.
 The ISS programme is a multi-national collaborative project between five participating space agencies:
1. NASA (United States),
2. Roscosmos (Russia),
3. JAXA (Japan),
4. ESA (Europe),
5. CSA (Canada).
 The ownership and use of the space station are established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements.
 It is suited for testing the spacecraft systems and equipment required for possible future long-duration missions
to the Moon and Mars.
 It is the only active modular space station (habitable artificial satellite) in the Low-Earth Orbit (LEO).
 It is the largest artificial object in space and the largest satellite in low Earth orbit, regularly visible to the naked
eye from Earth's surface.
 It circles the Earth in roughly 93 minutes, completing 15.5 orbits per day.
 It is like a large laboratory in space that has been there since 1998. It allows astronauts to come aboard and stay
for weeks or months to carry out experiments in microgravity.
 Recent Developments - Russia announced that it would be withdrawing from the International Space Station
in 2025, and build and manage its own floating laboratory that will be launched into orbit by 2030.
Indian Missions in News
1.15 EOS-04
India’s Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle PSLV-C52 injected Earth Observation Satellite EOS-04, into an intended sun
synchronous polar orbit of 529 km altitude from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, SHAR, Sriharikota.
 EOS-04 is a Radar Imaging Satellite designed to provide high quality images under all weather conditions for
applications such as Agriculture, Forestry & Plantations, Soil Moisture & Hydrology and Flood mapping.
 PSLV-C52/EOS-04 has a mission life of 10 years.
 The vehicle also placed two small co-passenger satellites,
1. A student satellite (INSPIREsat-1) from Indian Institute of Space Science & Technology (IIST) in
association with Laboratory of Atmospheric & Space Physics at University of Colorado, and

2. A technology demonstrator satellite (INS-2TD) from ISRO, which is a precursor to India-Bhutan Joint
Satellite (INS-2B).
1.16 Lunar Missions

 Lunar Polar Exploration (LUPEX) - Joint mission of ISRO & Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency.
 This robotic mission aims to send a lander and rover to the South Pole of the moon in 2023/2024.
 Its aim is to obtain knowledge of lunar water resources and to explore the suitability of the lunar polar region
for setting up a lunar base.
 It plans to demonstrate new surface exploration technologies related to vehicular transport and lunar night
survival for sustainable lunar exploration in the Polar Regions - South pole of the Moon in this case.
 Artemis Missions -Artemis stands for Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence, and Electrodynamics of the
Moon’s Interaction with the Sun.
 NASA’s Artemis missions plan to enable human landing on the Moon beginning 2024 and target sustainable
lunar exploration by 2028.
 It plans to send the first colour man and first woman to the lunar surface.
 Its objective is to measure what happens when the Sun’s radiation hits our rocky moon, where there is no
magnetic field to protect it.
 Three parts of the program
1. Artemis I (2021) involves an uncrewed flight to test the Space Launch System (SLS) and Orion
spacecraft,
2. Artemis II (2023) - 1st crewed flight test,
3. Artemis III (2024) will land astronauts on the Moon’s South Pole.
1.17 SC120-LOX
Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd (HAL) has delivered the ‘heaviest’ Semi-Cryogenic propellant tank (SC120-LOX) to the
Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
 [In 2020, HAL had delivered the biggest ever cryogenic Liquid Hydrogen tank (C32-LH2) which is four metres
in diameter and eight metres in length, much ahead of contractual schedule.]
 Semi cryo-liquid oxygen (LOX) tank - the first developmental welded hardware - is a part of the SC120 stage.
 SC120 stage is intended for payload enhancement by replacing the L110 stage in the existing GSLV Mk-
III launch vehicle.
 HAL, strategic reliable partner to ISRO, has delivered critical structures, tankages, satellite structures for
the PSLV, GSLV-Mk II and GSLV-Mk III launch vehicles since the last 5 decades.
SCE200
 SCE200 (under development) is an Indian example of Semi-Cryogenic Engine.
 This engine is expected to power ISRO’s upcoming Unified Launch Vehicle (ULV) and Reusable Launch Vehicle
(RLV).
 Semi-Cryogenic Engine burns liquid oxygen (LOX) and RP-1 kerosene in an oxidizer-rich staged combustion
cycle.
 [A cryogenic engine uses Liquid Oxygen and Liquid Hydrogen (LH2) as propellants.]
1.18 GSAT 7B
The Defence Acquisition Council (DAC) chaired by Defence Minister has given the Acceptance of Necessity (AoN) for
procuring a GSAT 7B satellite, along with equipment like Night Sight (image intensifier), etc.
 Launched in 2013, the GSAT 7 series satellites are advanced satellites developed by the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO).

 They were developed to meet the communication needs of the defence services, which includes low bit
voice rate to high bit rate data facilities, including multi-band communications.
 This satellite has a footprint of nearly 2,000 nautical miles in the Indian Ocean region.
 Rukmini - Named Rukmini, the satellite is mainly used by the Indian Navy for its communication needs.
 It carries payloads in UHF, C-band and Ku-band, and helps the Navy to have a secure, real time communication
link between its land establishments, surface ships, submarines and aircraft.
 The satellite was injected into a geosynchronous transfer orbit (GTO).
 Role of GSAT 7B - Currently, the Indian Army is using 30% of the communication capabilities of the GSAT
7A satellite, which has been designed for the Indian Air Force (IAF).
 So, GSAT 7B will primarily fulfill the Army’s communication needs.
 It will also help the Army enhance its surveillance in border areas.
GSAT 7A Satellite
 Launched in 2018, GSAT 7A has gone a long way in boosting the connectivity between the ground radar stations,
airbases and the airborne early warning and control aircraft (AEW&C) of the IAF.
 It also helps in satellite controlled operations of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) which gives a great deal of
reliability to the operations as compared to ground controlled operations.
 It has 10 channels in Ku band with switchable frequency for mobile users, a fixed Gregorian or parabolic
antenna, and 4 steerable antennae.
GSAT 7C Satellite
 A GSAT 7C satellite is on the cards for the IAF, and a proposal to this effect was cleared by the DAC in 2021.
 It would facilitate real time communication with IAF’s software defined radio communication sets.
 It will increase the capability of the IAF to communicate beyond the line of sight in a secure mode.
Other Military Satellites of India
 EMISAT - An Electromagnetic Intelligence Gathering Satellite (EMISAT), developed by ISRO, was launched
in 2020 through a Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV-C45).
 It is Indian reconnaissance satellite under Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) project
Kautilyas.
 Kautilya is an Electronic Intelligence (ELINT) package, which allows the interception of ground-based radar
and also carries out electronic surveillance across India.
 It provides the capability in direction-finding of radar and fixing their locations.
 Placed in a 748-km orbit, EMISAT is based on the Israeli satellite system.
 It circles the globe pole-to-pole, and is helpful in gathering information from radars of countries that have
borders with India.
 RISAT 2BR1 - Launched in 2019, RISAT 2BR1 is India’s synthetic aperture radar imaging satellite.
 It has the capability to operate in different modes including very high resolution imaging modes of 1×0.5m
resolution and 0.5×0.3m resolution with a swath of 5-10 km.
Other Notable Missions
1.19 Gaganyaan
 Gaganyaan is the India’s first Human Space Flight Programme.
 ISRO is targeting December, 2021 to launch the unmanned test mission of Gaganyaan project.
 The programme will make India the fourth nation in the world to launch a Human Spaceflight Mission, only
after the USA, Russia and China.
 It is being operating under a newly formed Centre, Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC).

 It aims to send a three-member crew to space for a period of five to seven days.
 ISRO has developed some critical technologies through demonstrations like Space Capsule Recovery
Experiment (SRE-2007), Crew module Atmospheric Reentry Experiment (CARE-2014) and Pad Abort Test
(2018).
 The spacecraft will be placed in a low earth orbit of 300-400km.
 GSLV Mk-III launch vehicle will be used to for the mission. It has the payload capacity of 4000 kg satellites in
Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit (GTO) and 8000 kg payload to Low Earth Orbit.
 The crew will be selected by Indian Air Force (IAF) and ISRO jointly after which they will undergo training for
two-three years.
 Re-entry & Recovery tech - ISRO has already tested the GSLV Mk-III with experimental crew module.
 It came back to Earth after being taken to an altitude of 126 km into space. This this known as Crew module
Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment (CARE).
 Crew Escape System – It is an emergency escape measure to quickly pull the astronaut crew out to a safe
distance from launch vehicle during a launch abort.
 Pad Abort test was conducted earlier to demonstrate this to ascertain the efficiency of crew escape system.
 Life support -The Environmental Control & Life Support System (ECLSS) is meant for humans inside to live
comfortably.
 It ensures that conditions inside the crew module are suitable for living.
 The ECLSS -
i. Maintains a steady cabin pressure and air composition
ii. Removes carbon dioxide and other harmful gases
iii. Controls temperature and humidity
iv. Manages parameters like fire detection and suppression, emergency support
v. Takes care of food and water management
 Human Space Flight Centre - India’s world-class facility for training GAGANYAAN astronauts will be
established in three years at Challakere, Chitradurga district of Karnataka.

 Challakere, is called the Science City, it houses facilities of the ISRO, the DRDO’s Advanced Aeronautical Test
Range, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre and the Indian Institute of Science.
 It will be the single-stop consolidating infrastructure and activities related to space travellers.
 It will also host work related to crew and service modules of the spacecraft that carries the astronauts and up to
mission control.
1.20 GSLV-Mk III - M1 / Chandrayaan-2 Mission

 GSLV MkIII-M1, successfully launched Chandrayaan-2 spacecraft into its planned orbit but failed to soft-land
the lander on the moon.
 Chandrayaan-1 was designed to just orbit the Moon and make observations, while Chandrayaan-2 is
created to land on the Moon.
 It has three important components — the Orbiter, the Lander ‘Vikram’, and Rover ‘Pragyan’
 The mission aims to explore the unexplored South Pole of the Moon.
 According to ISRO, there is a possibility of the presence of water in permanently shadowed areas around it.
South Pole region also has craters that are cold traps and contain a fossil record of the early Solar System.
 GSLV MK – III also called as ‘Baahubali’, the country’s heaviest and most powerful rocket to date.
 ISRO provides four reasons for what made the Chandrayaan-2 mission “special”.
 Chandryaan-2 would be -
1. the first space mission to conduct a soft landing on the moon’s south pole
2. the first Indian expedition to attempt a landing on lunar surface using home-grown technology
3. the first Indian mission to explore lunar terrain with home-grown technology
4. the mission that would make India only the 4th country to soft land on the moon
 Orbiter - The Orbiter will 100 km away from the moon, which will observe lunar surface and relay
communication between Earth and the Lander.
 The orbiter is equipped with different kinds of camera to take create high-resolution three-dimensional maps
of the surface, would remain in orbit for a year.
 Vikram Lander - Lander module Vikram was named after Vikram Sarabhai.
 It is the first time that ISRO is attempting to soft-land a module in extra-terrestrial space to mainly study the
moon’s atmosphere and look out for seismic activity. However, it failed in its attempt.
 Pragyaan Rover - Rover module Pragyaan means wisdom.
 The 6-wheeled, AI Solar powered rover was designed, developed and build indigenously by ISRO. The rover will
be landed closer to the Moon’s equator to receive more sun light.
 Its primary objective will be to study the composition of the surface near the lunar landing site, and determine
its abundance of various elements.
 Both the Lander and Rover are designed to work for only 14 days (1 lunar day).
 This mission will help us to better understand the origin and evolution of the moon. Studies of lunar
topography, mineralogy, elemental abundance, and signatures of water ice are the prime objectives.
 The orbiter has 8 instruments fitted into it and 7 of them are India’s. NASA has one payload onboard called the
Laser Retroreflector Array (LRA).
 Recent Developments - ISRO released the information gathered by the scientific payloads on board the
Orbiter of Chandrayaan-2.
 Chandrayaan-2 has found signatures of water at all latitudes, although its abundance varies from place to place.
Imaging Infra-Red Spectrometer (IIRS) on board Chandrayaan-2 has distinguished between hydroxyl and water
molecules, and found unique signatures of both.
 Water ice - Dual Frequency Synthetic Aperture Radar, a microwave imaging instrument, studied the
subsurface features of the Moon.

 It has detected signatures of the sub-surface water-ice and potential water ice at the poles.
 Minor Elements - By measuring the Moon’s X-ray spectrum, Large Area Soft X-Ray Spectrometer (CLASS)
has detected the minor elements for the first time through remote sensing.
 CLASS has detected sodium, chromium and manganese on the Moon.
 Studying the Sun - Solar X-ray Monitor (XSM) payload studied the Moon through the radiation coming in
from the Sun.
 XSM has also collected information about micro solar flares outside the active region for the first time.
 CHACE-2 - CHandra's Atmospheric Compositional Explorer 2 (CHACE 2) is a quadrupole Mass spectrometer
on board Chandrayaan-2 mission.
 It conducted first-ever in-situ study of the composition of the lunar neutral exosphere from a polar orbital
platform.
 It detected and studied the variability of the Argon-40 at the middle and higher latitudes of the Moon, depicting
the radiogenic activities in the mid and higher latitudes of the Lunar interior.
 Argon-40 (Ar-40), a noble gas is an inert, colorless and odourless element.
 Ar-40 originates from the radioactive disintegration of Potassium-40 (K-40) present below the lunar surface.
 [The production of argon-40 from potassium-40 decay is utilized as a means of determining Earth’s age
(potassium-argon dating).]
 Once formed, Ar-40 diffuses through the inter-granular space and makes way up to the lunar exosphere through
seepages and faults.
Chandrayaan-3
 Chandrayaan-3 is likely to be launched in 2022 (earlier scheduled to be launched in late 2020), which is India’s
third mission to Moon.
 It aims to make a soft-landing in the Lunar South Pole’s Aitken basin.
 It will consist of only a lander and rover, as the orbiter of Chandrayaan-2 is still functioning and providing data.
1.21 Aditya-L1 Mission

 It is the first Indian mission to study the Sun.
 It is expected to be launched in 2019 by the launch vehicle PSLV-XL with six payloads from Sriharikota.
 The main aim of the solar mission is to do coronal and near UV studies.
 It was meant to observe only the solar corona but with additional experiments, it can provide observations of
Sun's Photosphere (soft and hard X-ray), Chromosphere (UV) and corona (Visible and NIR).
 The outer layers of the Sun, extending to thousands of km above the disc (photosphere) is termed as the corona.
It has a temperature of more than a million-degree Kelvin which is much higher than the solar disc temperature
of around 6000K.
 It will be launched into the halo orbit around the Lagrangian point 1 (L1) of the Sun-Earth system.
 This orbit has the advantage of allowing continuous monitoring of the sun.
 Recent Developments - Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)
Identification in Inner Solar Corona (CIISCO) algorithm will be used in
India’s first solar mission, Aditya-L1.
 CIISCO was developed by the Aryabhatta Research Institute of
observational sciences (ARIES) and Royal Observatory of Belgium.
 This new algorithm will be used to detect and track the accelerating
Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) in the lower corona of the Sun.
 Previously, Computer Aided CME Tracking Software (CACTus) based on
a computer vision algorithm was used to detect and characterise
such eruptions.

 This vision algorithm detects the CMEs automatically in the outer corona where these eruptions cease to show
accelerations and propagate with a nearly constant speed.
 However, this algorithm could not be applied to the inner corona observations due to the vast acceleration
experienced by these eruptions.
 Aditya-L1 Support Cell (AL1SC), a community service centre, has been set up to bring all science data on
boardAditya-L1 to a single web-based interface. This will maximize utilization of data from Aditya-L1.
 AL1SC is a joint effort of Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and Aryabhatta Research Institute of
Observational Sciences (ARIES), an autonomous institute of the Department of Science & Technology.
 It is set up at the transit campus of ARIES at Haldwani, Uttarakhand.
Lagrange Points
 A Lagrange point is a location in space where the combined gravitational forces of two large bodies, such as
Earth and the sun or Earth and the moon, equal the centrifugal force felt by a much smaller third body.
 The interaction of the forces creates a point of equilibrium where a spacecraft
may be "parked" to make observations.
 The first point, L1, lies between Earth and the sun and gets an uninterrupted
view of the sun and free from the occurrence of eclipses.
 L2 with the Earth, moon and sun behind it, a spacecraft can get a clear view
of deep space and it has a protection for radiation field from sun.
 The James Webb Space Telescope will move into L2 point in 2018.
 The third Lagrange point, L3, lies behind the sun, opposite Earth's orbit. For
now, science has not found a use for this spot.
 Points L4 and L5 are stable and lie along Earth's orbit at 60 degrees ahead of and behind Earth and dust and
asteroids tend to accumulate in these regions due to its stability.
 Asteroids that surround the L4 and L5points are called Trojans and Earth’s only known Trojan asteroid, 2010
TK7 is found in the region.
1.22 Mangalyaan Mission

India's Mars Orbiter spacecraft has completed seven years in
its orbit, well beyond its designed mission life of six months.
 Also known as Mangalyaan, Mars Orbiter Mission
(MOM) is the maiden interplanetary mission of the
Indian Space Research Oranisation (ISRO).
 Launched in 2013, the probe was successfully inserted
into Martian orbit on September 24, 2014.
 The spacecraft has already covered 3 Martian years (1
Martian year = 2 Earth years or 687 days).
 Launch - PSLV-C25, the 25th flight of PSLV launched
MOM Spacecraft.
 PSLV was used to launch MOM as GSLV was not in
operational condition then. So, ISRO could apportion
only about 15 kg for scientific instruments.
 Purpose - MOM is primarily a technology
demonstration venture and all the mission objectives
were successfully met.
 MOM will explore and observe Mars surface features,
morphology, mineralogy and the Martian atmosphere.
 Further, a specific search for methane in the Martian
atmosphere will provide information about the
possibility or the past existence of life on the
planet.

1.23 GEMINI system

 GEMINI (GAGAN Enabled Mariner’s Instrument for Navigation and Information) is a new marine information
dissemination system.
 It is to provide disaster warnings to fishermen by utilizing GAGAN (GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation)
satellite systems of the AAI and ISRO.
 It is a portable device which receives data from the GAGAN satellites and sends it to the user’s cellphone App,
which decode the alerts.
 It is developed by INCOIS under Ministry of Earth Sciences and Airport Authority of India.
 The data coverage of GEMINI covers the entire India Ocean full-time, which will help in information
transmission to the fishermen far away from coastal areas.
1.24 Mission Venus

 ISRO has opened for its “Mission Venus” seeking experiment ideas from space agencies, universities and
researchers.
 It is planned to be launched in Mid-2023.
 It plans to study the planet from an elliptical orbit that is closest to Venus at 500 km and 60,000 km at the
farthest end.
 It is currently being handled by the Space Science Programme Office.
 If the project is approved would be ISRO’s third interplanetary mission after Chandrayaan – 1 and Mars Orbiter
Mission.
Global Missions
NASA
1.25 NASA’s Missions to Venus

 NASA has selected two missions to Venus - DAVINCI+ and VERITAS. These missions are part of the NASA’s
ninth Discovery Program.
 [Discovery Program began in 1992 to give scientists the chance to launch some missions that use fewer resources
and have shorter developmental times.]
 NASA is expected to allot $500 million to each of these missions that will launch between 2028 and 2030.
 DAVINCI+ (Deep Atmosphere Venus Investigation of Noble gases, Chemistry, and Imaging) is the first US-led
mission to Venus’ atmosphere since 1978.
 This mission will try to understand Venus’ composition to see how the planet formed and evolved.
 It also consists of a descent sphere that will pass through Venus’ thick atmosphere and take measurements of
noble gases and other elements.
 This mission will try to return the first high resolution photographs of an unique geological feature of the Venus
called “tesserae”, which may be comparable to Earth’s continents.
 Their presence may suggest that Venus has tectonic plates like Earth.
 VERITAS (Venus Emissivity, Radio Science, InSAR, Topography, and Spectroscopy) will map the planet’s
surface to determine its geologic history and understand why it developed so differently from Earth.
 It’ll orbit Venus with a radar that will help to create a three dimensional reconstruction of its topography which
might tell if processes such as plate tectonics and volcanism are still active there.
 It will also map the emissions from Venus’s surface that may help in determining the type of rocks that exist on
Venus.
 It will also determine if active volcanoes are releasing water vapour into the atmosphere.

1.26 New Shephard

 The winner of the online auction conducted for the first seat on Blue Origin’s New Shephard will be a part of
New Shephard’s first human flight on July 20 - 52nd anniversary of Neil Armstrong’s moon landing.
 Purpose - Named after astronaut Alan Shephard (the first American to go to space), New Shephard is meant
to take tourists to space to experience microgravity that takes them 100 km above the Earth.
 This rocket system offers flights to space over 100 km above the Earth and accommodation for payloads.
 The idea is to provide easier and more cost-effective access to space meant for purposes such as academic
research, corporate technology development and entrepreneurial ventures among others.
 Working - New Shephard is a rocket system that has been designed to take astronauts and research payloads
past the Karman line (the internationally recognized boundary of space).
 It consists of two parts - Cabin or capsule and Rocket or booster.
 The fully autonomous cabin can accommodate experiments from small Mini Payloads up to 100 kg and, it is
designed for six people.
 The cabin sits atop a 60 feet tall rocket and separates from it before crossing the Karman line, after which both
vehicles fall back to the Earth.
 Reusable - The system is a fully reusable, vertical takeoff and vertical landing space vehicle that accelerates for
2.5 minutes before the engine cuts off.
 After separating from the booster, the capsule free falls in space and the booster performs an autonomously
controlled vertical landing back to Earth. The capsule lands back with the help of parachutes.
1.27 CIBER-2
A NASA-funded rocket will carry CIBER-2 instrument to count the number of stars that exist in the Universe.
 The mission’s CIBER-2 instrument has been improved upon to see if any stars had been undercounted in the
previous counting attempts.
 Estimation - In order to estimate the number of stars in the Universe, scientists have estimated that on average
each galaxy consists of about 100 million stars, but this figure is not exact (underestimation).
 But this calculation assumes that all stars are inside galaxies - might not be true - and this is what the CIBER-2
instrument will try to find out.
 Working - The CIBER-2 will launch aboard a suborbital sounding rocket that will carry scientific instruments
on brief trips into space before it falls back to Earth for recovery.
 Once the instrument is above Earth’s atmosphere, it will survey a patch of sky that will include dozens of clusters
of galaxies.
 Even so, the instrument will not actually count individual stars but it will instead detect the extragalactic
background light, which is all of the light that has been emitted throughout the history of the Universe.
 From all of this extragalactic background light, the CIBER-2 will focus on a portion of the cosmic infrared
background, which is emitted by some of the most common stars.
 This approach is aiming to look at how bright this light is to give scientists an estimate of how many of these
stars are out there.
 Previously, the ESA infrared space observatory Herschel also counted the number of galaxies in infrared and
measured their luminosity.
1.28 Landsat 9
Earth Monitoring Satellite Landsat 9 - a joint mission of NASA and the US Geological Survey (USGS) - was launched
recently.
 Landsat satellites have collected images of our planet and helped understand how land usage has changed over
the decades. The first Landsat was launched in 1972.
 Landsat 9 joins Landsat 8 that was launched in 2013 and the satellites together will collect images of Earth’s
surface.

 It takes 8 days to capture the whole Earth. It will make contact with a ground station every few hours and offload
its data.
 As the satellite orbits, these instruments will take pictures across 185 kms and each pixel will represent an area
of about 30 meter X 30 meter.
 These instruments will measure different wavelengths of light reflected off the Earth’s surface.
 It can see more colour shades with greater depths.
 Uses - Previously, Landsat images have been used to study the health of forests, coral reefs, monitor water
quality and melting glaciers.
 Landsat 9 will provide data that can help make science-based decisions on key issues of climate change such as
impacts of wildfire, coral reef degradation, the retreat of glaciers, and deforestation.
 It can help identify water bodies affected by potentially harmful algal blooms.
1.29 Lucy Mission - First Mission to Trojans

NASA will launch its first spacecraft Lucy on an Atlas V rocket to study Jupiter's Trojan asteroids to collect insights
into the solar system's formation.
 The mission is named as ‘Lucy’ after an ancient fossil that provided insights into the evolution of human species.
 Mission - To investigate the group of rocky bodies circling the Sun in two swarms, one preceding Jupiter in its
orbital path and the other trailing behind Jupiter.
 After receiving boosts from Earth's gravity, Lucy will embark on a 12-year journey to 8 different asteroids.
o Among the 8 asteroids, one asteroid is in the Main Belt between Mars and Jupiter and then 7 Trojan
Asteroids.
 Lucy will offer new insights into the history of the solar system, including how all of the planets came to be and
why they are aligned in their current configuration.
 Working - Lucy will fly by its targets within 400 kms of their surfaces.
 It will use its onboard instruments and large antenna to investigate their geology, including composition, mass,
density and volume.
 It will be the first solar-powered to venture this far from the Sun, and will observe more asteroids than any other
spacecraft before it.
Trojan Asteroids
 Trojan asteroids or Jupiter Trojans are group of asteroids (more than 7,000 in number) that share the planet
Jupiter's orbit around the Sun.
 They are leftovers of the primordial material from which Jupiter and the other outer planets were formed.

 Despite the fact that they really are in a very small region of space, they're very physically different from one
another.
 Trojans are a type of co-orbital object, where a star and a planet orbit around a common barycentre.
1.30 NASA’s DART Mission

NASA will launch the agency’s first planetary defense test mission named the Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART)
on a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket.
 DART is a planetary defense-driven test of technologies for preventing an impact of Earth by a hazardous
asteroid.
 DART is a suicide mission that aims to test the newly developed technology that would allow a spacecraft
to crash into an asteroid and change its course.
 DART’s target asteroid Dimorphos (small moonlet) is NOT a threat to Earth. Dimorphos orbits a larger
asteroid named Didymos.
o Didymos is a perfect system for the test mission as it is an eclipsing binary.
o This means it has a moonlet that regularly orbits the asteroid and we can see it when it passes in front
of the main asteroid.
 The spacecraft will collide with the moonlet at a speed of about 24,000 kms per hour when it is 11 million kms
away from Earth. The collision may take place between September 26 and October 1, 2022.
 Related Links - Asteroid Impact and Deflection Assessment
DART Spacecraft
 DART is a low-cost spacecraft that uses hydrazine propellant for maneuvering the spacecraft.
 It carries 10 kg of xenon to be used to demonstrate the NASA Evolutionary Xenon Thruster-Commercial
(NEXT-C) solar electric propulsion system as part of its in-space propulsion.
o NEXT-C is a next-generation system based on the Dawn spacecraft propulsion system.
o NEXT-C has very high fuel efficiency and flexible operations making it ideal for many classes of science
missions.
1.31 Sampling Process of Perseverance Rover

According to data sent to Earth by the NASA’s Perseverance Rover, no rock samples were collected during the first
attempt.
 Perseverance Rover will spend one Mars year (two years on Earth) on the planet during which time it will explore
the landing site region i.e. Jezero Crater and collect its first rock samples.
o The rover is carrying MOXIE and Ingenuity.

 Sampling process - The rover carries 43 titanium sample tubes and is supposed to collect samples (rock and
regolith) from the Jezero Crater.
 Perseverance’s sampling process is autonomous - its sampling and caching system uses a hollow coring bit and
percussive drill that is fixed at the end of its 7-feet-long robotic arm.
 To know more about the Perseverance Rover, click here.
1.32 Laser Communications Relay Demonstration

NASA launched it’s first-ever laser communications system, called Laser Communications Relay Demonstration
(LCRD) as a hosted payload on STPSat-6 spacecraft aboard a United Launch Alliance Atlas V rocket.
 LCRD will be in a geosynchronous orbit, over 35,000km above Earth.
 Purpose - Currently, most NASA spacecraft use radio frequency communications to send data.
 Optical communications will help increase the bandwidth 10 to 100 times more than radio frequency systems.
 LCRD willshowcase the unique capabilities of optical communications in space.
 If this capability is further proven, laser communications can be implemented on more missions, making it a
standardised way to send and receive data.
 LCRD is NASA’s first two-way, end-to-end optical relay.
1. LCRD has two optical terminals - one to receive data from a user spacecraft, and the other to transmit
data to ground stations.
2. The modems will translate the digital data into laser signals.
3. This will then be transmitted via encoded beams of light.
 The ground team will send test data through radio frequency signals and the LCRD will reply using optical
signals.
 Benefits - Optical communications systems are smaller in size, weight, and require less power
compared with radio instruments.
 Laser uses infrared light and has a shorter wavelength than radio waves. This will help the transmission of
more data in a short time.
 LCRD will send data to Earth at 1.2 Gbps using infrared lasers.
 It would take roughly 9 weeks to transmit a completed map of Mars back to Earth with radio systems. With
lasers, this can be done in 9 days.
1.33 Carbon found in Mars

Newly discovered carbon in Mars by the NASA's Curiosity rover may
yield clues to ancient Mars.
 Since the NASA's Curiosity rover landed on Mars in 2012, it has
roamed Gale Crater that has exposed layers of ancient rock.
 The rover drilled into the surface of these exposed layers and
recovered samples from buried sedimentary layers. It has sent
these results back home for researchers to interpret.
 By looking at the amounts of the carbon isotopes in a substance,
the researchers can determine specifics about the carbon cycle
that occurred, even if it happened a very long time ago.
1.34 Parker Solar Probe

For the first time, NASA’s Parker Solar Probe has officially “touched” the sun, plunging through the unexplored solar
atmosphere known as the corona.
 Parker Solar Probe was launched in 2018 to explore the mysteries of the Sun by travelling closer to it than any
spacecraft before.

 Parker was 13 million kms from the center of the sun when it first crossed the jagged, uneven boundary between
the solar atmosphere and outgoing solar wind.
 Now, the spacecraft found itself in a region where the magnetic fields were strong enough to dominate the
movement of particles there.
 These conditions were the definitive proof the spacecraft had passed the Alfvén critical surface and entered the
solar atmosphere where magnetic fields shape the movement of everything in the region.
 The corona appeared dustier than expected. Because the sun lacks a solid surface, the corona is where the action
is.
 Significance - Future coronal excursions will help us better understand the origin of the solar wind, and how
it is heated and accelerated out into space.
 Exploring this magnetically intense region up close can help us better understand solar outbursts that can
interfere with life on Earth.
 It will provide us with deeper insights into our Sun's evolution and its impacts on our solar system, and
everything we learn about our own star (the sun) also teaches us more about stars in the rest of the universe.
 So, the Parker will keep drawing ever closer to the sun and diving deeper into the corona until its grand finale
orbit in 2025.
1.35 Artemis- I Programme

NASA has rolled out its Artemis I moon mission to the launchpad for testing at the Kennedy Space Centre in Florida,
United States.
 NASA’s Artemis mission is named after the Greek Goddess of the moon, and she twin sister of Greek God Apollo.
 Artemis I is an uncrewed space mission. It is the first of NASA’s deep space exploration systems.
 Purpose - With the Artemis programme, NASA aims to land humans on the moon by 2024, and also
plans to land the first woman and first person of colour on the moon.
 NASA will establish an Artemis Base Camp on the surface and a gateway in the lunar orbit to aid exploration
by robots and astronauts.
 The gateway is a critical component of NASA’s sustainable lunar operations and will serve as a multi-purpose
outpost orbiting the moon.
 Space Launch System (SLS) - the world’s most powerful rocket - will be used to launch the spacecraft. It will
travel 2,80,000 miles from the earth for over 4 to 6 weeks during the course of the mission.
 [The SLS rocket has been designed for space missions beyond the low-earth orbit and can carry crew or cargo
to the moon and beyond.]
 The SLS will deploy the interim cryogenic propulsion stage (ICPS) that will give Orion the thrust needed to leave
the earth’s orbit and travel towards the moon.

 [ICPS is a liquid oxygen/liquid hydrogen-based propulsion system.]

 It will fly around 100 km above the surface of the moon and use its gravitational pull to propel Orion into an
opposite deep orbit around 70,000 km from the moon, where it will stay for approximately 6 days.
 Orion spacecraft is going to remain in space without docking to a space station, longer than any ship for
astronauts has ever done before.
 The aim of the exercise is to collect data and to allow mission controllers to assess the performance of the
spacecraft.
 The spacecraft will communicate with the control centre back on Earth through the deep-space network.
 To re-enter the earth’s atmosphere, Orion will do a close flyby within less than 100 km of the moon’s surface
and use both the service module and the moon’s gravity to accelerate back towards the earth.
 The mission will end with the spacecraft’s ability to return safely to the earth.
 Significance - Eventually, the learnings from the Artemis programme will be utilised to send the first
astronauts to Mars.
 NASA plans on using the lunar orbit to gain the necessary experience to extend human exploration of space
farther into the solar system.
1.36 Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer

NASA launched a new mission named Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) onboard SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket.
 IXPE observatory is a joint effort of National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Italian
Space Agency.
 It is the first satellite mission that is dedicated to the measure the polarization of X-Rays from different cosmic
sources.
 This mission was developed by Small Explorer Program of NASA.
 IXPE is a space observatory with three identical telescopes designed to measure the polarization of state of
light from astrophysical sources to provide insight into our understanding of X-ray production in objects.
 [X-ray producing objects - Neutron stars, pulsar wind nebulae, supernova remnants, stellar and super-massive
black holes, and dozens of other high-energy objects.]
 The mission’s primary length is 2 years and the observatory will be at 600 kms altitude, orbiting around Earth’s
equator.
Other Space Agencies
1.37 Divine Vessel

China’s spacecraft Shenzhou-12 ("Divine Vessel") will blast off from the Gobi Desert on a Long March rocket soon,
ferrying three men to China's Tiangong space station for a three-month stay.
 It will be the third of 11 missions needed to complete the space station by 2022. Among them, four missions will
have people on board, potentially propelling up to 12 Chinese astronauts into space.

 Tianhe - In April 2021, China launched the core module of the space station - "Tianhe" or "Harmony of the
Heavens" - on the Long March 5B.
 Tianhe will act as the management and control hub of the space station. It is a cylinder, which is China’s largest
spacecraft.
Tiangong Space Station

 Tiangong ('Heavenly Palace') is China’s permanent space station that will operate in low-Earth orbit at an
altitude from 340 km to 450 km.
 This space station is built because China is excluded from the only space station currently in orbit is the
International Space Station (ISS).
 The station has a designed life span of 10 years.
 Five missions have already been launched in 2021. In order to complete the construction of the space station in
2022, China plans to launch 6 missions which will include the launch of,
1. Mengtian and Wentian lab modules,
2. Two manned spaceships (Shenzhou)
3. Two cargo spacecraft (Tianzhou)
 Another three astronauts will later begin their six-month stay in orbit.
1.38 EnVision
 EnVision is a European Space Agency (ESA) led mission.
 Its orbiter will visit Venus in the 2030s.
 Once launched on an Ariane 6 rocket, the spacecraft will reach
Venus in 15 months and will take 16 more months to achieve
orbit circularisation.
 The spacecraft will study the planet’s atmosphere and surface,
monitor trace gases in the atmosphere and analyse its surface
composition.
 Radar provided by NASA will help to image and map the
surface.
 At the core of the ESA’s mission is the question of how Earth
and Venus evolved so differently from each other considering that they are roughly of the same size and
composition.
 EnVision will follow another ESA-led mission ‘Venus Express’ (2005-2014) that focussed on atmospheric
research and pointed to volcanic hotspots on the planet’s surface.
1.39 Nauka
Russia’s space agency Roscosmos will be attaching a module called Nauka (“science” in Russian) to the International
Space Station (ISS).
 Nauka is a significantly larger module that will replace a Russian module called Pirs (“pier” in Russian), which
was detached from Zvezda module of the ISS using a Progress MS-16/77P cargo ship.
 [Pirs module was used as a docking port for spacecraft and as a door for cosmonauts to go out on spacewalks.]
 Nauka was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan using a Proton rocket, Russia’s most
powerful space inventory.
 It is the biggest space laboratory Russia has launched to date, and will serve as a Russia’s main research facility
on the ISS.
 On the ISS, Nauka will be attached to the critical Zvezda module, which provides all of the ISS’s life support
systems.
 [Zvezda module serves as the structural and functional centre of the Russian Orbital Segment (ROS), the
Russian part of the ISS.]

1.40 Beresheet 2
 SpaceIL, the nonprofit Israeli initiative has secured $70 million fund to make a second attempt at a lunar
landing through Beresheet Project.
 Beresheet 1 or “Genesis spacecraft” built by SpaceIL suffered technical malfunctions and crashed on the moon
in 2019.
 Beresheet 2 was announced in 2020, aiming at landing an unmanned craft on the moon in 2024.
 It plans to set new global space records through a double landing on the moon and the instalment of the lightest
ever moon landers, each weighing 60 kg without fuel.
 The objective of this mission is to conduct experiments and collect data on behalf of school students.
 It will be composed of three spacecraft - an orbiter named Mothership’ and two landers - that would circle the
moon for years.
 Significance - The mission hopes to follow China in becoming only the second to successfully land on the far
side of the moon.
 Israel would become the fourth nation to land a spacecraft on the moon, only after the former Soviet Union, the
US and China.
1.41 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)

 This general term describes any satellite constellation that provides positioning, navigation, and timing
(PNT) services on global or regional basis.
 GNSS is a network of satellites broadcasting timing and orbital information used for navigation and positioning
measurements.
1. Global Navigation Satellite Systems - GPS, GLONASS, BeiDou & Galileo
2. Regional Navigation Satellite Systems - NavIC and QZSS
Quasi-Zenith Satellite System

 It is a regional GNSS owned by Japan and operated by QZS System Service Inc. (QSS).
 QZSS complements GPS to improve coverage in East Asia and Oceania.
 Japan plans to have an operational constellation of 4 satellites by 2018 and expand it to 7 satellites for
autonomous capability by 2023.

1.42 Eutelsat Quantum Satellite

 This is the world's first commercial fully reprogrammable satellite launched by the European Space Agency
(ESA) from French Guiana.
 Eutelsat Quantum, developed under an ESA partnership project with satellite operator Eutelsat and prime
manufacturer Airbus, is the world’s first commercial fully flexible software-defined satellite.
 Eutelsat Quantum weighs 3.5 tonnes and consists of
eight communication beams. Each of the beams can be
modified to make changes to the coverage area and its
telecommunications signal.
 Benefits - As the changes can be done in minutes, this
satellite can be used in providing mobile coverage in
moving objects successfully.
 Satellite can detect and characterise any rogue emission,
enabling it to respond dynamically to accidental
interference or intentional jamming.
 The Eutelsat Quantum will be covering the geographical
area from West Africa to Asia in a 15 years period of time.
1.43 JAXA’s Aim to Bring Mars Samples Soon

Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) has planned to bring soil samples from the Mars ahead of the US and
China.
 JAXA plans to launch an explorer in 2024 to land on Phobos, a Martian moon, to collect 10 grams of soil and
bring it back to Earth in 2029.
 It believes that about 0.1 % of the surface soil on Phobos came from Mars, and 10 g could contain about 30
granules.
 Collecting samples from multiple locations on Phobos could provide a greater chance of obtaining possible
traces of life from Mars than obtaining soil from a single location on Mars.
 JAXA mission is based on the fact that any life forms that may have come from Mars will have died because of
harsh solar and cosmic radiation on Phobos.
 But, NASA and the European Space Agency missions focus on potential life forms and evolution of the Jezero
crater, an ancient Martian lake.
 By studying Phobos soil samples including material from Mars, scientists hope to learn about the evolution of
the Martian biosphere.
1.44 Samples from Moon by Chang’e-5

In 2020, China’s Chang’e-5 lunar mission delivered to Earth nearly 2 kg of rocky fragments and dust from the Moon.
 As Chang’e-5 landed on the ‘far side’ area of the Moon, which was not sampled before, it retrieved fragments of
the youngest lunar rocks ever brought back for analysis in laboratories on Earth.
 Findings - The 90% of the materials collected by Chang’e-5 likely derive from the landing site and its
immediate surroundings.
 These volcanic rock materials are of ‘mare basalts’ type.
 These rocks are visible to us as the darker grey areas that spilled over much of the nearside of the Moon as
ancient eruptions of lava.
 But, 10% percent of the fragments have distinctly different, ‘exotic’ chemical compositions.
1.45 Matosinhos Manifesto

European Space Agency (ESA) Council approved the Matosinhos Manifesto to accelerate the use of space in Europe.
 By accelerating the use of space in Europe, Matosinhos Manifesto aims to tackle the unprecedented societal,
economic and security challenges faced by Europe and its citizens.

 This resolution defines three “accelerators” to further advance Europe’s space ambitions.
 First accelerator is for the ESA to work towards the ‘Space for a Green Future’, so that people are better able
to understand the current state of Earth and to develop scenarios and solutions for sustainable life here.
o This is in line with achieving net-zero greenhouse gas emission targets by the year 2050.
 Second accelerator ‘Rapid and Resilient Crisis Response’ aims to support governments to act decisively
on crises facing Europe, from flooding and storms to wildfires.
 Third accelerator is ‘Protection of Space Assets’, whose objective is to safeguard ESA astronauts and assets
from interference by space debris and space weather.
 Other than this, the council recognised two “inspirators” to reinforce European management in science,
expertise growth and inspiration,
1. An icy moon pattern return mission and
2. Human space exploration.
1.46 Space Junk

In March, a Chinese military satellite, Yunhai 1-02 collided with a piece of junk leftover from a 1996 Russian rocket
launch leaving a trail of debris high above the Earth
 Causes - Unoperational / Expired / Exploded satellites, rocket parts or
spacecrafts
 Anti-satellite tests that incapacitates or destroys satellites for strategic or
tactical purposes (like Mission Shakti conducted by DRDO, China’s 2007
ASAT test,etc.)
 Rare collision between two spacecrafts
 Mega-constellations of satellites planned by companies such as SpaceX
‘s Starlinkprpject
 Threats - Collision of space debris with other satellites or amongst themselves produces more fragments and
exacerbates the problem
 A belt of space junk would make certain low-Earth orbits unusable
 Experts have warned of Kessler syndrome
 Astronauts in space would be harmed by space debris
 Old batteries from defunct spacecrafts can explode and leaks may occur
in the system
 The International Space Station (ISS) is constantly at risk from space
debris
 Steps taken - Orbital Debris Program Office was set up by NASA
which issued the world’s first set of debris-mitigation guidelines in
1995.
 it proposed that satellites be designed to re-enter Earth’s atmosphere within 25 years of mission completion
 Europe plans ClearSpace-1, Earth’s first space debris removal mission in 2025
 Researchers from Purdue University are test-launching a first-of-its-kind Spinnaker3 drag sail to low-earth
orbit, in an effort to clean up space debris
 Japanese startupAstroscale launched a satellite that retrieves used satellites and other space junk
 In August 2020, NETRA Project was initiated by ISRO which is an early warning system to protect the
satellites from space debris and other hazards of Space
 International Space Law points that if a satellite becomes dysfunctional, then the satellite should deorbit and its
re-entry into the earth should be carried.

1.47 ExoMars
There will be a delay in the ExoMars 2022 Mission that was to be launched in September 2022 as the European Space
Agency (ESA) suspended all its cooperation with Russian space agency Roscosmos.
 Once a joint space venture between ESA and Roscosmos, ExoMars is now ESA’s mission to Mars.
 It aims to look for whether life has ever existed in Mars.
 The ExoMars programme comprises 2 missions.
1. The first mission was launched in 2016 and consists of the Trace Gas Orbiter (TGO) and Schiaparelli,
an entry, descent and landing demonstrator module.
2. The second mission is planned to be launched in 2022 and comprises a rover and surface science
platform.
 The rover that will carry a drill and a suite of instruments dedicated to search for possible existence of life beyond
earth and geochemistry research.
 It is likely to land on Mars’ equator called Oxia Planum, which had housed a massive pool of water in the
prehistoric era.
1.48 ESA Vigil Mission

 Once known as “Lagrange,” it is the upcoming space weather mission of European Space Agency (ESA).
 It is the first mission of its kind, set to monitor our active and unpredictable Sun and help protect us from its
violent outbursts.
 The mission will give us advance warning of oncoming solar storms.
 This will have a vital role to protect Earth’s infrastructure, satellites, inhabitants and space explorers from
unpredictable but violent solar events like solar flares and ‘Coronal Mass Ejections’.
 This mission will be launched in the mid-2020s and placed in the 5th Lagrange point orbit.
1.49 Reconnaissance Satellite

North Korea is preparing to launch a reconnaissance satellite, a move that may prove as controversial as the nuclear-
armed country’s weapons tests, because they use the same banned ballistic missile technology.
 Reconnaissance satellite is an artificial satellite launched by a country to provide intelligence information on
the military activities of foreign countries.
 It is an Earth observation satellite or communications satellite.
 It is also known as a spy satellite or intelligence satellite.
 The United States, Russia (before 1991, the USSR), and other nations have launched numerous reconnaissance
satellites since 1960.
Types of Reconnaissance Satellites
 Early-warning satellites detect enemy missile launchings.
 Nuclear-explosion detection satellites are designed to detect and identify nuclear explosions in space.
 Photo-surveillance satellites provide photographs of enemy military activities, e.g., the deployment of
intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). There are two subtypes:
o Close-look satellites provide high-resolution photographs that are returned to earth via a reentry
capsule,
o Area-survey satellites provide lower-resolution photographs that are transmitted to earth via radio.
 Later satellites have combined these two functions.
 Signals intelligence (SIGINT) satellites or Electronic-reconnaissance (ferret) satellites pickup and record
radio and radar transmissions while passing over a foreign country.
 They are optimized either for characterizing ground-based radar systems or for eavesdropping on
communications.

Private Sector in Space
1.50 IN-SPACe
The Government of India has created the Indian National Space Promotion and Authorization Center (IN-SPACe), an
independent nodal agency under the Department of Space.
 IN-SPACe will be an autonomous nodal agency under the Department of Space.
 It is supposed to be a facilitator and a regulator. It will act as an interface between ISRO and private parties.
 It will provide the necessary support for the private space industry to conduct its activities.
 It will assess the needs and demands of private players including educational and research institutions.
 It will explore ways to accommodate these requirements in consultation with ISRO.
 Currently, there are more than 500 private companies which partner with the Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO) in carrying out various space activities.
 They provide materials used in manufacturing, mechanical fabrication, electronic fabrication, system
development, integration, etc.
 Under the new system
1. The government will allow utilizing those infrastructures of ISRO which are otherwise not available
elsewhere in India.
2. Permit establishment of facilities, within ISRO premises, based on safety norms and feasibility assessment.
3. The decision of IN-SPACe shall be final and binding on all stakeholders including ISRO and private players
will not be required to seek separate permission from ISRO.
 Existing ISRO infrastructure, scientific and technical resources and even data are planned to be made accessible
to interested parties. [The infrastructure includes both ground- and space-based.]
1.51 Boeing’s Starliner

 The launch of Boeing’s uncrewed Starliner Orbital Flight Test-2 (OFT-2) or the Crew Space Transportation-100
(CST-100) has been postponed.
 This spacecraft is part of an uncrewed test flight to the International Space Station. The mission is part of NASA’s
Commercial Crew Program.
 Purpose - Starliner has been designed to accommodate seven passengers or a mix of crew and cargo for
missions to low-Earth orbit.
 It has an innovative, weldless structure and is reusable up to 10 times with a 6-month turnaround time.
 It features wireless internet and tablet technology for crew interfaces.
1.52 Inspiration4
SpaceX is going to launch ‘Inspiration4’, the world’s 1st all-civilian, non-governmental spaceflight soon.
 This mission will take 4 private citizens into space in the Crew Dragon spacecraft, which will be privately
operated by SpaceX.
 This mission involves circling the Earth for 3 days at the height of 575km (low Earth orbit), and then splashing
down into the Atlantic Ocean.
 This will be the farthest distance travelled by a crewed mission since 2009, when astronauts went to repair the
Hubble telescope (547km).
 The dome window has been inspired by the Cupola, a module on the International Space Station used to make
observations about our planet.
 Significance - The journey will present an opportunity for collecting many health data that will aid in planning
future crewed space missions.
 This will help in assessing behavioural and cognitive changes over the journey.

 The travellers will undergo balance and prescription tests just before and after their journey to assess their
response to the change in gravity.
1.53 Indian Space Association

Indian PM recently launched the Indian Space Association (ISpA) - the premier industry association of space and
satellite companies.
 ISpA aspires to be the collective voice of the Indian pace industry.
 It will be a forum of the space industry in the Indian private sector and partner the Government of India and
other key stakeholders in the formulation of an enabling policy framework for the space sector.
 ISpA also plans to work in close coordination with IN-SPACe.
 ISpA is represented by leading home grown and global
corporations with advanced capabilities in the space and
satellite technologies.
 Its founding members include Bharti Airtel, Larson & Toubro,
Nelco (Tata Group), OneWeb, Mapmyindia, Walchandnagar
Industries and Alpha Design Technologies.
 Other core members include Godrej, Hughes India, Ananth
Technology Limited, Azista-BST Aerospace Private Limited,
BEL, Centum Electronics, Maxar India.
 Objectives -Contribute to the accelerated development of India’s space industry
 Aids the vision of making India Atmanirbhar and a global leader in the space arena
 Building global linkages, to bring in critical technology and investments to create more high skill jobs.
1.54 Internet from the Sky

OneWeb has successfully launched 36 satellites in its Low Earth Orbit (LEO) constellation, making it reach 218 in-
orbit satellites.
 OneWeb is a global communications company that aims to deliver broadband satellite Internet around the world
through its fleet of LEO satellites.
 LEO technology - LEO satellites have been orbiting the planet since the 1990s, providing people with various
communication services.
 They are positioned around 500km-2000km from earth, compared to stationary orbit satellites which are
approximately 36,000km away.
 Latency (time needed for data to be sent and received) is contingent on proximity.
 As LEO satellites orbit closer to the earth, they provide stronger signals and faster speeds than traditional fixed-
satellite systems.
 Also, because signals travel faster through space than through fibre-optic cables, they also have the potential to
rival if not exceed existing ground-based networks.
 However, LEO satellites travel at a speed of 27,000 kph and complete a full circuit of the planet in 90-120
minutes.
 As a result, individual satellites can only make direct contact with a land transmitter for a short period of time
thus requiring massive LEO satellite fleets and consequently, a significant capital investment.
 Criticisms - There are logistical challenges with launching thousands of satellites into space as well.
 Satellites can be seen in the night skies which create difficulties for astronomers as satellites reflect sunlight to
earth, leaving streaks across images.
 Satellites travelling at a lower orbit can also interrupt the frequency of those orbiting above them.
 There are already almost 1 million objects larger than 1cm in diameter in orbit, a by-product of years of space
activities. Those objects, referred to as ‘space junk,’ can damage spacecrafts or collide with other satellites.

2. PLANETARY SYSTEMS
Introduction
2.1 Definition of a Planet

 International Astronomical Union (IAU), a group of experts, is the authorized body to define the criteria for any
object to be designated as a planet.
 In 2006, IAU defines three criteria to classify any object as a planet
i. It needs to be in orbit around any fully-fledged star.
ii. It needs to have enough gravity to pull itself into a spherical shape.
iii. It has cleared the neighborhood around its orbit
 This last criterion is the point at which planets and dwarf planets differ. Dwarf planets have other objects inits
orbit around its star.
 In accordance with this, IAU decided to demote Pluto as a dwarf planet.
 IAU recognizes five named dwarf planets - Ceres, Pluto, Eris, Haumea, and Makemake.
 Except Ceres, other dwarf planets are also known as Plutoids.
2.2 Sun’s Atmosphere

 The sun‟s atmosphere corona is much hotter than its visible surface Photosphere.
 Normally, the layer closest to a source of heat, the Sun‟s surface, in this case, would have a higher
temperaturethan the more distant atmosphere.
 But the reason for the high temperature is the constant eruption of tiny solar flares in the solar atmosphere.
 The solar flares produce hard X-rays, whose wavelengths are much shorter than the light humans can see and
it is a signature of extremely hot solar material.
2.3 Solar Cycles and Sun spots

• The amount of magnetic flux that rises up to the Sun's surface varies with time in a cycle called the solar cycle,
which lasts 11 years on average.
• This cycle is sometimes referred to as the sunspot cycle.
• Sunspots are regions where the solar magnetic field is very strong.
• In visible light, sunspots appear darker than their surroundings because they are a few thousand degrees cooler
than their surroundings.
• They are usually concentrated in two bands, about 15 - 20 degrees wide in latitude, that go around the Sun on
either side of the solar equator.
2.4 Asteroid & Comet

 An asteroid is a small, naturally occurring, solar system body that orbits the sun. Asteroids are typically
composed of rock-forming minerals, most commonly olivine and pyroxene.
 However, they often contain metal (iron and nickel), sulfides (chemical mixtures of metals and sulfur), clays,
and organic compounds. The structure and composition of asteroids vary from object to object.
 Most asteroids in our solar system reside in the region between Mars and Jupiter known as the Asteroid Belt.
 A comet is a small body composed mostly of dusty material embedded with icy volatiles, such as water and
carbon dioxide that formed in the cold outer solar system.
Naming of an Asteroid
 International Astronomical Union (IAU) serves as the internationally recognized authority for assigning
designations to celestial bodies and surface features on them.

 According to IAU’s guidelines, the privilege of naming a planet is first given to discoverers, who have 10 years
to propose a name.
 The discoverer or team is expected to write a short citation, explaining the reasons for assigning the name.
 All names proposed are judged by the 15-member Working Group for Small Body Nomenclature (CSBN) of the
IAU.
 It has recently named an asteroid after Indian classical singer Pandit Jasraj.
 It is located between Mars and Jupiter, and was discovered on November 11, 2006 by the Arizona based
telescope.
2.5 Heliosphere, Heliopause and Interstellar Space

 The sun creates heliosphere by sending a constant flow of particles and a magnetic field out into space at over
670,000 miles per hour. This stream is called the ‘solar wind.’
 Heliopause marks the end of a region created by our sun that is called the heliosphere.
 It is the boundary between our Solar System and the interstellar medium.
 It is the place where the sun’s constant flow of material and magnetic field stop affecting its surroundings.
 Interstellar Space is the part of space that exists between stars with cold particles around it.
 Inside the heliosphere, the solar particles are hot but less concentrated. Outside of the bubble, they are very
much colder but more concentrated.
 Once an object arrives in interstellar space, there would be an increase of “cold” particles around it.
2.6 Arrokoth
 Ultima Thule, the farthest cosmic body ever visited by a spacecraft,
has been renamed Arrokoth, or “sky” in the Native American
language.
 Arrokoth is icy rock, which orbits in the dark and frigid Kuiper Belt
about a billion miles beyond Pluto.
 Arrokoth is an example of a “cold classical object” which has
remained undisturbed since the solar system formed some 4.5 billion
years ago.
 It was surveyed by the NASA spaceship New Horizons in January
2019, with images showing it consisted of two spheres stuck together in the shape of a snowman.
 The new official name, which was chosen by the New Horizons team and ratified by the International
Astronomical Union.
2.7 TRAPPIST-1
 It is a system of seven Earth-size planets orbiting an ultra-cool dwarf star about 40 light-years away.
 This is by far the largest collection of Earth-like planets in the habitable ‘Goldilocks’ zone of a star.
 Goldilocks represents a zone which is neither too close nor too far from a star, which raises the possibility of
liquid water being present on the surface.
 Unlike earlier discoveries of exoplanets, all seven planets could possibly have liquid water.Three of the planets
have the greatest chance.
 Since the initial discovery of three planets was made using the Chile-based Transiting Planets and Planetesimals
Small Telescope, the exoplanet system is called TRAPPIST-1.
 The TRAPPIST-1 planets have lower densities than Earth.
 In a new study, researchers found that the TRAPPIST-1 star is quite old: between 5.4 and 9.8 billion years.
 Recent evidence from NASA’s Hubble space telescope revealed that earth sized exoplanets in the Trappist-1
system may contain water.

2.8 Saraswati - Supercluster of Galaxies

 A team of Indian scientists has reported the discovery of a ‘supercluster’ of galaxies and named it Saraswati.
 It is located four billion light years away from the earth.
 Galaxies are themselves made of billions of stars and planets, and a cluster typically contains several hundreds
of these galaxies.
 Superclusters, a group of clusters of galaxies, are the largest structures of stars, planets and other heavenly
bodies in the Universe.
 The Milky Way galaxy, of which the Earth is a very small member, is part of the Laniakea supercluster, which
was identified only in 2014.
Recent Developments
2.9 Quark-Gluon Plasma

Smashing together lead particles at 99.9999991% the speed of the light, the first matter that appeared after the Big
Bang has been recreated.
 This primordial type of matter is known as quark-gluon plasma, or QGP. This matter lasted only for a fraction
of a second.
 For recreating QGP, scientists created the
soup of energy (similarly to how it was
immediately after the Big Bang) at the Large
Hadron Collider (LHC), the world's largest
atom smasher.
 By smashing heavy atomic nuclei together, a
tiny fireball was created that effectively melts
particles into their primordial forms for a
fraction of a second.
 The scientists found the QGP was a perfect
liquid - finding it to have less resistance to
flow than any other known substance - and it
also changed shape over time in a manner
unlike other forms of matter.
 The scientists also determined how QGP evolved in the first moments in the early universe to form hadrons
(such as protons, neutrons, etc).
 Significance - This study eventually could suggest how the early universe evolved in the first microsecond after
the Big Bang.
2.10 Gamma-Ray Burst

The highest energy afterglow from the most notable Gamma Ray Burst (GRB) explosion from a galaxy 4.5 billion light
years away did not follow the evolution expected in standard afterglow models.
 [Gamma-ray bursts (GRBs) are short-lived bursts of gamma-ray light, the most energetic form of light.
 Lasting anywhere from a few milliseconds to several minutes, GRBs shine hundreds of times brighter than a
typical supernova and about a million trillion times as bright as the Sun.]
 The detection of high energy photons (TeV Photons) from this GRB provides new insights to unravel the
underlying physical processes at work which result in such explosions.
 The GRB with ultra-high energy photons called GRB 190114C was detected for the first time in 2019 by the
Major Atmospheric Gamma Imaging Cherenkov Telescopes (MAGIC).
 The GRB lasted for a brief period, followed by an initial bright flash in high energies known as the ‘prompt
emission’.
 A less luminous but long-lasting counterpart known as the ‘afterglow’ was detected after the prompt emission.

 Detailed modelling of the recent afterglow indicates that the parameters describing the fraction of energy in
electron population and magnetic field are evolving with time and not constant as generally seen in GRBs.
 The evolution of these parameters, at early times, may play a role in producing the bright TeV emission.
2.11 Moon Wobble

According to a study, the Wobble phenomenon of the Moon is expected to lead to more flooding on Earth in the middle
of the next decade.
 Moon Wobble is a regular oscillation that humans have known about for centuries.
 It is one of many factors that can either exacerbate rising sea levels or counteract them, alongside other variables
like weather and geography.
 There’s nothing new or dangerous about the wobble; it was first reported in 1728.
 Findings of the Study - Rising temperatures caused by greenhouse gas emissions, along with the push and
pull at ocean levels are the causes of higher flood risks.
 The study warned that the moon wobble is expected to heighten high tides in the middle of the 2030s, but it
also showed that this prediction does not apply uniformly to every coastline everywhere.
 Effect of wobble - Other variables aside, the effect of the wobble could cause high tide levels at a beach to
oscillate by 1 or 2 inches over the course of its long cycle. It just kind of raises the baseline.
 The more your baseline is raised, the smaller weather event you need to cause a flooding event.
2.12 Merging of 3 Super-massive Black Holes

Indian researchers have discovered 3 supermassive black holes from 3 galaxies merging together to form a triple
active galactic nucleus.
 This is a rare occurrence in our nearby Universe.
 These small merging groups are ideal to study and detect multiple
accreting supermassive black holes.
 While studying a known interacting galaxy pair (NGC7733 & NGC7734),
the researchers detected unusual emissions from the centre of NGC7734
and a large, bright clump along the northern arm of NGC7733.
 Each of the galaxies hosts an active supermassive black hole in their
nucleus and hence forms a very rare triple active galactic nuclei (AGN)
system.
Merging Process
 Galaxy interactions happen when galaxies move close by each other and exert tremendous gravitational forces
on each other.
 During such galaxy interactions, the respective supermassive black holes can get near each other.
 The dual black holes start consuming gas from their surroundings and become dual AGN.
 If two galaxies collide, their black hole will also come closer by transferring the kinetic energy to the surrounding
gas.
 The distance between the blackholes decreases with time until the separation is around a parsec (3.26 light-
years).
 Final parsec problem - This problem occurs when the distance between the blackholes is around a parsec,
and they are unable to lose any further kinetic energy in order to get even closer and merge.
 This problem can be solved with the presence of a third black hole.
 The dual merging blackholes can transfer their energy to the third blackhole and merge with each other.
 Hence the impossible event of merging of 2 black holes is made probable with an addition of a third into the
equation.
 Many AGN pairs have been detected in the past, but triple AGN are extremely rare.

Detection of Super-massive Black Holes

 Supermassive black holes are difficult to detect as they don’t emit light.
 But they can reveal their presence by
interacting with their surroundings.
 When the dust and gas from the
surroundings fall onto a supermassive
black hole, some of the mass is swallowed
by the black hole.
 But some of the mass is converted into
energy and emitted as electromagnetic
radiation that makes the black hole appear
luminous.
 They are called active galactic nuclei (AGN)
and release huge amounts of ionized
particles and energy into the galaxy and its
environment.
 Both of these ultimately contribute to the growth of the medium around the galaxy and ultimately the evolution
of the galaxy itself.
2.13 Near-surface Shear Layer

Astronomers from Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational Sciences (ARIES), and IISc, Bangalore, have given
the explanation of the existence of a near-surface shear layer (NSSL) in the Sun.
 NSSL is a layer in the Sun, where the internal rotation profile of the Sun changes sharply. This layer exists very
close to the solar surface, where there is an outward decrease in angular velocity.
 In this study, Thermal wind balance equation was used.
 This equation explains how the slight difference in temperature between solar poles and equator, called thermal
wind term, is balanced by the centrifugal force appearing due to solar differential rotation.
 It was thought that this condition is true only in the interior of the Sun, and it does not hold near the solar
surface.
 In the study work, this belief actually holds near the surface as well.
 If this condition is true near the solar surface, it can explain the existence of NSSL, which is inferred in
helioseismology (technique of using sound waves to peek inside the Sun) based observation.
 Significance - Understanding NSSL is crucial for the study of several solar phenomena like sunspot formation,
solar cycle, and it will also help in understanding such phenomena in other stars.
Solar Differential Rotation
 This phenomenon is caused because different parts of the Sun
rotate at different speeds.
 The Sun’s rotation period varies with latitude on the Sun since it
is made of gas. The Sun’s equator spins faster than the poles.
a) Equatorial regions (latitude = 0 degrees) rotate in about
25.6 days.
b) Regions at 60 degrees latitude rotate in about 30.9 days.
c) Polar Regions rotate in about 36 days.
 The Sun rotates around an axis that is roughly perpendicular to
the plane of the ecliptic; the Sun’s rotational axis is tilted by 7.25°
from perpendicular to the ecliptic.
 It rotates in the counter-clockwise direction, the same direction
that the planets rotate.

2.14 Solar Storm & Internet

A new study has found that solar storms could cause disruption of the internet, damage submarine cables and
communication satellites.
 Previous studies have shown that there is a 1.6 to 2% chance of an extreme space weather event happening
within the next decade.
 Impacts of solar storm - Longer submarine cables may be susceptible to higher risks.
 At ground level, solar storm-induced geomagnetic variations can cause harm by inducing large currents in
networks that can conduct electricity.
 Although fibre-optic internet cables are themselves not conductors, their electronic components can be
rendered useless by very strong storms.
 The countries in the lower latitudes are at a much lower risk.
 Also, compared to the US, India is less vulnerable.
 Protection - The paper mentions a ‘shutdown strategy’ that can help minimise
the connectivity loss during and after a solar storm impact.
 A temporary Internet shutdown can protect our equipment during a solar event
and ensure the continuation of services.
Solar Storm
 Also known as Coronal Mass Ejection, solar storm is an ejection of highly magnetised particles from the sun into
space.
 These particles can take about 13 hours to 5 days to reach Earth.
 Earth’s atmosphere protects humans from these particles.
 But the particles can interact with our Earth’s magnetic field, induce strong electric currents on the surface and
affect man-made structures like earth’s radio communication, GPS, Power grids and satellite.
 The 1st recorded solar storm occurred in 1859. It affected the telegraph network and many operators experienced
electric shocks.
Solar Cycle
 It is the cycle that the Sun’s magnetic field goes through every 11 years - cycles of high and low activity. It
also has a longer 100-year cycle.
 During the last 3 decades, when the internet infrastructure was booming, it was a low activity period of the Sun.
 Either in this cycle or the next cycle, we are going towards the peaks of the 100-year cycle. So, more studies
should be done in order to protect our current infrastructure from powerful solar storms.
 To know about the Solar Cycle 25, click here.
2.15 Planet Nine

A study says that it has found more evidence for a distant giant planet in our solar system called Planet Nine.
 It has found that the Planet Nine could have a mass of 6.2 (+2.2/-1.3) Earth masses. It may be a typical extra-
solar super-Earth.
 Planet Nine is not a new discovery. It had appeared in the images taken by the Hubble Space Telescope in 2004.
 It orbits far beyond Neptune in a highly eccentric orbit around the Sun.
 A 2018 study noted that a trans-Neptunian object called 2015 BP519 had an unusual trajectory as it was affected
by Planet Nine’s strong gravity.
2.16 Leonids Meteor Shower

This year’s annual November Leonids Meteor Shower has begun.
 Every year in November, an annual meteor shower called the Leonids radiate out from the direction of the
constellation of Leo in the sky.

 The peak activity of a meteor shower is on November 17. The peak time comes when the Earth passes through
the densest part of the debris.
 The meteors originate from the comet 55P/Tempel-Tuttle, which orbits the sun every 33 years in the
constellation Leo.
 Earth passes through this trail of meteors each year as it revolves around the sun, causing meteor showers (1,000
meteors per hour) to occur.
 Leonids are the major shower that features the fastest meteors (speeds of 71 km/s), although the rates are often
as low as 15 meteors per hour.
 They are also called fireballs (because of their bright colours) and earthgazer meteors (because they streak close
to the horizon.)
 The light is a result of the friction between the meteorite and the molecules present in the Earth’s atmosphere
because of which it burns.
 The last Leonid storm took place in 2002.
 Visibility - The showers are visible on any cloudless night when the Moon is not very bright. They are best
viewed at about midnight.
 Ideally, the viewing location should have no light pollution; the farther away from cities the better.
2.17 Proxima Centauri

The European Southern Observatory (ESO) has detected a new
planet ‘Proxima d’ around Proxima Centauri.
 Proxima Centauri is the closest star to our Solar System,
lying just over four light-years away.
 It is a faint red dwarf star, which might or might not spell
doom.
 It is part of the Alpha Centauri star system.
2.18 Detection of Dark Energy

A team of researchers have made the first putative direct detection of dark energy using the XENON1T experiment
(used to detect dark matter).
 XENON1T experiment is the world’s most sensitive dark matter experiment and operated deep underground at
INFN Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso, Italy.
o Other similar experiments include LUX-Zeplin, a next generation dark matter experiment at Sanford
Underground Research Facility, and PandaX-xT at China Jinping Underground Laboratory.
 XENON1T have been designed to directly detect dark matter, by searching for signs of dark matter ‘hitting’
ordinary matter.
 A physical model, which used chameleon screening, can be used to show that dark energy particles produced in
the Sun’s strong magnetic fields could explain the signal seen in XENON1T.
Dark Matter & Dark Energy
 Everything we see - the planets, moons, galaxies, organisms - makes up less than 5% of the universe.
 About 27% is dark matter and 68% is dark energy.
 Dark matter’s existence was suggested as early as the 1920s, while dark energy wasn’t discovered until 1998.
 Dark energy is an unknown form of energy that is hypothesized to permeate all of space, tending to accelerate
the expansion of the universe.
 Dark matter is a hypothetical form of matter thought to account for approximately 85% of the matter in the
universe.
 Dark matter works like an attractive force that holds our universe together.
 This is because dark matter does interact with gravity, but it doesn’t reflect, absorb or emit light.

 Meanwhile, dark energy is a repulsive force that causes the expansion of our universe.
2.19 Fastest Spinning White Dwarf

An astronomers’ team has confirmed that a white dwarf star that completes a
full rotation once every 25 seconds is the fastest spinning white dwarf.
 This star, named LAMOST J0240+1952, is part of a binary star system.
 It is the size of the Earth but at least 200,000 times more massive.
 Magnetic Propeller System - J0240+1952 is an extremely rare
example of a magnetic propeller system, as it pulls gaseous plasma from
the companion star and flings them into space at 3,000 km per second.
o J0240+1952 is pulling material from its companion star due to
its stronggravitational effect.
o But as the material gets closer to the white dwarf the magnetic field starts to dominate.
o This type of gas is highly conducting and picks up a lot of speed from this process, which propels it away
from the star and out into space.
Evolution of White Dwarf
 A white dwarf is a very high density star that has burnt up all of its nuclear fuel (hydrogen).
 It shed its outer layers, now undergoing a process of shrinking and cooling over millions of years.
 Mass - White Dwarf is half the size of our Sun and has a surface gravity 100,000 times that of Earth.
 They can have a mass, which is limited to 4 times the mass of the Sun. This limit is known as the “Chandrasekhar
Limit.”
 Detection - White dwarfs can be detected as they are sources of soft, or lower-energy, X-rays.
 Black Dwarf - A white dwarf cools until it becomes a black dwarf, which emits no energy.
2.20 Kamo’oalewa
A new study offers insights into where the Kamo’oalewa could have come from.
 The asteroid Kamo’oalewa is a quasi-satellite of the Earth.
 It is Earth's wobbly companion that was spotted in 2006 by the PanSTARRS telescope in Hawaii.
 It is a near-Earth object (NEO) that orbits the Sun and gets as close as about 9 million miles from Earth.
 It was named as Kamo’oalewa, a word that is part of a Hawaiian chant, and alludes to an offspring that travels
on its own.

 Because of its small size (about 50 metres wide), this quasi-satellite has been difficult for scientists to study.
 Possibilities - The study suggests that there is one possibility that
Kamo’oalewa was a part of the Earth’s Moon, that could have broken
away from the Moon due to a possible impact.
 When scientists compared its spectrum with a lunar sample from the
Apollo 14 mission, there were striking similarities.
 Second possibility is that Kamo’oalewa was captured in its Earth-like
orbit from the general population of Near Earth Objects.
 Third possibility is that it originated from an undiscovered quasi-
stable population of Trojan asteroids of the Earth.
 [Trojans are a group of asteroids that share an orbit with a larger planet.]
2.21 Supermassive Black Hole & Gravity

A change of state of a Monster black hole system named OJ 287 (monitored since 2015) was detected by Indian
Astronomers
 In some galaxies, the black hole is actively
devouring a large amount of material and
shooting a jet of plasma, called blazars, at the
speed of light towards us.
 New state of this supermassive black hole
(SMBH), which originated in the form of blazars,
could help
1. Probe how particles behave under
intense gravity and acceleration to the
speed of light, and
2. Study the role of strong gravity and
acceleration of matter in the formation,
interaction, and evolution of galaxies in
the early universe.
 This black hole is found at the center of an active galaxy detected 5 Billion Light years away.
 OJ 287 (source) belongs to a class of blazars known as BL Lacerate blazars, which show very rapid and large
amplitude flux variations but barely discernible emission line features.
 This source emit in the whole electromagnetic spectrum, a rather uncommon phenomenon which requires
extreme gravitational field.
o Due to the extreme gravitational field, it is difficult for light also
to escape from the vicinity of the black hole.
 This source shows a repeated optical brightness enhancement almost
every 12 years. This reveals that the system hosts a binary black hole.
 ‘Supermassive black holes’ are the largest black holes, which has
masses that are more than 1 million suns together.
 Every large galaxy contains a supermassive black hole at its center.
 The supermassive black hole at the center of the Milky Way galaxy is
called Sagittarius A, which has a mass equal to about 4 million suns.
2.22 Magnetar
Researchers have succeeded in measuring for the first time the characteristics of a flare on a distant magnetar.
 The flare, which spewed within a few tenths of a second as much energy as the Sun would shed in 100,000 years,
was captured in 2020 by the International Space Station’s Atmosphere-Space Interactions Monitor (ASIM)
instrument.
 A magnetar is a rare compact type of neutron star teeming with energy and magnetism.

 Only 30 Magnetars have been spotted within the Milky Way so far.
 Formation - During the course of their evolution, massive stars (masses around 10-25 times the mass of the
Sun) eventually collapse and shrink to form very compact objects called neutron stars.
 A subset of these neutron stars is the so-called magnetars.
 Characteristics - Magnetars are isolated neutron stars with intense magnetic fields much higher than in
ordinary pulsars, typically ∼1015 G.
 Magnetars emit energy in the range given by luminosities of 10 37 - 1040 joules per second. (Luminosity of our
sun = 1026 joules per second).
 These are highly dense and have breathtakingly high rotation speeds (rotational periods can be just 0.3 to
12.0 seconds).
 Further, these magnetars emit violent flares.
 Eruptions in magnetars are believed to be due to instabilities in their magnetosphere, or “starquakes” produced
in their crust - a rigid, elastic layer about one kilometre thick.
 This causes waves in the magnetosphere, and interaction between these waves causes dissipation of energy.
 Magnetars are very difficult to observe when they are silent. It is only during a flare that they can be observed,
and these flares are so short-lived that it presents a formidable problem.
2.23 Carbon Enhanced Metal-Poor Stars

Indian astronomers have traced the origin of a much higher fraction of elements heavier than iron than is expected in
carbon-rich stars to the low-mass companions of these stars, from which the materials have been stolen.
 The low-mass companion stars have further evolved to white dwarfs that are no longer detectable.
 The carbon-rich stars are known as the Carbon Enhanced Metal-Poor (CEMP) stars.
 CEMP stars show enhancement of carbon, and are characterised by diverse heavy elements abundance patterns.
 These stars are primarily classified into 4 groups, based on which groups of heavy elements are more abundant.
 These are mostly dwarf stars, sub-giant stars, or giant stars, and stars that belong to these evolutionary stages
can’t produce elements heavier than iron.
 Formation - CEMP stars were formed from the ejected material of the first stars that formed after the Big
Bang, carrying the chemical imprints of early Galactic chemical evolution.
 CEMP stars showing enhancements of s-process and r-process elements
are known as CEMP-s and CEMP-r stars respectively.
 CEMP-r/s stars are subclass of CEMP stars that exhibit the enhancement
of both s- and r-process elements.
 Scientists from the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) have found that
an intermediate process called i-process.
 This i-process operating at neutron densities intermediate between those
for s-process and r-process is responsible for the peculiar abundance
pattern of CEMP-r/s stars.
 They have also put forward a new stellar classification criteria based on the abundances of barium, lanthanum
and europium to distinguish between the CEMP-s and CEMP-r/s stars.
2.24 Binary Star

 Binary stars are pair of stars in orbit around their common centre of gravity.
 A high proportion, perhaps one-half, of all stars in the Milky Way Galaxy are binaries or members of more
complex multiple systems.
 The brighter star is officially classified as the primary star, while the dimmer of the two is the secondary
(classified as A and B respectively).

 In cases where the stars are of equal brightness, the designation given by the discoverer is respected. Our Sun is
a solitary star.
 Although binary stars are sometimes called double stars, the latter refers to any two stars that are close together
in the sky.
 Thus, double stars include true binaries as well as stars that look close together when viewed from Earth but
which are actually quite far apart.
2.25 Solar Jets

Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) has revealed the science behind the jets of plasma (solar jets) on the Sun’s
chromosphere.
 Solar Jets, or spicules, appear as thin grass-like plasma structures. They are bursts of plasma coming off
the Sun.
 They constantly shoot up from the surface and are then brought
down by the Sun’s gravity.
 The key ingredients favouring solar jets are
1. The plasma’s fluid nature,
2. The Sun’s gravity,
3. Strong quasi periodic triggers to eject the plasma and
4. The Sun’s powerful magnetic field giving it specific
direction for ejection.
 The amount of energy and momentum that these spicules can
carry is of fundamental interest in solar and plasma
astrophysics.
 The processes by which plasma is supplied to the solar wind, and the solar atmosphere is heated to a million
degrees Celsius, still remain a puzzle.
 Findings - The scientists from IIA have said that the solar plasma can be imagined as threaded by magnetic
field lines, much like the long chains in polymer solutions.
 They found that the underlying physics of paint jets when excited on a speaker is analogous to the solar
plasma jets.
 They also elaborated that the plasma right below the visible solar surface (photosphere) is perpetually in a state
of convection, much like boiling water in a vessel heated at the bottom.
 This is ultimately powered by the nuclear energy released in the hot-dense core.

2.26 Eugene Parker

Eugene Parker, an American astrophysicist who theorized the existence of solar wind has died.
 Dr. Parker is a visionary in the field of helio-physics, focused on the study of the sun and other stars.
 He has contributed to science and to understanding how our universe works.
 He is best known for his 1958 Theory of the existence of solar wind - a supersonic flow of particles off the
sun's surface.
 In 1962, a NASA's Mariner II spacecraft mission to Venus confirmed his theory and solar wind's effect on the
solar system, including occasional disruptions of communications systems on Earth.
 In 2018, he became the first person to witness the launch of a spacecraft bearing his name, NASA's Parker Solar
Probe.
3. TELESCOPES & OBSERVATORIES
3.1 Study on Astronomical Observatories

A recent study has shown that the Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO) at Hanle in Ladakh is becoming one of the
promising observatory sites globally.
Paranal, located in a high-altitude desert in Chile, is found to be the best site in terms of clear skies with around 87%
of clear nights in a year.
 The study analysed datasets for the IAO in Hanle and Merak (Ladakh), and Devasthal (Nainital) in India.
 It found that the Hanle site is promising due to its advantages of,
1. More clear nights (270 in a year),
2. As dry as Atacama Desert in Chile and much drier than Devasthal,
3. Minimal light pollution, background aerosol concentration,
4. Extremely dry atmospheric condition, and
5. Uninterrupted by monsoon.
 IAO-Hanle is seen as one of the emerging sites for infrared and sub-mm optical astronomy because water vapour
absorbs electromagnetic signals and reduces their strength.
 Night observations at IAO-Hanle from 2m-Himalayan Chandra
Telescope (HCT) are possible throughout the year without any
interruption due to monsoons.
 Devasthal has a slightly larger number of clear nights compared to the
other sites in the sub-continent but are affected by monsoons for about
three months in a year.
 Such studies of long-term meteorological parameters help IIA plan for
several mega-science projects in the high-altitude Ladakh region such
as
1. National Large Solar Telescope (NLST) of 2-meter aperture at Merak and
2. National Large Optical Telescope (NLOT) of 8-10 meter aperture at Hanle.
Indian Astronomical Observatory
 Located in Hanle, Ladakh, the Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO) is operated by the Indian Institute of
Astrophysics, Bangalore.
 It has one of the world's highest located sites for optical, infrared and gamma-ray telescopes.
 It is currently the 9th highest optical telescope in the world, situated at an elevation of 4,500 meters.

3.2 PASIPHAE
 Polar-Areas Stellar-Imaging in Polarisation High-Accuracy Experiment (PASIPHAE) is an international
collaborative sky surveying project steered by the Institute of Astrophysics, Greece.
 It will be used in upcoming sky surveys to capture polarisation (B-mode signal) coming from very faint stars
that are so far away that their polarisation signals haven’t been systematically studied.
 The distances to these stars will be obtained from measurements of the GAIA satellite.
 The survey will use two high-tech optical polarimeters to observe the northern and southern skies,
simultaneously.
 By combining these data, astronomers will perform a maiden magnetic field tomography mapping of the
interstellar medium of very large areas of the sky using a novel polarimeter instrument known as WALOP.
 As the survey will focus on sky areas where very low polarisation values (<0.5%) are expected to emerge, a
polarimeter with high sensitivity and accuracy was needed, so WALOP was planned sometime in 2013.
 The maximum observation time offered by the smaller telescopes will be diverted for the PASIPHAE sky survey
using WALOP.
WALOP
 Wide Area Linear Optical Polarimeter (WALOP) can detect polarised light signals coming from the stars along
high galactic latitudes.
 Each WALOP will be mounted on two small optical telescopes,
a) The 1.3-metre Skinakas Observatory, Crete, and
b) The 1-m telescope of the South African Astronomical Observatory, Sutherland.
 The images obtained from WALOP will simultaneously have the finest of details of a star along with its
panoramic background.
a) WALOP can capture images within ½° by ½° area of the sky during every exposure.
b) WALOP will offer the widest ever view of the sky in polarimetry.
 WALOP will operate on the principle that at any given time, the data from a portion of the sky under observation
will be split into 4 channels.
 Depending on the manner in which light passes through the four channels, the polarisation value from the star
is obtained.
o Each star will have four corresponding images which when stitched together will help calculate the
desired polarisation value of a star.
 WALOP and its predecessor RoboPol survey share the single shot photometry principle.
 But WALOP will be capable of observing hundreds of stars concurrently present both in the northern and the
southern skies as opposed to RoboPol, which has a much smaller field of view in the sky.
 The development of the instrument is in an advanced stage currently and progressing at the instrumentation
facility in IUCAA.
3.3 Hubble Telescope in Safe Mode

NASA plans to fix a glitch that has stopped the Hubble space telescope from being used for science work for more than
a month.
 The Hubble telescope - launched in 1990 - is currently running in “safe mode”, leading to all non-essential
systems being shut down.
 It was put “safe mode” after a problem appeared with its payload computer, which controls and coordinates the
science instruments onboard the observatory.
 There is also an issue with the Power Control Unit (PCU).
o The PCU contains a power regulator that provides a constant five volts of electricity to the payload
computer and its memory.

o It also contains a “secondary circuit”, which tells the payload computer that it should cease operations
if the voltage falls below or exceeds allowable levels.
 Both the payload computer and the PCU are part of Hubble’s Science Instrument Command and Data Handling
(SI C&DH) unit.
 About - Named after astronomer Edwin Hubble, the observatory is the first major optical telescope to be placed
in space.
 It is larger than a school bus in size, has a 7.9 feet mirror.
 It captures stunning images of deep space playing a major role in helping astronomers understand the universe
by observing the most distant stars, galaxies and planets.
3.4 James Webb Space Telescope

The James Webb Space Telescope is scheduled to be sent into orbit no earlier than December 2022.
 The Webb telescope is said to be the scientific successor to the Hubble and Spitzer space telescopes.
 It is NASA’s largest and most powerful space science telescope ever constructed.
 After launch, it will head near the Earth-Sun ‘L2’ Lagrange point almost a million miles away (1.5 million
kilometers).
 It is funded by NASA in conjunction with the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Canadian Space Agency
(CSA).
 The telescope will
1. Hunt for the unobserved formation of the first galaxies, and
2. Look inside dust clouds where stars and planetary systems are forming today.
 The collected data will help find answers to questions in 4 areas of modern astronomy - First light, Assembly of
galaxies, Birth of stars and protoplanetary systems, and Planetary systems and the origin of life.
 The telescope carries 4 scientific instruments.
1. Near-Infrared Camera
2. Near-Infrared Spectrograph
3. Mid-Infrared Instrument
4. Near-Infrared Imager and Slitless Spectrograph (To study the planetary systems)
 Reason to carry infrared cameras -About 13.8 billion years after the Big Bang, our universe was extremely
hot and filled with dense particles.
 As it slowly cooled, it gave rise to the building blocks - helium and hydrogen.
 Studies have suggested that the first stars formed about 150-200 million years after the Big Bang.
 Using infrared cameras, Webb is designed to help us find the answer to the questions like, “How did the
Universe’s first light or stars look like?”
 Redshift - Light from the first stars and galaxies formed nearly 13.6 billion years ago will have to travel through
space & time before reaching the telescope.
 By the time this light reaches the telescope, its colour changes, and this phenomenon is called Redshift.
 The visible or UV light from the first stars and galaxies shift to redder wavelengths by the time the telescope
sees it. For this reason, Webb is equipped with near- and mid-infrared instruments.
 By studying the earliest galaxies and comparing them to today’s galaxies we can understand the growth and
evolution of galaxies.
 Communication - The Webb telescope will send data to Earth via a high-frequency radio transmitter and
large radio antennas part of the NASA Deep Space Network will receive these signals.
 It will be forwarded to the Webb Science and Operation Center at the Space Telescope Science Institute in
Baltimore, Maryland, USA
 Gold Mirrors - These mirrors will help collect light from the objects being observed.

 The primary mirror, the lightweight mirrors, coatings, actuators and mechanisms, electronics, and thermal
blankets when fully deployed form a single precise mirror.
 The primary mirror is made of 18 hexagonal-shaped mirror
segments stitched together in a honeycomb pattern.
 The hexagonal shape allows for a roughly circular,
segmented mirror with high filling factor and six-fold
symmetry.
 All these mirrors can fold up and fit into a rocket and then
unfold in space.
 Each mirror segment is made from beryllium. Beryllium is
used as it is both strong and light.
 After the beryllium mirror segments were polished a thin
coating of gold was applied to itusing a technique called
vacuum vapour deposition. Gold helps improve the mirror’s reflection of infrared light.
3.5 Neutrino
Tamil Nadu has said to the Supreme Court that it does not want the Indian Neutrino Observatory (INO) to be set up
in a sensitive ecological zone in the Western Ghats at a great cost to wildlife and biodiversity.
 Neutrinos are the 2nd most abundant particles, after photons.
 They come in three ‘flavours’ or ‘types’, and each flavour is associated with a light elementary particle. They are,
1. Electron-neutrino is associated with the electron;
2. Muon-neutrino with the muon and
3. Tau-neutrino with the tau particle.
 They are not easy to catch, as they do not carry a charge, as a result of which they do not interact with matter.
 They also might have unique properties that would help explain why the universe is made of matter instead of
antimatter.
 Subatomic particles that make up antimatter have properties that are opposite to the subatomic particles of
normal matter.
 Protons, neutrons and electrons (subatomic particles of normal matter) are among the 12 quarks and leptons
have been discovered so far.
 To know about the Indian-based Neutrino Observatory, click here.
 Related Links - Baikal-GVD, Neutrinos and Star Death
3.6 X-particles in Quark-gluon Plasma

Researchers have found evidence of elusive short-lived “X” particles in the CERN’s particle accelerator.
 In the first millionths of a second after the Big Bang, the universe was a roiling, trillion-degree plasma of
quarks and gluons.
 The quarks and gluons are the elementary particles that briefly glommed together in countless combinations
before cooling and settling into more stable configurations to make the neutrons & protons of ordinary matter.
 Before cooling, a fraction of these quarks and gluons collided randomly to form short-lived ‘X’ particles, so
named for their unknown structures.
 Today, X particles are extremely rare. But they may be created in particle accelerators through quark
coalescence.
 In quark coalescence, the high-energy collisions can generate similar flashes of quark-gluon plasma.
Tetraquarks - Uncommon
 Generally, the basic building blocks of matter (neutron and the proton) are made from three tightly bound
quarks.

 For years, we had thought that for some reason, nature had chosen to produce particles made only from two or
three quarks.
 Only recently have physicists begun to see signs of exotic "tetraquarks" -- particles made from a rare
combination of four quarks.
X-particles
 X particles that were produced in the quark-gluon plasma in the CERN’s Large Hadron Collider (LHC),
Switzerland are of a type known as X (3872), named for the particle's estimated mass.
 As the background was overwhelming after the quark-gluon plasma forms and cools down, a machine-
learning algorithm was used to pick out decay patterns characteristic of X particles.
 X (3872) is either a compact tetraquark or an entirely new kind of molecule made from not atoms but two
loosely bound mesons.
 [Mesons are the subatomic particles that are made from two quarks.]
 Discovery - X (3872) was first discovered in 2003 by the Belle experiment, a particle collider in Japan that
smashes together high-energy electrons and positrons.
 Within this environment, however, the rare particles decayed too quickly for scientists to examine their
structure in detail.
 It has been hypothesized that X (3872) and other exotic particles might be better illuminated in quark-gluon
plasma.
 Significance - In the next few years they want to use the quark-gluon plasma to probe the X particle's internal
structure, which could change our view of what kind of material the universe should produce.
3.7 SARAS 3 Radio Telescope

SARAS 3 radio telescope refutes the recent claim of the discovery of a radio wave signal from cosmic dawn.
 SARAS is a precision radio telescope that is used to detect
extremely faint radio wave signals from the depths of time, from
our “Cosmic Dawn” when the first stars and galaxies formed in the
early Universe.
 It was invented and built by the astronomers at Raman Research
Institute (RRI).
 The SARAS radio telescope was deployed by the RRI team in
isolated sites in India to gather celestial radio waves with
minimum terrestrial man-made radio interference.
 It is the first telescope worldwide to reach the required sensitivity.
4. DEFENSE
Artillery
4.1 Enhanced Pinaka Rocket

 The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) test fired extended range version of
indigenously developed Pinaka rocket at Integrated Test Range (ITR), Chandipur, Odisha.
 These 122 mm Caliber Artillery rockets were launched from a Multi-Barrel Rocket Launcher (MBRL).
 The enhanced range version of Pinaka Rocket System can destroy targets at distances up to 45 kms.
 This Rocket System has been developed jointly by Pune based Armament Research and Development
Establishment (ARDE) and High Energy Materials Research Laboratory (HEMRL).
 The development of the Enhanced Pinaka system was taken up to achieve longer range performance.
 To know about the Pinaka Rocket, click here.

4.2 Arjun Mark-1A

Ministry of Defence has placed an order to Heavy Vehicles Factory (HVF), Chennai for 118 units of the Main Battle
Tank Arjun’s Mark-1A variant for the Army.
 Origin - The development of Arjun was started by the DRDO in 1980s, primarily to augment the predominantly
Russian-made armoured fleet until then. Work on the variant Mark-1A, or Mk-1A, began in 2010.
 Advantages - Mark-1A variant adds 72 new features to the previous variant Mark-1. These additions have
resulted in
o Better all-terrain mobility and manoeuvrability in different modes of operation,
o Better target acquisition, and precision firing during both day and night with a 360° view,
o Suitability for the 4-member crew, who operate in tough conditions when deployed,
o Suitability for effective use of IT and computer networking in the battlefield, and
o Multi-layered robust protective armour named ‘Kanchan’.
 These additions, along with its 120 mm rifled gun, have contributed to its categorisation as the ‘hunter killer’.
 Arjun Mark-1A is ideally suited for desert terrain, and even more effective and lethal compared to earlier variant
due to the new additions.
 Limitation - Weight of the tank puts a limitation on its deployability in high-altitude terrains.
4.3 Cluster Bombs and Vacuum Bombs

Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch, and Ukraine’s ambassador to the United States accused Russia of
using cluster bombs and vacuum bombs in the ongoing war.
ClusterBombs
 According to the 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions, a cluster munition or a clusterbomb means a
“conventional munition that is designed to disperse or release explosive submunitions each weighing less than
20 kilograms, and includes those explosive submunitions”.
 Cluster munitions are non-precision weapons that are designed
1. To injure or kill human beings indiscriminately over a large area, and
2. To destroy vehicles and infrastructure such as runways, railway or power transmission lines.
 They are dropped from aircraft or fired from the ground or sea, opening up in mid-air to release tens or hundreds
of submunitions or bomblets.
 Many of these bomblets end up not exploding, but continue to lie on the ground, often partially or fully hidden
and difficult to locate and remove, posing a threat to the civilian population for long after the war is ceased.
 The Convention on Cluster Munitions specifically identifies “cluster munition remnants”, which include failed
cluster munitions, abandoned cluster munitions, unexploded submunitions and unexploded bomblets.
 Countries that have ratified the Convention on Cluster Munitions are prohibited from using cluster bombs.
Vacuum Bombs
 Vacuum bombs are also known as aerosol bombs, fuel air explosives, or thermo-baric weapons.
 A vacuum bomb consists of a fuel container with two separate explosive charges.
 They use oxygen from the air for a large, high-temperature blast.
 They cause significantly greater devastation than a conventional bomb of comparable size.
 The weapons, which go off in two separate stages, can be fired as rockets from tank-mounted launchers or
dropped from aircraft.
 Two stages - As they hit their target, a first explosion splits open the bomb’s fuel container, releasing a cloud
of fuel and metal particles that spreads over a large area.
 A second explosion then occurs, igniting the aerosol cloud into a giant ball of fire and sending out intense blast
waves that can destroy even reinforced buildings or equipment and vaporise human beings.

 Vacuum bombs are not prohibited by any international law or agreement, but their use against civilian
populations in built-up areas, schools or hospitals, could attract action under the Hague Conventions of 1899
and 1907.
4.4 Articulated All-Terrain Vehicles

The Indian Army has issued a Request For Information (RFI) for the supply of Articulated All-Terrain Vehicles to be
deployed in Ladakh and Kutch.
 Articulated All-Terrain Vehicle is a twin cabin, tracked, amphibious carrier for off road mobility.
 The special design of this equipment exerts low ground pressure on the soil and a pull-push mode of
locomotion between two cabins facilitates mobility over varied terrains like snow, desert and slush.
 A ballistic protection in the cabin body ensures protection to troops travelling in it from small arms fire.
 These vehicles are very useful to move troops or supplies in snow-bound terrains and in marshy/sandy
environments.
 They can reach where wheeled vehicles cannot due to deep snow, slush or marshy terrain and can be very
effective for patrolling and rapid deployment in operational situations.
 Usage - The RFI document specifies that 12 vehicles need to be supplied to Nimu in Ladakh (snow-bound areas)
and six to Bhuj in Gujarat (marshy terrain of the Rann of Kutch).
 The RFI document specifies that the vehicle should be able to perform at heights of 18,000 feet in glaciated and
snow bound conditions and in salty/dry marshes.
Missiles
4.5 Agni P
Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) successfully flight tested a New Generation Nuclear
Capable Ballistic Missile Agni P from Dr APJ Abdul Kalam island off the coast of Odisha, Balasore.
 Agni P is the first of the new generation advanced variant of Agni class of missiles. It has a range capability
between 1,000-2,000 kms
 It weighs 50% less than Agni 3 and has new guidance and a new generation of propulsion.
 Since it is a canisterised missile, it can be launched from rail and road and stored for a longer period and
transported all across the country as per operational requirements.
 Due to its long range, this missile can be used to target enemy armadas in the Indo-Pacific.
4.6 Man Portable Anti-tank Guided Missile

Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) successfully flight-tested indigenously developed Man
Portable Antitank Guided Missile (MPATGM).
 MPATGM is a third generation, low weight, fire and forget Missile.
 The missile is incorporated with state-of-the-art Miniaturized Infrared Imaging Seeker along with advanced
avionics.
4.7 South Korea’s Iron Dome

South Korea’s defence procurement agency had approved plans to develop an artillery interception system, similar to
Israel’s Iron Dome.
 This new defence system will be designed and built specifically to thwart attacks by rockets and long-range
missiles launched by North Korea.
 It will be deployed by 2035 along the Military Demarcation Line that divides the Korean Peninsula.
 Difference between the Iron Domes - South Korea’s Iron Dome would cost a lot more that the Israel’s.
 There are operational differences between the two systems as well, with the most significant being that South
Korea’s system will be designed to intercept long-range artillery pieces.

 South Korea and Israel face different security threats that require different responses.
1. Israel contends with Hamas, which is primarily a militant group, and irregular forces sporadically,
2. South Korea had to contend with North Korea, a nation with its own extensive military capabilities.
4.8 Akash Prime Missile

A new version of the Akash Missile - ‘Akash Prime’ has been successfully flight tested from Integrated Test Range (ITR),
Chandipur, Odisha.
 Akash Prime is a medium-range mobile surface-to-air missile (SAM) system developed by Defence Research
and Development Organisation (DRDO) and produced by Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL).
 It can be fired from a tank or a wheeled truck to attack an aerial target.
 It was developed to replace the Russian 2K12 Kub (SA-6 Gainful) missile.
 Advantages - Akash Prime is equipped with an indigenous active Radio Frequency seeker for improved
accuracy.
 Other improvements also ensure more reliable performance under low temperature environments at higher
altitudes.
 Modified ground system of the existing Akash weapon system has been used for the current flight test.
 Akash Prime system will further boost the confidence of the Indian Army and Indian Air Force as the Akash
system is already inducted and now getting improved with more lethal missiles.
4.9 North Korea’s 1st Strategic Cruise Missile Test

North Korea’s 1st long-range Cruise Missile Test is nothing unusual, but it is of strategic relevance for a particular
region.
 North Korea already had cruise missiles, but they are a shorter range anti-ship system. Hence, this is not its
1st cruise missile test.
 But, it is “North Korea’s 1st long-range (1,000 km+) cruise missile and 1st claimed nuclear-capable cruise missile.
 These cruise missiles don’t come under UNSC sanctions that were placed on North Korea to curb its nuclear
development programme.
Cruise Missiles
 Cruise missiles are unmanned self-propelled, fast-moving, guided bombs that soar at a very low trajectory,
parallel to the ground.
 They sustain flight through aerodynamic lift for most of its flight path and whose primary mission is to place an
ordnance or special payload on a target.
 Most cruise missiles use a small, solid- propellant rocket booster, which allows them to gain enough altitude
and speed for the onboard sustainer engine to take over.
 Cruise missiles are classified based on the speed as,
1. Subsonic (around 0.8 Mach),
2. Supersonic (2-3 Mach) and
3. Hypersonic cruise missiles (more than 5 Mach).
 Difference - Cruise Missiles are distinct from regular (non-cruise) missiles primarily because they go really far
and all such missiles have an internal guidance system.
 They differ from ballistic missiles as they travel within the earth’s atmosphere and aerodynamically maneuver
for most of their flight time.
4.10 Agni-5
Agni-5 Missile was launched from the APJ Abdul Kalam Island, Odisha successfully.
 Agni-5 Missile is a nuclear-capable long-range Surface to Surface Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM).

 Agni-5 was developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) as a part of the
Integrated Guided Missile Development Program (IGMDP).
 It uses a 3-stage solid fuelled engine.
 It is capable of striking targets at ranges up to 5,000
kms with very high degree of accuracy.
 India began testing the Agni series of missile in 1989
with the 1st test for Agni 1, an Intermediate Range
Ballistic Missile, with the 1000-km range.
 Significance - This Missile is capable of reaching
most parts of China.
 Successful test of Agni-5 is in line with India’s policy to
have ‘credible minimum deterrence’ that underpins
the commitment to ‘No First Use’ of its nuclear
doctrine.
 Thus, second strike capability - the capability to strike back after being hit by nuclear weapons first becomes
important.
Nuclear Triad
 It refers to the delivery of nuclear weapons via land, sea and air
i.e.
1. Land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs),
2. Submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs), and
3. Strategic bombers.
 The purpose of having this 3-branched nuclear capability is to
reduce the possibility that an enemy could destroy all of a
nation's nuclear forces in a first-strike attack.
 This, in turn, ensures a credible threat of a second strike, and
thus increases a nation's nuclear deterrence.
 Other methods of delivery could include orbital weapons, nuclear torpedo and hypersonic glide vehicles.
4.11 China’s Hypersonic Glide Vehicle

A report says that China launched a Long March rocket that carried a nuclear-capable hypersonic glide vehicle, which
circled the globe through low-orbit space before cruising down towards its target.
 Hypersonic Glide Vehicle was being developed by the China Academy of
Aerospace Aerodynamics (CAAA) under the state-owned China
Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation.
 These vehicles are difficult to track because unlike ballistic missiles,
they don’t follow the fixed parabolic trajectory.
 According to the report, the weapon could, in theory, fly over the South
Pole. That would pose a big challenge for the US military as its missile
defence systems are focused on the northern polar route.
 Hypersonic systems are extremely costly as they primarily use the
scramjet technology that needs to be able to handle high temperatures.
 [Scramjets are a category of engines designed to handle airflows of speeds in multiples of the speed of sound.]
 Implications for India - This test by China highlights the threat for India’s space assets along with the surface
assets.
 Offence system operating at these speeds would mean requirement to develop defence systems at these speeds,
which India is already doing so.
 But India has already done the ‘Anti-satellite (ASAT) missile test to protect its space assets.

4.12 S-400 Missile System

The US has expressed its "concern" over the delivery of S-400 Triumf missile defence systems from Russia to India.
 The S-400 is known as Russia's most advanced long-range surface-to-air missile defence system.
 This fully mobile missile system is a successor to the S-300 system.
 Each system has a 3D phased array acquisition radar that can track around 300 targets up to 600 km.
 It has command and control centre, automatic tracking and targeting systems, launchers and support vehicles.
 Each system has 4 types to missiles for up to 40 km, 120 km, 250 km and maximum range of 400 km and up to
30 km altitude. The different ranges and varying altitudes create a layered air defence net.
 S-400 battalion has 8 missile launchers, typically with 4 missiles each.
 It can be activated within five minutes and has the flexibility to be integrated into the existing and future air
defence units of the air force, army and navy.
 The S-400 also comes with improved electronic counter-countermeasures to tackle the attempts at jamming.
 Another capability of S-400 is its “fire-and-forget capability" which does not require further guidance after
the launch and can hit the target without the launcher being in line-of-sight of the target.
 Uses - S-400 can simultaneously track and neutralize many incoming objects spanning aircraft, missiles and
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) over very long ranges.
 It can provide air interception against early warning aircraft, airborne missile strategic carriers, tactical and
theatre ballistic missiles, medium-range ballistic missiles in a dense radio countermeasure scenario.
4.13 HEAT Abhyas

DRDO has successfully conducted the flight test of Indigenously developed Abhyas from Integrated Test Range (ITR),
Chandipur off the coast, Odisha.
 Abhyas is a High-speed Expendable Aerial Target (HEAT) System developed to meet the requirement of aerial
targets of Indian Armed Forces.

 It is designed for autonomous flying with the help of an autopilot.

 It was developed indigenously by the Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE), Bengaluru-based DRDO
laboratory.
 It is controlled from a ground based controller and indigenously developed MEMS-based Inertial Navigation
System.
 It also has the Flight Control Computer that helps it to follow the pre-designated path in a fully autonomous
mode.
 It is powered by two boosters which provided the initial acceleration during the launch and a small turbo jet
engine is used to sustain high subsonic speed with long endurance.
4.14 Pralay
Defence Research & Development Organisation (DRDO) successfully conducted maiden flight test of indigenously
developed surface-to-surface missile ‘Pralay’, from Dr A P J Abdul Kalam Island off the coast of Odisha.
 'Pralay' is India's first conventional ballistic missile and is an answer to any conventional missile attack from
northern or western borders.
 Pralay is a solid-fuel, surface-to-surface battlefield missile developed by DRDO based on Prithvi Defence Vehicle
from the Indian ballistic missile programme.
 ‘Pralay’ is a 350-500 km short-range missile with a payload capacity of 500-1,000 kg. It can be launched from
a mobile launcher.
 The missile guidance system includes state-of-the-art navigation system and integrated avionics.
4.15 Supersonic Missile Assisted Torpedo System

Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) developed Supersonic Missile Assisted Torpedo (SMART)
System gets successfully launched from Wheeler Island in Odisha.
 The SMART system is a next generation long-range missile-based standoff torpedo delivery system.
 [A torpedo is an underwater ranged weapon launched above or below the water surface, self-propelled towards
a target, and with an explosive warhead designed to detonate either on contact with or in proximity to the target.]
 The SMART system has been designed to enhance anti-submarine warfare capability far beyond the
conventional range of the torpedo.
 This canister-based missile system consists of advanced technologies viz. 2- stage solid propulsion, electro-
mechanical actuators and precision inertial navigation.
 The missile can cover a range of distances.
Wheeler Island
 Dr. Abdul Kalam Island, formerly known as Wheeler Island, is an island off the coast of Odisha, India, around
150 kms east of Bhubaneswar.
 The island was originally named after English commandant Lieutenant Hugh Wheeler.
 Odisha government has formally renamed it as APJ Abdul Kalam island as a tribute to the former President of
India on his 2nd death anniversary (2017).
 The Integrated Test Range missile testing facility is located on the island, and serves as the test facility for most
of India's missiles.
4.16 Stand-Off Anti-Tank Missile

Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and Indian Air Force (IAF) flight-tested the Helicopter
launched Stand-off Anti-tank (SANT) Missile from Pokhran ranges.
 The SANT missile is an indigenous stand-off weapon designed and developed by Research Centre Imarat
(RCI), Hyderabad in coordination with other DRDO labs and participation from industries.
 It is equipped with a state-of-the-art millimetre wave (MMW) seeker which provides high precision strike
capability from a safe distance.

 So, the weapon can neutralise targets in a range up to 10 kms.

 It will strengthen the indigenous defence capabilities and the arsenal of IAF.
4.17 Advanced Variant of BrahMos

An extended range sea-to-sea variant of the BrahMos supersonic cruise missile was test fired from the recently
commissioned stealth guided missile destroyer INS Visakhapatnam.
 BRAHMOS is a universal long range supersonic cruise missile system.
 It is a joint collaboration between the DRDO (India) and NPOM
(Russia).
 BRAHMOS has been designed with two variants for Anti-Ship and Land-
Attack roles.
 The range of the missile was originally capped at 290 km as per
obligations of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR).
 Following India’s entry into the club in 2016, the range would be
extended to 450 km and to 600km at a later stage.
 Variants - BRAHMOS Weapon Systems can be launched from land, sea, sub-sea and air (Sukhoi-30s) against
surface and sea-based targets beyond RADAR horizons.
 Submarine launched version has capability of being launched from around 50 meters below the water surface.
 BrahMos equipped Sukhoi-30s have a range of 1,500 kms at a stretch without mid-air refuelling.
 The system has been inducted and is operational with the Indian Navy (IN) as well as the Indian Army (IA).
4.18 Man Portable Anti-Tank Guided Missile

Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) successfully flight tested the final deliverable configuration
of Man Portable Anti-Tank Guided Missile (MPATGM).
 MPATGM is an indigenously developed anti-tank missile.
 This low weight, fire & forget missile is for infantry and Parachute (Special Forces) of the Indian Army.
 It can be 'Soft' launched from a man portable launcher using an Ejection Motor.
 The missile has miniaturised infrared imaging seeker for homing on to the designated target and destroying it.
 The missile is designed for a maximum range of 2.5 km.
 It also has advanced avionics for on-board control and guidance.
4.19 Hypersonic Missiles

The Russian Ministry of Defence announced that it had used a hypersonic aeroballistic missile for the first time in the
war with Ukraine.
 A hypersonic missile is a weapon system that flies above
the speed of Mach 5 i.e. five times the speed of sound.
That’s about 6,100 kmph.
 Hypersonic missile are manoeuvrable, unlike the ballistic
missiles that follows a set course or a ballistic trajectory.
 Advantages - Hypersonic weapons can enable
responsive, long range strike options against distant,
defended or time critical threats when other forces are
unavailable, denied access or not preferred.
 They use only kinetic energy i.e. energy derived from
motion, to destroy unhardened targets or even
underground facilities.

 Detection - Hypersonic weapons could challenge detection and defence due to their speed, manoeuvrability
and low altitude of flight.
 The ground based radars or terrestrial radars cannot detect hypersonic missiles until late in the flight of
the weapon.
 This delayed detection makes it difficult for the responders to the missile attack to assess their options and to
attempt to intercept the missile.
 Countries - While the US, Russia and China are in advanced stages of hypersonic missile programmes, India,
France, Germany, Japan and Australia too are developing hypersonic weapons.
Kinzhal Hypersonic Missile
 The Kh-47M2 Kinzhal is Russia’s first operational conventionally armed hypersonic weapon. It is designed to
be carried by MiG fighter jets.
 Kinzhal (or Dagger) is a hypersonic aeroballistic air-to-surface missile. It is said to be a modification of its
Iskander missile.
 Russia claims that Kinzhal has a range of more than 2,000 km, and a speed of Mach 10.
4.20 MANPADS
The United States and NATO allies are shipping weapons into Ukraine at break-neck speed, including highly sensitive
items such as Man-Portable Air-Defense Systems (MANPADS).
 Man-Portable Air-Defence Systems (MANPADS) are short-range,
lightweight and portable surface-to-air missiles used to destroy
aircraft or helicopters.
 [Man-Portable Anti-Tank Systems (MANPATs) work in a similar
manner but are used to destroy or incapacitate military tanks.]
 MANPADS are often described as shoulder-fired anti-aircraft
missiles.
 They can be shoulder-fired by individuals or small groups, or can be
launched from atop a ground-vehicle, or fired from a tripod or
stand, and from a helicopter or boat.
 They help shield troops from aerial attacks and are most effective in targeting low-flying aircrafts.
 Features - Weighing between 10 to 20 kg and not being longer than 1.8 m, MANPADS have a maximum range
of 8 kilometres and can engage targets at altitudes of 4.5 km.
 Most MANPADS have passive or ‘fire and forget’ guidance systems, meaning the operator is not required to
guide the missile to its target, enabling them to run and relocate immediately after firing.
 The missile stays locked-on to the targeted object, not requiring active guidance from the soldier.
 The missiles are fitted with Infrared (IR) seekers that identify and target the airborne vehicle through heat
radiation being emitted by the latter.
 Concerns - Over time, non-state actors such as rebel and terrorist groups are known to have illicitly acquired
MANPADS, using them during civil wars and other high-intensity conflicts.
 Russia is by far the biggest exporter of MANPADs, having sold over 10,000 such systems between 2010 and
2018 to various countries including Iraq, Qatar, Kazakhstan, Venezuela, and Libya.
Aircrafts
4.21 Black Box

Black Box of the IAF chopper that crashed with CDS General Bipin Rawat and others were recovered.
 A Black Box is a vital electronic device that is installed in aircraft to help investigators in case of unfortunate
accidents.
 It is neither black in colour, nor box in shape, but is a device made in high-visibility orange colour.

 It records 88 vital parameters about a flight including, airspeed, altitude, cockpit conversations, and air pressure
among others.
 There are two recorders in black box:
o Flight Data Recorder (FDR) that stores all the recent history of the flight through the recording of
dozens of parameters collected multiple times per second and.
o Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) that records cockpit sound including pilot conversations
 To withstand the harshest crashes, the black box is double wrapped in a corrosion-resistant stainless-steel
container with high-temperature insulation.
 If underwater, the device sends out a signal on contact with saltwater that can be picked up within a radius of
about 2 kilometres.
4.22 Light Combat Aircraft Programme

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), expects to deliver all Final Operational Clearance (FOC) variant aircraft to
the Indian Air Force (IAF) in 2022, while the LCA-MK1A is expected to take flight in June 2022.
 In 2021, Ministry of Defence signed a deal with HAL
to supply 73 LCA Tejas Mk-1A fighter aircraft and 10
LCA Mk-1 trainer aircraft to the IAF.
 The MK-1A will have over 40 modifications over the
MK1 variant.
 Twin objectives of the LCA programme are,
1. To develop LCA for the IAF and
2. To reduce the gap in the field of aeronautical
technology available in India and the
advanced nations of the West.
 LCA is designed by Aeronautical Development
Agency (ADA) under the Department of Defence
Research and Development (DRDO).
 The first LCA squadron No. 45 ‘Flying Daggers’ in the IAF was formed in 2016.
 The second LCA squadron No. 18 ‘Flying Bullets’ was operationalised in 2020.
4.23 P-8I Aircraft

Aircraft manufacturer Boeing has delivered the 12th P-8I long-range maritime patrol aircraft to the Indian Navy.
This completes the follow-on clause for four additional P-8I aircraft contracted in 2016.
 P-8I Aircraft is a long-range maritime reconnaissance and Anti-Submarine Warfare Aircraft.
 It is a variant of the P-8A Poseidon aircraft that Boeing company developed as a replacement for the US Navy’s
ageing P-3 fleet.
 With a maximum speed of 907 kmph and an operating range of over 1,200 nautical miles, the P-8Is detect
threats and neutralize them if required, far before they come anywhere near Indian shores.
 Deal - In 2019, the Defence Acquisition Council approved the procurement of the six aircraft.
 In 2021, the U.S. State Department approved the sale of 6 additional P-8I aircraft and related equipment, a deal
estimated to cost $2.42 billion.
 The six aircraft under discussion will come with extensive upgrades.
 These P-8Is will come installed with encrypted communication systems since India has signed the foundational
agreement Communications Compatibility and Security Agreement (COMCASA) with the U.S.
 History - The Indian Navy was the first international customer of the aircraft by procuring P-8Is under a $2.2
billion deal in 2009.
 In 2016, the Navy exercised the optional clause for four more P-8Is in a deal worth over $1billion.

 The P-8I is an integral part of the Indian Navy’s fleet and has surpassed 35,000 flight hours since it was inducted
in 2013.
4.24 Advanced Light Helicopter MK III

Tri-Service Andaman & Nicobar Command inducts the indigenous Advanced Light Helicopter MK III.
 The indigenously designed and developed Advanced Light Helicopter (ALH-DHRUV) is a twin engine, multi-
role, multi-mission new generation helicopter in the 5.5 ton weight class.
 The basic Helicopter produced in skid version and wheeled version of the aircraft is manufactured by Hindustan
Aeronautics Limited.
 The major variants of Dhruv are classified as Dhruv Mk-I, Mk-II, Mk-III & Mk-IV.
 Amongst its variants, the MK III variant is a maritime role variant encompassing state-of-the-art sensors
and weapons that add punch to India’s prowess at sea.
 The ALH MK III aircraft with its glass cockpit, Shakti engines, advanced Maritime Patrol Radar, Electro–optical
payload and Night Vision Device will act as a force multiplier in keeping India’s territories safe.
 The state-of-the-art aircraft has multirole capabilities including maritime surveillance, support for Special
Forces, medical evacuations besides search and rescue roles.
Drones
4.25 Kamikaze Drones

After Ukraine urged the US for more military support to defend the country against Russia’s invasion, the US has send
kamikaze drones as part of a massive military aid package.
 There are drones that fire missiles and then there are ones which are missiles themselves.
 The Kamikaze are called the Killer or Suicide drones.
 These are small unmanned aircraft packed with explosives that can
be flown directly at a tank or troops that are destroyed when it hits the
target and explodes.
 The single-use weapons are cheaper than most US drones, and come in
two sizes, according to AeroVironment, the manufacturer.
1. The Switchblade 300 flies up to 15 minutes at a time, and is
designed to be carried in a backpack, assisting small infantry
units.
2. The Switchblade 600 flies up to 40 minutes, and is known as a
“loitering missile” that can target armoured vehicles.
 The Switchblade can be taken into battle in a backpack and fly up to 7 miles to hit a target. They are called
Switchblade because their bladelike wings spring out on launch. It is also described as a flying shotgun.
 Significance - As it has a feature that allows the operator to adjust the blast radius, it can kill the driver of a
vehicle but not a passenger.
 The Switchblade can be “waved off” up to 2 seconds before impact, in the event of a mistake or a risk to civilians.
 It also has cameras that show a target seconds before impact.
 The drones have the capability of going past traditional defences to strike its targets and also cost a fraction of
what the larger counterparts do.
 The small lethal drones are difficult to detect on radar, and they can even be programmed to hit targets without
human intervention, based on facial recognition.
4.26 HANSA-NG
HANSA-NG has successfully completed the sea level trials at Puducherry.
 HANSA-New Generation (HANSA-NG) is India’s first indigenous Flying Trainer.

 [HANSA-NG is the revamped version of the original HANSA developed three decades ago (1993).]
 It is designed and developed by CSIR-National Aerospace Laboratories, Bangalore under the aegis of Council of
Scientific & Industrial Research.
 HANSA-NG is one of the most advanced flying trainer powered by Rotax Digital Control Engine with unique
features like
1. Just-In-Time Prepreg (JIPREG) Composite light weight Airframe,
2. Glass Cockpit,
3. Bubble Canopy with wide panoramic view,
4. Electrically operated flaps etc.
 CSIR-NAL further said that HANSA-NG is designed to meet the Indian flying club needs and it is an ideal
aircraft for Commercial Pilot Licensing (CPL) due to its low cost and low fuel consumption.
Submarines
4.27 India’s Submarine Strength

The CBI filed charges against some naval officers for allegedly sharing details of the ongoing modernisation project
of India’s Kilo Class submarines (imported submarines that are being retrofitted).
 India has 15 conventional diesel-electric
submarines, classified as SSKs, and one nuclear
ballistic submarine, classified as SSBN.
 India is building at least two larger SSBNs that
will have bigger missiles, called S4 & S4 projects.
The 4 SSBNs may be commissioned before 2030.
 History - India got its first submarine, INS
Kalvari of the Foxtrot Class, from the USSR in
December 1967. By 1969, it had four of those.
 Between 1971 and 1974, India bought 4 more
Foxtrot Class submarines.
 In 1981, it signed a contract to buy two Type 209
submarines from West Germany, while two
others were to be assembled at Mazgaon Dock.
 These formed the Shishumar Class.
 Parallelly, Russia offered India its Kilo Class
submarines.
 Between 1986 and 1992, India got 8 submarines
from the USSR and 2 from Germany.
 India bought 2 more Kilo Class submarines from
Russia in 1999 and 2000, taking the total
submarine fleet to around 20.
 Soon after, the older Foxtrots started getting decommissioned.
 Of the 10 Kilo Class submarines, INS Sindhurakshak sank off Mumbai after explosions caused by fire. India
gifted INS Sindhuvir to Myanmar.
30-year Construction Plan
 The 30-year plan (2000-30) for indigenous submarine construction envisaged 2 production lines of 6
submarines each, built in India in partnership with a foreign Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM).
o The projects were called P-75 and P-75I.
 The plan anticipated that India would get 12 new submarines by 2012-15.

 Subsequently, India would make 12 of its own by 2030, taking the fleet size to 24, with the older submarines
getting decommissioned.
 But the contract for P-75 was signed only by 2005, with France’s DCNS, now the Naval Group.
 INS Kalvari, built in India in partnership with France’s Naval Group.
4.28 INS Vela

INS Vela, the fourth Scorpene class submarine of Project 75 of the Indian Navy, was commissioned at the Indian
Navy’s Western Command (Mumbai).
 This will be the second addition to the Indian Navy’s fleet of warships after INS Vishakapatnam’s
commissioning.
 Features - INS Vela is a diesel-electric powered attack
submarine, designed to act as “sea denial” as well as
“access denial” warfare to the adversary.
 Vela is named after a type of Indian fish belonging to the
stingray family, and the crest depicts the fish swimming
across the blue seas.
 The submarine’s mascot is the Sub-ray which is an
amalgamation of the submarine and the stingray.
o This symbolises the metamorphosis of the
submarine’s character with the qualities of a
stingray.
 The new INS Vela carries forward the legacy of its namesake, the erstwhile Vela which served the Navy from
1973 to 2010.
o The earlier Vela belonged to Foxtrot class submarine of Soviet origin.
 The new INS Vela is equipped with C303 anti-torpedo countermeasure system, and can carry up to 18 torpedoes
or Exocet anti-ship missiles or 30 mines in place of torpedoes.
 With this, the Navy currently has 16 conventional and one nuclear submarines in service.
o It includes 8 Russian Kilo class submarines, 4 German HDW submarines, 4 French Scorpene
submarines and the indigenous nuclear ballistic missile submarine INS Arihant.
Project-75
 Six Scorpene submarines are being built under Project-75 by Mazagaon Dock Ltd. (MDL), Mumbai, under
technology transfer from Naval Group of France under a $3.75-bn deal signed in 2005.
 This project envisages indigenous construction of Scorpene-class submarines equipped with the state-of-the-
art Air Independent Propulsion system.
 In parallel, the Navy recently issued the Request For Proposal for procurement of six advanced submarines
under Project-75I, which is a part of the Navy’s 30-year submarine building programme.
o Project-75I (approved in 2007) succeeded the Project-75.
 After the P-75I, the Navy intends to design and build conventional submarines indigenously.
Other Naval Ships
4.29 IAC-1 Vikrant

 Indigenous Aircraft Carrier (IAC) ‘Vikrant’ is the 1st aircraft carrier designed and built in India. It is designed by
Indian Navy's Directorate of Naval Design.
 IAC-1 Vikrant is the largest and most complex warship built in India.
 [Currently, India has only one aircraft carrier - INS Vikramaditya.
 INS Vishal, proposed to be India’s 2nd IAC has stalled since 2017 awaiting defence ministry’s clearance.]

 IAC-1 Vikrant was designed by the Navy’s Directorate of Naval Design (DND) and built by India’s state-run
Cochin Shipyard Limited (CSL).
 Vikrant has a top speed of around 28
knots and a cruising speed of 18 knots
with an endurance of about 7,500
nautical miles.
 It will operate MiG-29K fighter jets,
Kamov-31 helicopters, MH-60R
multi-role helicopters.
 The construction of Vikrant propelled
India into a select group of countries
having capabilities to build state-of-
the-art aircraft carriers.
 It is an example of ‘Atma Nirbhar
Bharat’ with more than 76%
indigenous content.
 The ship has,
1. A very high degree of automation for machinery operation, ship navigation and survivability,
2. Propulsion and Power Generation equipment/ systems,
3. An incomparable military instrument with its ability to project Air Power over long distances.
4.30 RoIP in Syama Prasad Mookerjee Port

A Radio over Internet Protocol (ROIP) System is being introduced as a marine communication mode at Syama Prasad
Mookerjee Port (SMP), Kolkata, for the first time in any Major Indian Port.
 This system may provide an effective long range Marine communication.
 It shall cover the entire Hugli River Estuary from Kolkata to Sandheads, having base stations at 4 Locations.
 With this facility, vessels at Sandheads can be directly communicated via Radio, from Kolkata, especially during
storms and inclement weather.
Radio over Internet Protocol
 Radio over Internet Protocol (RoIP) is a technology for transmitting radio communication signals using the
Internet Protocol (IP) standard.
 RoIP provides the same performance as well-enhanced radio communication but uses a digital IP network to
enable communication and connection between 2 or more analog radio devices or networks.
 RoIP is similar to a Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), but with radio communication features and
abilities.
 VoIP is a technology that allowing you to make voice calls over a broadband Internet connection instead of an
analog (regular) phone line.
 At its core, RoIP is the integration of VoIP technology in two-way radio. Rather than transmitting voice data
through traditional means, RoIP uses internet to send data from one user to another.
 RoIP works in a half-duplex mode where only one radio device can communicate at a time.
o The user must push the push-to-talk (P2T) each time before communicating.
 Besides radio communication features, RoIP enables the connection of 2 or more radio sites together using
digital-to-analog converting receivers at both ends, which are directly connected to an Internet backbone.
 Moreover, RoIP also enables interoperability between different radio networks with different and non-
compatible architecture.
Syama Prasad Mookerjee Port
 Syama Prasad Mookerjee Port (Erstwhile Kolkata Port) is India’s first Major Port, which was constructed
by the British East India Company.

 It has two dock systems viz.

1. Kolkata Dock System and
2. Haldia Dock Complex (A deep water dock).
 Despite being India’s only riverine port, SMP has been maintaining its pivotal position in Indian Major Ports
for the past 152 years.
 SMP is administered under the Ministry of Shipping through Major Port Trusts Act, 1963.
4.31 EW Suite Shakti

The 1stShakti Advanced Electronic Warfare system Shakti has been installed on-board INS Visakhapatnam and is
being installed in INS Vikrant.
 Advanced Electronic Warfare (EW) System ‘Shakti’ has been designed and developed by the Defence Electronics
Research Laboratory (DLRL) of Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
o They are under production at Bharat Electronics Ltd (BEL).
 Shakti is an Integrated Radar EW System for Capital Warships of the Indian Navy
 Shakti will intercept, detect, classify, identify and jam conventional & modern Radars with
o Electronic Support Measure (ESM) System and integrated Radar Finger Printing System (RFPS)
covering B to K frequency band and
o Electronic Counter Measure (ECM) System covering H to K frequency band.
 It will provide an electronic layer of defence against modern radars and anti-ship missiles to ensure electronic
dominance and survivability in the maritime battlefield.
4.32 Coast Guard Ship ‘Sarthak’

In a significant boost to the maritime safety and security of the nation, the indigenously built Indian Coast Guard Ship
‘Sarthak’ was commissioned and dedicated to the nation.
 ICGS Sarthak will be based at Porbandar in Gujarat and operate on India’s Western Seaboard under the
Operational and Administrative Control of the Commander, Coast Guard Region (Northwest).
 ICGS Sarthak is commanded by a Deputy Inspector General and has complement of 11 Officers and 110 men.
 ICGS Sarthak is 4th in the series of 5 OPVs being built by Goa Shipyard Limited for the ICG.
 These OPVs are multi-mission platforms capable of undertaking concurrent operations.
 The 105-meter-long ship displacing 2,450 tons is propelled by two 9,100 kilowatt diesel engines designed to
attain a maximum speed of 26 knots.
 The ship is fitted with state-of-the-art equipment, machinery, sensors and weapons which enables it,
1. To function as a command platform and
2. To undertake mandated Coast Guard charter of duties including search & rescue, combating maritime
crimes and preserving & protecting the marine environment.
4.33 Sagar Nidhi

A Union Minister visited Indian Subcontinent’s Pioneer Research Vessel Ship “Sagar Nidhi” at Chennai Port.
 Sagar Nidhi is India’s ice-class Ocean Research Vessel (ORV) operated by National Institute of Ocean
Technology (NIOT), Chennai.
o The 4 vessels under NIOT are ORV Sagar Nidhi & Sagar Manjusha, Coastal Research Vessels (CRVs)
Sagar Tara & Sagar Anveshika.
 Sagar Nidhi is the first Indian flagged research ship that reached the 66°S latitude [Antarctic waters], witnessing
nature’s harshest conditions.
 The vessel is capable of carrying out geo-scientific, meteorological and oceanographic research.

 It is designed with blue-water capability with ranges of up to 10,000 nautical miles for voyages lasting up to 45
days.
 Sagar Nidhi plays an important role in exploring the ocean resources and participation in search and
rescue operations, especially its importance for implementation of Deep Ocean Mission.
Research Vessel
 Research Vessel (Ships) is an important tool for ocean research, development of ocean technology and Ocean
Survey of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) and deep oceans for minerals and energy.
 Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) has the mandate of providing weather, climate, Ocean and seismological
services and to harness living and non-living resources.
 So, MoES has 6 ships - Sagar Nidhi, Sagar Manjusha, Sagar Kanya, Sagar Sampada, Sagar Tara & Sagar
Anveshika.
4.34 INS Khukri

INS Khukri decommissioned after 32 years of glorious service to the nation.
 INS Khukri was the first of the indigenously built Missile Corvettes.
 INS Khukri was built by the Mazagaon Dock Shipbuilders in 1989. It was affiliated with the Gorkha brigade of
the India Army.
 It had the distinction of being part of both the Western and Eastern Fleets.
 Legacy - INS Khukri has a legacy with the naval history of India.
 The first INS Khukri (F149), which was a Type 14 Blackwood-class frigate, was commissioned into the Indian
Navy in 1958.
 IT was sunk off the coast of Diu, Gujarat, by the Pakistan Navy Daphné-class submarine PNS Hangor during
the Indo-Pakistan War of 1971.
Missile Corvettes
 Missile Corvettes are agile high-speed ships and have considerable firepower. They are ideal for a littoral
environment.
 Indian Navy has four Missile Corvettes - INS Kamorta, INS Kadmatt, INS Kiltan and INS Kavaratti.
 These were commissioned in the Indian Navy in 2014, 2016, 2017 and 2020 respectively.
 Project 28 - In 2020, the last of 4 indigenously built anti-submarine warfare (ASW) stealth corvettes ‘INS
Kavaratti’ was commissioned under Project 28.

 The ships under Project 28 have been designed locally by the Navy’s in-house Directorate of Naval Design
(DND).
 These were built locally by Kolkata based Garden Reach Shipbuilders and Engineers.
4.35 Project 15B

Warship Mormugao (D 67) sails for maiden sea trials.
 Mormugao is Indian Navy’s second indigenous stealth destroyer of the Project 15B being built at Mazagon Dock
Shipbuilders Ltd (MDSL).
 Project 15B class of guided missile destroyers (Visakhapatnam, Imphal and Surat) are an improved variant of
the Kolkata-class destroyers.
 Project 15B ships retain the hull design of the Kolkata-class destroyers but incorporate advanced stealth features
& a high degree of automation.
 Designed indigenously by the Directorate of Naval Design, the vessels will offer improved survivability, sea
keeping and high manoeuvrability.
 These warships are propelled by 4 gas turbines to achieve excess speed.
 The first ship of Project 15B is a guided missile destroyer christened ‘Visakhapatnam (D 66)’. It was launched in
2015.
 Related Links - INS Vela
5. HEALTH
COVID-19
5.1 Naming of Coronavirus Variants using Greek Letters

 The World Health Organization’s (WHO’s) Virus Evolution Working Group announced that the coronavirus
variants of concern and variants of interest will now be named using letters of the Greek alphabet.
 [This naming system is similar to a system similar to hurricane naming.]
 The names of the variants of the coronavirus are,
1. Alpha - B.1.1.7 variant of coronavirus first found in the U.K.,
2. Beta - B.1.351 variant first identified in South Africa,
3. Gamma - P.1 variant found in Brazil,
4. Delta - B.1.617.2 discovered in India.
 The order of the letters indicates the order in which each variant was flagged by the WHO as a potential threat
but bears no scientific meaning.
 This new label does not replace the variant's scientific name, B.1.1.7, but can now serve as an easy-to-pronounce
alternative to that jumble of letters and numbers.
Classes of SARS-CoV-2 variants
 Variant of Interest - A variant with specific genetic markers that have been associated with changes to
receptor binding which affect its diagnosis and are expected to cause unique outbreak clusters.
 It is known for it predicted increase in transmissibility.
 It is classified based on factors such as genetic changes that are predicted or known to affect virus characteristics
such as transmissibility, disease severity, immune escape etc.
 It represents a lower level of concern than a variant of concern (VOC).
 Variant of Concern - A variant for which there is evidence of an increase in transmissibility, more severe
disease (e.g., increased hospitalizations or deaths).

 It is known for its significant reduction in neutralization by antibodies generated during previous infection or
vaccination, reduced effectiveness of treatments or vaccines, or diagnostic detection failures.
 Example - Alpha, Beta and Delta variants of SARS-CoV-2.
 Variant of High Consequence – It has clear evidence that prevention measures or medical countermeasures
(MCMs) have significantly reduced effectiveness relative to previously circulating variants.
5.2 Delta Variant of Coronavirus

The supercontagious Delta variant of the coronavirus is responsible for about 1 in 5 COVID-19 cases in the US.
 So while Delta may account for an increasing percentage of cases, it is not yet clear whether it will drive the total
number of cases higher.
 Delta is one of the “Variants of Concern,” as designated by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and
the World Health Organization.
 First identified in India, Delta has been reported in 80 countries. It is now the most common variant in India
and Britain.
 Delta variant, formerly known as B.1.617.2, is believed to be the most transmissible variant yet, spreading more
easily than both the original strain of the virus and the Alpha variant first identified in Britain.
 People infected by the Delta variant were roughly twice more likely to be hospitalized than those infected with
Alpha.
 Impact on Vaccine - The variant may partially evade the antibodies made by the body after a coronavirus
infection or vaccination.
 It may render certain monoclonal antibody treatments less effective.
 Impact of Vaccine - The Delta variant is unlikely to pose much risk to people who have been fully vaccinated.
 However, the protection offered by a single dose appears low, and if a person is not at all vaccinated, they are at
high risk.
5.3 Delta Plus Variant of Coronavirus

India found 40 cases of Delta variant carrying a mutation that appears to make it more transmissible and advised
states to increase testing.
 This Variant is called Delta Plus, which is a sub-lineage of the Delta variant first detected in India.
 It has acquired the spike protein mutation called K417N which is also found in the Beta variant (B.1.351 lineage)
first identified in South Africa. This Beta variant was reported to have immune evasion property.
 The K417N mutation, coupled with other existing features of the Delta variant, could make it more
transmissible. It is known to reduce the effectiveness of a cocktail of therapeutic monoclonal antibodies.
 There are worries Delta Plus would inflict another wave of infections on India after it emerged from the world’s
worst surge in cases recently.
 Regions where the Delta Plus variant has been found may need to enhance their public health response by
focusing on surveillance, enhanced testing, quick contact-tracing and priority vaccination.
5.4 Lambda Covid Variant

 The Lambda variant of the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus has been designated by the World Health Organization as
the seventh and newest “Variant of Interest”, meaning it was something to watch out for.
 This variant, previously known by its formal scientific name C.37, has now been detected in more than 25
countries. It has been the dominant variant in Peru and other countries of South America.
 It has not yet been found in the Indian population, but has recently been detected in the UK and other European
countries.
 Designation - The designation of Lambda Variant as a “variant of interest” means that the genetic changes
involved are predicted or known to affect transmissibility, disease severity, or immune escape.

 It is an acknowledgement of the fact that the variant has caused significant community transmission in multiple
countries and population groups.
 Other Designations - There are currently seven variants that the WHO classifies as “Variants of Interest”.
 Another four - Alpha, Beta, Gamma and Delta - have been designated as “Variants of Concern”, and are
considered a bigger threat. These variants were all named after letters of the Greek alphabet.
5.5 Mu Variant
WHO has classified yet another SARS-CoV-2 variant “B.1.621” as a variant of interest (VOI) and given it the label
“Mu”.
 The variant was first identified in Colombia in January, 2021.
 Spread - The global prevalence of the Mu variant among sequenced cases has declined and is currently below
0.1%.
 However, prevalence in Colombia (39%) and Ecuador (13%) has consistently increased.
 Larger outbreaks were reported from countries in South America and Europe.
 Cases have also been reported in the UK, US and Hong Kong.
 It was added to Public Health England’s list of variants under investigation.
5.6 Big Cats at Coronavirus Risk

Lions at Chennai’s Vandalur Zoo and Ranchi’s Bhagwan Birsa Biological Park have died of suspected coronavirus
infection.
 Vulnerability - The defining feature of a coronavirus is the spike protein on its surface. The spike protein
initiates infection by binding with a host protein, called ACE2 receptor.
 Different species express ACE2 to different extents, and this plays a key role in determining how much a species
is susceptible to coronavirus infection.
 In various studies, domestic cats and their big cousins have been estimated to express ACE2 more significantly
than many other species. Also, there are similarities in the ACE2 of cats and humans.
 One study found that the most vulnerable species to coronavirus infection, next to humans, are ferrets, followed
by cats and civets.
 Another study found that the primates such as chimpanzee rhesus macaque are at very high risk.
 At high risk are species such as blue-eyed black lemur. Cats were found to have a medium risk, while dogs had
a low risk.
 There are no studies on the genome of big felines, but it is assumed that since cats can be infected, there is a big
chance that lions and tigers will as well, since they will be very close in sequence.
5.7 Monoclonal Antibodies

A study has shown that the experimental monoclonal antibody cocktail, REGEN-COV2, has been found to be a life-
saving treatment for some of the most severely affected Covid-19 patients.
 To fight a viral infection, our bodies create proteins known as antibodies.
 Monoclonal antibodies are artificial antibodies that mimic the activity of our immune systems.
 They are produced through a process that involves extracting specific antibodies from human blood and then
cloning them.
 These monoclonal antibodies are designed to target a virus or its specific part. E.g., REGEN-COV2 is a cocktail
of two monoclonal antibodies developed to target the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein.
 The monoclonal antibodies bind to specific parts of the spike protein, blocking its ability to infect healthy cells.
 Besides Covid-19, monoclonal antibodies have been used in the treatment of cancers as well as Ebola and HIV.
 Importance - Monoclonal antibodies have the ability to help reduce the risk of hospitalisation of Covid-19.

 Some monoclonal antibodies have shown the ability to retain activity against multiple variants of the virus.
 Limitations - Monoclonal antibodies are not approved for use in those hospitalised with severe Covid-19 and
those requiring oxygen.
 Some emerging variants like the Delta Plus “variant of interest” have also displayed the ability to nullify the use
of monoclonal antibodies.
5.8 Mixing Covid-19 Vaccines

India plans to embark soon on an exercise to investigate if it can immunise people using a “mix and match” of different
Covid-19 vaccines.
 This would mean following up one dose of a particular vaccine with a second dose of a different vaccine.
 In scientific terms, this is called “heterologous” immunisation.
 Mixing and Matching Covid-19 vaccines of different technologies could better our immune response and may
provide wider protection against certain mutations or variants of the SARS-CoV-2 virus.
 This may solve the problem with shortages in supply of a vaccine. It allows the completion of immunization
while ensuring safety from side effects from one vaccine.
5.9 Corbevax
India has placed an advance order to block 300 million doses of Covid-19 vaccine, Corbevax, from Hyderabad-based
company Biological E.
 Working of Corbevax - Corbevax is a “recombinant protein sub-unit” vaccine, which means it is made up of
a specific part of SARS-CoV-2 — the spike protein on the virus’s surface.
 The spike protein allows the virus to enter the cells in the body so that it can replicate and cause disease.
 However, when this protein alone is given to the body, it is not expected to be harmful as the rest of the virus is
absent.
 The body is expected to develop an immune response against the injected spike protein.
 So, when the real virus attempts to infect the body, it will have an immune response ready that will make it
unlikely for the person to fall severely ill.
 Making of Corbevax - Corbevax’s beginnings can be traced to the Baylor College of Medicine’s (BCM’s)
National School of Tropical Medicine.
 They put the gene sequence for the spike protein into yeast, so that it could manufacture and release copies of
the protein.
 After this, the protein was purified to remove any remnants of the yeast. Then, the vaccine was formulated using
an adjuvant to better stimulate the immune response.
 Later, BCM transferred its production cell bank for this vaccine to Biological E, so that Biological E could take
the candidate through trials.
 Difference - Other Covid-19 vaccines approved so far are either,
1. mRNA vaccines (Pfizer and Moderna),
2. Viral vector vaccines (AstraZeneca-Oxford/Covishield, Johnson & Johnson and Sputnik V) or
3. Inactivated vaccines (Covaxin, Sinovac-CoronaVac and Sinopharm’s SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine–Vero Cell).
 Corbevax, like the mRNA and viral vector Covid-19 vaccines, targets only the spike protein, but in a different
way.
 Viral vector and mRNA and vaccines use a code to induce our cells to make the spike proteins against which the
body have to build immunity.
 In this case (Corbevax), we’re actually giving the protein.
 Inactivated vaccines, which include killed particles of the whole SARS-CoV-2 virus, attempt to target the entire
structure of the virus. Like most other Covid-19 vaccines, Corbevax is administered in two doses.

5.10 Soberana
 Cuba’s State-run corporation BioFarma’s Soberana 2 and Abdala vaccines have shown greater-than-90%
efficacy.
 Both the vaccines are three-shot vaccines. Both are subunit vaccines, meaning that a part of the virus forms the
antigen and is hitched on to another construct.
o In Abdala, the spike protein of the coronavirus is combined with a chemically manufactured adjuvant,
o In Soberana 2, the spike protein is chemically linked to the tetanus toxoid, making it a conjugate vaccine.
 The Soberana vaccine is by far the only one among coronavirus vaccine candidates that relies on the conjugate
vaccine technology.
Conjugate Vaccines
 A conjugate vaccine is a type of vaccine which combines a weak antigen with a strong antigen as a carrier so that
the immune system has a stronger response to the weak antigen.
 The most common conjugate vaccines are those used for Haemophilus influenza type b and the pneumococcal
bacteria.
 Cuban vaccine candidates are based only on the part of the virus that is involved in contact with the cell’s
receptor, the Receptor-Binding Domain (RBD).
 The RBD is the one that induces the greatest number of neutralising antibodies.
 Cheimi-Hib - It is another vaccine already developed by Cuba with this principle. It is the world’s second
Conjugate Vaccine, against haemophilus influenzae type b.
 [Haemophilus influenzae type b is a coccobacilli responsible for diseases such as meningitis, pneumonia and
epiglottitis.]
5.11 UV-C Air Duct Disinfection System

 The Ultraviolet-C(UV-C) air duct disinfection system developed by CSIR-CSIO (Central Scientific Instruments
Organisation) will be installed in Parliament for the mitigation of airborne transmission of SARS-COV-2.
 This system is designed to fit into any existing air-ducts and the virucidal dosages using UV-C intensity and
residence time can be optimised according to the existing space.
 Uses - This system deactivates the virus in any aerosol particles by the calibrated levels of UV-C light
(wavelength 254 nm).
 It can be used to disinfect the air in auditoriums, malls, educational Institutions, AC buses, hospitals,
laboratories, and in railways.
 But these conventional germicidal treatments are done in unoccupied rooms as they can cause health problems.
 Because viruses and bacteria are much smaller than human cells, far-UVC light can reach their DNA and kill
them.
 Finding - When exposed to 222 nm UV-C irradiation at 0.1 mW/cm2 for 30-seconds, 99.7% of SARS-CoV-2
viral culture was killed.
Ultraviolet Radiation
 UV is a type of light or radiation naturally emitted by the Sun. It covers a wavelength range of 100-400 nm. It is
divided into three bands - UV-A (315-400 nm), UV-B (280-315 nm) and UV-C (100-280 nm).
 UV-A and UV-B rays from the Sun are transmitted through our atmosphere and all UV-C is filtered by the ozone
layer.
 UV-A rays can penetrate the middle layer of your skin or the dermis and can cause aging of skin cells and indirect
damage to cells’ DNA.
 UV-B rays can only reach the outer layer of our skin or epidermis and can cause sunburns and are also associated
with skin cancer.
 UV-C radiation from man-made sources has been known to cause skin burns and eye injuries.

5.12 Fourth Sero Survey

 This survey conducted across India found that on an average 67.6% of the population has been infected i.e.
seroprevalence. Over 25% of people have been vaccinated with one dose.
 Not a representative survey - Scientists from ICMR have clarified that this survey is not representative of
the whole country.
 They have called for state level, preferably district level, surveys across the country using standardised
methodology. But conducting the district level survey is not feasible during a pandemic period.
 Anti-bodies Unknown - It is not known for how long the antibodies last either after infection or vaccination
(i.e., induced immunity).
 Tests employed in the surveys only identify antibodies to two viral proteins (nucleocapsid and spike) but do not
measure the ability of those antibodies to neutralise the virus.
 However, some protection is likely from the non-Spike-directed immune defences, if not the spike protein-
directed immune defences.
 Some of those who tested positive for antibodies, especially children, may have cross-reactive antibodies
generated by other corona viruses.
 We may also have ‘false negatives’ of persons in whom antibody levels may have fallen some months after
infection but still may have immunity from memory T cells and other forms of cellular immunity.
 Studies have shown a diminished neutralisation efficacy of antibodies produced by previous infections against
the Delta variant.
 So, definitive conclusions about individual or herd immunity should not be drawn from antibody surveys.
 By adopting strong containment measures everywhere, the susceptible persons can be protected against current
and new variants.
Waning of Antibodies
 People who were infected early during the pandemic would have a greater chance of testing negative during
surveys due to the waning of antibodies over time.
 The time taken for such disappearance varies between 3 and 6 months.
 There would be a great deal of individual variation, based on
1. Dose of viral exposure,
2. Severity of the infection,
3. Nature of the variant,
4. Age of the infected person,
5. Associated health conditions and
 Use of steroids or other immunosuppressive drugs for treatment during the illness.
5.13 New Zealand Zero Covid Strategy

New Zealand announced a strict, level-4 nationwide lockdown to contain the spread of the Covid-19.
 Zero Covid Strategy is an elimination strategy that aims to drive down the number of Covid-19 cases by imposing
very strict lockdowns, closing borders and imposing travel bans at the very early stages.
 During the initial stages of the pandemic, New Zealand adopted this strategy.
 Though initially it was seen as a success story, experts are increasingly advising against this.
 On August 17, the country discovered one case of covid in the community.
 But one of the strictest nationwide lockdowns was announced.
 Under level-4 lockdown, people will only be permitted to travel outside for essential reasons and are expected
to remain in their bubbles.
 This strategy is discouraged as it is not very sustainable

1. With new variants mutating, residents would be “indefinitely trapped”.

2. Citizens are stuck in foreign countries, unable to come back for over a year.
3. Tourism industry has also been hit hard.
 The main reason for the inability to impart other strategy is because the country’s vaccination drive is very slow.
 With vaccine drives all over the world, more sustainable ways of learning to live with the pandemic should be
developed instead of strict lockdowns.
5.14 Breakthrough Infections

Recently, there is a rise in ‘breakthrough infections’ or confirmed infections in those people who have got the 2nd dose
of the vaccine.
 ‘Breakthrough infections’ occur in people who have been vaccinated, as
the virus can penetrate the protective barrier of antibodies.
 If a person gets infected with the SARS-CoV-2 virus 14 days after the
2nd shot of the vaccine, it is called a ‘breakthrough infection’.
 Mutations like Delta variant (B.1.617.2), Delta-Plus variants and Kappa
variant (B.1.617.1) mostly help the virus escape detection by antibodies.
 Breakthrough infections are currently not translating into serious disease
requiring hospitalisation.
 Significance - Number of breakthrough infections ‘recorded’ is low.
 Fully vaccinated healthcare workers, who due to prolonged exposure to
many patients, are at greater risk of contracting breakthrough infections.
 None of the infections made the healthcare workers sick enough to warrant a test and so it could well be that
the number of ‘breakthrough infections’ are much higher than those ‘confirmed’ by RT-PCR tests.
 The bigger concern is that those with a ‘breakthrough infection’ - under the belief that they are fully protected -
may be less stringent with using masks and could be carriers of infection.
Efficacy Rates of Vaccines
 In clinical trials, all vaccines available have reported efficacy rates between 70% and 90%.
 This implies that between 10% and 30% of a vaccinated population will be vulnerable to infection.
5.15 R Value
The R value, which reflects how rapidly the COVID-19 pandemic is spreading, dropped to 0.92 by mid-September after
going over one in August-end.
 R-value or R-factor or R0 (R-naught) or Reproduction Rate refers to how
many persons an infected person infects on an average.
 It indicates the speed at which the Covid infection is spreading in the
country, along with the ‘efficiency’ of the spread.
 Interpretation - An R-Factor of 1 would mean that an infected person is
giving the virus to 1 other person. An R-Factor of 5 would mean that 1
person is spreading the virus to 5 other people.
 A NITI Aayog member says that R number should be 0.6 or below. If it is
above 1, it shows that it is a significant problem and the virus wants to
spread.
5.16 Cuba is Vaccinating Children

Cuba has become the world’s first country to authorise the use of Covid-19 vaccines for children as young as 2-years-
old.
 Cuba’s Medicines Regulatory Agency authorised the emergency use of the domestically produced Covid-19
vaccine (Soberana 2) for children & adolescents aged 2-18.

 Cuban government said that the nationwide inoculation drive for children was being sped up with the reopening
of schools for in-person classes in mind from October, 2021.
 Initially the focus of Cuba’s vaccination drive was inoculating frontline
workers and elderly people in badly affected areas.
 But after a spike in infections among children following the emergence
of the Delta variant, Cuba shifted its focus to vaccinating younger
children.
 Vaccinating children & other low-risk groups is being criticised because
billions around the world have not received even one shot, which even
includes some frontline workers.
Cuban Vaccines
 In Cuba, Children and adolescents will receive doses of Soberana-2, while adults will receive Abdala.
 Both Soberana 2 and Abdala are conventional conjugate vaccines, which mean that a part of the coronavirus
spike protein is fused with a carrier molecule in order to boost both efficacy and stability.
 But, both of these vaccines are not recognised by the WHO.
5.17 Superiority of Hybrid Immunity

Multiple studies have shown that the Hybrid Immunity had a higher neutralising antibody response than either
natural infection without vaccination or full vaccination in infection-naïve individuals.
 People without prior infection but fully vaccinated with a vaccine showed a decline in neutralising antibodies
over a period of 3 to 7 months.
 But the decline was much less in vaccinated people with prior infection.
 After a single vaccine in people who have recovered from COVID-19,
antibody levels skyrocket up.
o But, a study showed that boosting of pre-existing immunity from
prior infection with vaccination resulted in a brief benefit
to antibody levels with little-to-no long-term increase in cellular
immune memory.
 Immunological advantage from hybrid immunity arises mostly from
memory B cells.
 In general, the antibody levels after infection or vaccination decline after a short period. But, the memory B cells
get triggered on subsequent infection or vaccination.
 So when people recovered from COVID-19 are re-exposed to the virus, the memory B cells are capable of
churning out highly potent antibodies.
5.18 Zeolite Oxygen Concentrators

IISc has transferred the technology of making oxygen concentrators using Zeolite to over 20 companies.
 Zeolites are hydrated aluminosilicate minerals made from interlinked tetrahedra of alumina (AlO 4) and silica
(SiO4).
 They are microporous, 3-D meshes of silica and alumina.
 In nature, they occur where volcanic outflows have met water.
 Properties - Zeolites are very stable solids that resist the kinds of environmental conditions that challenge
many other materials.
 They have high melting points (over 1000°C), and they don't burn.
 They resist high pressures, don't dissolve in water or other inorganic solvents, and don't oxidize in the air.
 Forms of Zeolite - The most commonly mined forms include chabazite, clinoptilolite, and mordenite.
 Synthetic zeolites have been designed for specific purposes, the best known of which are,
1. Zeolite A (commonly used as a laundry detergent),

2. Zeolites X and Y (Faujasites used for catalytic cracking), and

3. Petroleum catalyst ZSM-5 (a branded name for pentasil-zeolite).
 Uses - They are commonly used as commercial adsorbents and catalysts.
 They are used as water softeners and water filters. They are found in everyday laundry and dishwasher
detergents.
 Synthetic zeolites have proven to be a big and low-cost boon.
Oxygen Concentrators
 Oxygen concentrators are the biomedical device that has entered our lexicon during the pandemic.
 It has brought down the scale of oxygen purification from industrial-size plants to the volumes needed for a
single person.
 At the heart of this technology are synthetic zeolites with nanometer-size pores that are rigid.
 Beads of Zeolite 13X are packed into 2 cylindrical columns in an oxygen concentrator.
 Working - Zeolite performs the chemistry of separating oxygen from nitrogen in the air. Being highly porous,
zeolite beads have a surface area of about 500 square meters per gram.
 At high pressures in the column, nitrogen is in a chemically tight embrace with the Zeolite.
 Interaction between the negatively charged zeolite and the asymmetric nucleus (quadrupole moment) of
nitrogen causes it to be preferentially adsorbed on the surface of the zeolite.
 Result - Oxygen remains free, and is thus enriched. Once nitrogen is under arrest with hydrogen, 90%-plus
oxygen flows out of the column.
 After this, lowering the pressure in the column releases the nitrogen, which is flushed out, and the cycle is
repeated with fresh air.
5.19 i-Drone
Union Health Minister launched ICMR’s Drone Response and Outreach in North East (i-Drone), which is a drone-
based vaccine delivery model.
 This delivery model will ensure that life-saving vaccines reach everyone, including the remote areas and hard to
reach terrains.
 This is for the first time that a ‘Make in India’ drone has been used in South Asia to transport COVID vaccine.
 It was used to deliver vaccines in Manipur, Nagaland and Andaman and Nicobar.
 It will epitomise the Government’s commitment to ‘Antyodaya’ in health; make healthcare accessible to the last
citizen of the country.
5.20 Additional Covid-19 Vaccine and Booster Shot - Difference

With the Omicron variant of Covid-19 spreading across the country, the need for a booster shot or an additional jab
may feel more urgent than ever.
 An additional dose, originally called the third dose, of a Covid-19 vaccine is given to people with moderately
or severely compromised immune systems to improve their response to the initial vaccine series.
 An additional dose, thus, might improve the protection against the novel coronavirus to the people with
weakened immune systems.
 Offering such beneficiaries a third dose could help them match up an immune response similar to generalized,
healthy populations.
 A booster shot is given when a person has completed their vaccine series, and protection against the virus has
decreased over time.
 It may be exactly the same original vaccine, in which case its goal is to increase the magnitude of protection by
producing more antibodies.
 The booster shot is an additional dose after the protection provided by the original shot(s) has started to
decrease over time.

 The booster is designed to help people maintain their level of immunity for longer.
 A booster shot gives the memory cells the crucial signal to re-engage when the virus attacks. So, it helps people
maintain their level of immunity for longer durations.
 Dosage - While the additional Covid dose would be a “full” dose of the vaccine, booster shots being offered right
now have a lesser volume, since the third dose is only supposed to increase the efficacy range.
5.21 Pseudoephedrine
 Pseudoephedrine is largely known as a sympathomimetic drug.
 It is in a class of medications called nasal decongestants that is used to relieve nasal congestion caused by
allergies, cold and hay fever.
 It also temporarily relieves sinus congestion and
pressure.
 Pseudoephedrine will relieve symptoms but will not
treat the cause of the symptoms or speed recovery.
 It works by causing narrowing of the blood vessels in
the nasal passages.
 Other uses - Legally, this substance is used in the
manufacturing of amphetamines, which can be sold
only on the prescription of doctors.
 Illegally, it is used in the making of drugs, which are
sold without any prescription.
Status in India
 Pseudoephedrine is a controlled substance, as it is being used for making the highly addictive drugs.
 It is one of the 7 controlled substance in India, which is being used by pharmaceutical companies in making
various medicines.
 Other controlled substances are Acetic Anhydride, Ephedrine & its Salts, N-Acetyl Anthranilic Acid, Anthranilic
Acid and two others.
 These substances are also known as precursor substances. They are used for manufacturing narcotics drugs and
psychotropic substance.
 Section 9A of the Narcotics Drug and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985 authorizes the law enforcement
agencies to control and regulate these substances, including pseudoephedrine in India.
5.22 Intranasal Covid-19 Vaccines

The Drugs Controller General of India approved the trials of intranasal booster doses against Covid-19 that is being
manufactured by Bharat Biotech, the maker of Covaxin.
 Vaccines are usually given through different routes.
 The most common being injectable shots delivered into the
muscles (intramuscular) or the tissue just between the skin
and the muscles (subcutaneous).
 Other routes of delivery, especially in some vaccines for
infants, include administering the liquid solution orally
instead of injecting.
 In the intranasal route, the vaccine is sprayed into the
nostrils and inhaled.
 Many viruses, including the coronavirus, enter the body
through mucosa triggering a unique immune response from
cells and molecules there.
 [Mucosa is the wet, squishy tissue that lines the nose, mouth,
lungs and digestive tract.]

 Working of vaccines - Generally, both the aforementioned types of vaccines trigger a response in the blood.
 B cells would churn out antibodies - including IgG (particularly potent disease-fighter) - to roam the body in
search of the virus.
 Other cells, called T cells, would either help B cells produce antibodies or seek out and destroy the infected cells.
 Working of Intranasal vaccine - However, vaccines that are injected through the nose or mouth would also
tap into another set of immune cells that hang around mucosal tissues.
 The B cells that reside there can make another type of antibody called IgA that plays a large role in destroying
the airway pathogens.
 In addition to this, the T cells that are residing nearby will be able to memorise the pathogens that it encountered
and will lifelong scout the areas where these were first encountered.
 Importance - Intranasal vaccines are easy-to-deliver vaccines.
 As they go into a mucosal surface, it will likely be restricted (and there is a) likelihood of lower safety events.
 Intranasal vaccines aim to overcome potential difficulties with mass vaccination and reduce the cost by doing
away with the need for needles and syringes.
 These vaccines are also expected to cut down on the dependence on various trained personnel to administer the
vaccine.
 Drawbacks - Vaccines that arouse mucosal immunity come with their own drawbacks.
 After the rollout of the oral polio vaccines where in some cases, it still caused the disease after the weakened
virus in the product mutated.
 Also, there is very little evidence to back the effectiveness of this route of delivery so far.
5.23 NeoCoV & Zoonotic Spillover

A new study explores how different coronaviruses that are similar to MERS-CoV interact with different receptors in
different host cells.
 The study highlights that through further adaptation, coronaviruses like NeoCoV or other related viruses could
potentially gain the ability to infect humans.
Receptor-binding Domain
 How a coronavirus latches onto special receptors on host cells depends on a key part of the virus known as its
receptor-binding domain.
 The differences in the receptor-binding domain of coronaviruses are therefore what determine the type of host
receptor the virus will use and thus the host that it will be able to infect.
 There are currently 4 well-characterised receptors for coronaviruses, including ACE2 (used by SARS-CoV and
SARS-CoV-2), and DPP4 (used by MERS-CoV).
NeoCoV
 NeoCoV is a bat coronavirus that was first identified in 2011.
 It was identified in species of bats known as Neoromicia, which is where the name NeoCoV was derived from.
Commonly known as aloe bats, this species is distributed in the Afro-Malagasy region.
 NeoCoV shares an 85% similarity to MERS-CoV in the genome sequence, making it the closest known relative
of MERS-CoV.
 Inherently, NeoCoV cannot interact with human receptors, implying that in its current form the virus cannot
infect humans.
 NeoCoV does not have the potential to use human ACE2 receptors and infect humans.
 So, specific mutations artificially created in the receptor-binding domain of NeoCoV can enhance its efficiency
to interact with human ACE2 receptors.
 These mutations have not yet been seen in NeoCov isolates from natural settings.
 NeoCoV was found to use bat ACE2 receptors for efficiently entering cells and the interaction between NeoCoV
and bat ACE2 receptors is different from what is seen in other coronaviruses that utilise ACE2.

Zoonotic Spillover
 Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses that are known to infect animals and humans.
 They are largely categorised into four genera - alpha, beta, gamma and delta.
 Alpha and beta coronaviruses commonly infect mammals such as bats and humans, while Gamma and Delta
mainly infect birds.
 A number of human coronaviruses have been identified previously, including OC43, HKU1, 229E, NL63, SARS-
CoV and MERS-CoV.
 While animals are generally considered as the reservoirs of corona viruses, rarely spillover events could occur.
 It is possible for viruses that infect animals to jump to humans, a process which is known as zoonotic spillover.
 Identified in 2012, the MERS-CoV was transferred to humans through infected dromedary camels through
zoonosis.
 SARS-CoV-2, the coronavirus responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, belongs to the genus of beta coronavirus.
 In fact, it is the 7th type of coronavirus known to infect and cause severe disease in humans. It is thought to be
a result of spillover.
 Significance - The interactions between humans and animals continue to increase, given the expanding
human population and encroachment of animal habitats.
 While the likelihood of spillover events is rare, an increased interaction can potentially accelerate such events.
 To prevent future outbreaks, it will thus be important to monitor this family of viruses for potential zoonosis.
 Genomic surveillance of human and animal viruses is therefore the key to understanding the spectrum of
viruses, and possibly provide early warning to potential spillover events.
Diseases in News
VIRAL DISEASES
5.24 H10N3 Bird Flu

 A man in China’s Jiangsu province has been confirmed as the first human case of infection with a rare strain of
bird flu known as H10N3.
 The WHO said while the source of the patient’s exposure to the virus was not known. Since no other cases were
found among the local population, there was no indication of human-to-human transmission yet.
 H10N3 strain of avian influenza is a low pathogenic or relatively less severe strain of the virus in poultry and the
risk of it spreading on a large scale was very low.
 Spread - Infected birds spread the virus through their saliva, mucus and poop. Humans get infected when the
virus gets in the eyes, nose or mouth, or is inhaled from infected droplets or dust.
 As long as avian influenza viruses circulate in poultry, sporadic infection of avian influenza will occur in humans.
 Reassortment – It means they could make genetic changes that pose a transmission threat to humans.
 Flu viruses can mutate rapidly and mix with other strains circulating on farms or among migratory birds, known
as “reassortment”.
Other Avian Influenza Viruses that can Infect Humans

 Currently, there are few avian influenza strains known to infect humans: H5, H7, and H9 - usually in the form
of H5N1 and H7N9 viruses.
 While they are rare in the general population, these infections happen most commonly among those who work
with poultry.
 The first human cases of the H5N1 virus infection were identified in Hong Kong in 1997.
 The first human cases of the H7N9 strain were reported in 2013. The last human epidemic of bird flu in China
occurred in late 2016 to 2017 with the H7N9 virus.

5.25 Antibodies against Nipah in Bats

A cross-sectional survey by Indian Council of Medical Research-National Institute of Virology has found the presence
of antibodies in bats from Mahabaleshwar cave (Maharashtra) against the Nipah virus.
 Pteropus medius, which are large fruit-eating bats, are the incriminated reservoir for Nipah virus (NiV) in India
as both NiV RNA and antibodies were detected in these bats collected during previous NiV outbreaks.
 Nipah Virus is on the top-10 priority list pathogens identified by the World Health Organization.
 A study in 2018 has identified many South East Asian countries including Indian states as potential hotspots
for the NiV disease.
 Till date, India has experienced four episodes of NiV outbreaks with CFR ranging from 65% to 100%. The
evidence of NiV infection are reported in,
1. Siliguri district, West Bengal (2001),
2. Nadia district in West Bengal (2007),
3. Kozhikode district of Kerala (2018), followed by another outbreak in the same state in 2019.
 To know more about Nipah Virus, click here.
5.26 Epstein-Barr Virus - Leading Cause of Multiple Sclerosis

A new study suggests that most Multiple Sclerosis (MS) cases could be prevented by stopping Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)
infection, and that targeting EBV could lead to the discovery of a cure for MS.
 Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a potentially disabling disease of the brain, spinal cord and optic nerves (Central
Nervous System).
 In MS, the immune system attacks the protective sheath (myelin) that covers nerve fibers and causes
communication problems between your brain and the rest of your body.
 Eventually, the disease can cause permanent damage or deterioration of the nerves.
 Symptoms of MS vary widely and depend on the amount of nerve damage and which nerves are affected.
 Numbness or weakness in one or more limbs that typically occurs on one side of your body at a time, or your
legs and trunk
 Electric-shock sensations that occur with certain neck movements, especially bending the neck forward
(Lhermitte sign)
 Tremor, lack of coordination or unsteady gait
 Both males and females may lose interest in sex (Sexual dysfunction)
 Some people with severe MS may lose the ability to walk independently or at all, while others may experience
long periods of remission without any new symptoms.
 Treatment - There's no cure for multiple sclerosis.
 However, treatments can help speed recovery from attacks, modify the course of the disease and manage
symptoms.
 Related Links - Epstein-Barr Virus
5.27 Filoviruses
In 2019, the Union Health Ministry began an inquiry into an Indian study that looked at filoviruses.
 It said that this study conducted by the National Centre for Biological Sciences (NCBS) and Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research (TIFR) didn’t get the appropriate permissions from the ICMR.
 Filovirus is any virus belonging to the family Filoviridae. They have enveloped virions appearing as variably
elongated filaments.
 Virions are pleomorphic (varying in shape) and contain a helical nucleocapsid, which has a protein shell and
contains the viral nucleic acids.

 The filovirus genome is made up of a single strand of negative-sense Ribonucleic Acid (RNA), and an
endogenous RNA polymerase.
 Filoviridae consists of two genera, Marburgvirus and Ebolavirus.
1. The first strain of Marburgvirus was discovered in 1967, when it was transported with imported
monkeys to Marburg, Germany, and caused a fatal outbreak.
2. The first strain of Ebolavirus was discovered in 1976, taking its name from the Ebola River in the
northern Congo basin of Central Africa, where it first appeared.
 Filoviruses are confined primarily to regions of central, eastern, and western Africa.
 They are among the most dangerous human pathogens known, causing highly fatal hemorrhagic fevers; some
strains of Ebolavirus cause death in 50 to 90% of victims. The filoviruses may cause disease in primates.
 Marburg and Ebola strains have been found in different species of fruit bats.
5.28 H5Nx Virus

 IDSP State Surveillance Unit (SSU), Haryana has initiated an epidemiological investigation into the first human
case of H5Nx Bird Flu.
 H5Nx (H5N8, H5N2, H5N6,etc) are highly pathogenic avian influenza A viruses (AIVs) include, etc.,
o H5N8 and H5N2 have caused major economic losses in the poultry industry in Europe and North
America, and
o H5N6 virus has occurred in Asia causing lethal human infections.
 AIVs naturally circulate in wild aquatic birds, such as ducks, geese, swans, gulls, shorebirds, and terns.
 The H5 subtypes can present considerable risk to the human population.
 To know more about Avian Influenza Viruses, click here.
5.29 Zika Virus Disease

In Telangana, precautionary measures being taken to prevent vector-borne diseases such as dengue and malaria
would also help avoid Zika cases too (i.e.) Telangana Seasonal Disease Prevention Plan.
 Zika Virus Disease is a caused by a mosquito-borne flavivirus transmitted primarily by Aedes mosquitoes, which
bite during the day, in tropical and subtropical regions.
 [Aedes mosquito also transmits dengue, chikungunya and yellow fever.]
 Symptoms - Symptoms of Zika infection are generally mild and include fever, rash, conjunctivitis, headache
and muscle and joint pain. They typically last for 2 to 7
days. Most people do not develop symptoms.
 Except for rare neurological manifestations like Guillian
Barre syndrome, neuropathy and myelitis in some adults
and children, the disease has little significance for the
general population.
 But in pregnant women, especially those in the early
trimester, the infection can seriously harm the developing
foetus.
 It can also lead to the infant developing microcephaly and
other congenital malformations, known as congenital Zika
syndrome.
 Transmission - Zika virus is transmitted,
1. By the bite of an infected Aedes mosquito,
2. From mother to fetus during pregnancy,
3. Through sexual contact, transfusion of blood and blood products, and organ transplantation.
 Diagnosis - A diagnosis of Zika virus infection can only be confirmed by laboratory tests of blood or other body
fluids, such as urine or semen.

 Treatment - There is no treatment available for Zika virus infection or its associated diseases.
 Prevention - As the Aedes mosquitoes breed in stagnant fresh water, these breeding grounds should be
prevented from being created.
 The Gambusia fish may be released in stagnant water bodies.
5.30 Monkey B Virus

China has reported its first human infection with Monkey B Virus (BV) and subsequent death.
 Initially isolated in 1932, Monkey BV is an alphaherpesvirus enzootic in macaques. B virus is the only identified
old-world-monkey herpesvirus that displays severe pathogenicity in humans.
 Transmission - Macaque monkeys commonly have this virus, and it can be found in their saliva, feces, urine,
or brain or spinal cord tissue.
 The virus may also be found in cells coming from an infected monkey in a lab. B virus can survive for hours on
surfaces, particularly when moist.
 In Humans - BV is transmitted via direct contact and exchange of bodily fluid secretions of monkeys. The
infection has a fatality rate of 70% to 80%.
 BV has a propensity to invade the Central Nervous System when transmitted to humans.
 Symptoms - The initial symptoms usually develop around 1-3 weeks after exposure to the virus.
 The first indications of B virus infection are typically flu-like symptoms, following which an infection person
may develop small blisters in the wound or area on the body that came in contact with the monkey.
 Some other symptoms of the infection include shortness of breath, nausea and vomiting, abdominal pain and
hiccups.
 As the disease progresses, the virus causes inflammation of the brain and spinal cord, leading to neurologic and
inflammatory symptoms; issues with muscle coordination; and in extreme cases, death.
 Currently, there are no vaccines that can protect against BV infection.
 Risk - The virus might pose threat to laboratory workers, veterinarians, and others who may be exposed to
monkeys or their specimens.
5.31 National Action Plan for dog Mediated Rabies Elimination by 2030
National Action Plan for dog Mediated Rabies Elimination by 2030 (NAPRE) was launched recently.
 It wants to eliminate Dog mediated Rabies (Hadakwa disease) from India by 2030 through One Health
Approach including community education, awareness programmes and
vaccination campaigns.
 Rabies is a zoonotic, viral disease spread to people from the saliva of infected
animals.
 It is a Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTD) that mostly affects poor and
vulnerable populations. 80% of cases occur in rural areas.
 Spread - Dogs are the main source of human rabies deaths, contributing up
to 99% of all rabies transmissions to humans. It is also transmitted through
bats, coyotes, foxes, raccoons and skunks.
 In rare cases, rabies can be spread when infected saliva gets into an open wound or the mucous membranes,
such as the mouth or eyes.
 Symptoms - Incubation period for rabies is 2 to 3 months. But this may vary from 1 week to 1 year, depending
upon factors like the location of virus entry and viral load.
 Initial symptoms - Fever with pain and unusual or unexplained tingling, pricking, or burning sensation
(paraesthesia) at the wound site.
 As the virus spreads to the central nervous system, progressive and fatal inflammation of the brain and spinal
cord develops.

 Prevention - Interrupting transmission is feasible through vaccination of dogs and humans, and prevention
of dog bites.
 Diagnosis - Current diagnostic tools are not suitable for detecting rabies infection before the onset of clinical
disease. It is diagnosed after rabies-specific signs of hydrophobia or aerophobia are seen.
 Treatment of a bite victim after rabies exposure is the Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP), which prevents virus
entry into the central nervous system. PEP consists of:
1. Extensive washing and local treatment of the bite wound or scratch as soon as possible after a suspected
exposure;
2. A course of potent and effective rabies vaccine; and
3. Administration of rabies immunoglobulin (RIG), if indicated.
 WHO leads the ‘United Against Rabies’ to drive progress towards “Zero human deaths from dog-mediated rabies
by 2030”.
5.32 Dengue
Delhi has reported the highest number of dengue cases since 2018.
 Dengue is a mosquito-borne tropical disease caused by the dengue virus (Flavivirus) transmitted by several
species of mosquitoes within the genus Aedes.
 Symptoms typically begin three to fourteen days after infection.
 These may include high fever, headache, muscle, and joint pain, and
a characteristic skin rash that is similar to measles.
 There are four types of dengue strains, and type II and IV are
considered to be more severe and normally require hospitalisation.
 In a small proportion of cases, the disease develops into,
a. Dengue hemorrhagic fever - A severe dengue resulting in
bleeding, low levels of blood platelets and blood plasma
leakage, or
b. Dengue shock syndrome - Dengue resulting in very low BP.
 Diagnosis of dengue infection is done with a blood test.

 Treatment - Paracetamol is recommended instead of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for
fever reduction and pain relief in dengue due to an increased risk of bleeding from NSAID use.
 Dengue is classified as a neglected tropical disease.
 Control - Insectivorous fishes like Gambusia and Guppies can check the spread of mosquito-borne diseases
like malaria and dengue.
 The World Mosquito Program has used mosquitoes infected with Wolbachia bacteria to successfully control
dengue.
5.33 Gambusia Fish to Control Dengue

Firozabad district administration has released Gambusia fish (mosquitofish) that eat dengue-breeding mosquito
larvae in ponds.
 This Insectivorous fish is known to check the spread of mosquito-borne diseases like malaria and dengue.
 Gambusia eats about 100 larvae daily.
 They are bred in ponds, wells and other shallow water bodies, which are the breeding grounds of mosquitoes.
 This makes them an excellent biological tool for mosquito control as they eat the larvae before they develop
into adult mosquitoes.
 Besides Gambusia, guppy fish is used to check the spread of mosquito-borne diseases. They are bred in the same
manner as Gambusia.

 A WHO study said that this strategy of using indigenous or exotic fish species with larvivorous potential (fish
that feed on larvae) is potentially safer as it doesn’t involve use of insecticides.
 It also states that this strategy is scientifically proven to be effective in malaria control.
Biocontrol
 Biocontrol is the management of a pest or an insect, typically invasive species, using biological agents.
 It is defined as the reduction of pest populations by introducing a natural predator into the environment.
 Also known as Biological Control or natural control, it is a component of an integrated pest management
strategy.
 Examples of biological control agents are predators, parasitoids, pathogens, insects, nematodes, etc.,
5.34 Corticosteroids for MIS-C

The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends using Corticosteroids for treating children who developed
multisystem inflammatory syndrome (MIS-C) after being exposed to the novel COVID-19 infection.
 Introduction of corticosteroids along with supportive care resulted in a more effective treatment than either
intravenous immunoglobulin plus supportive care or supportive care alone.
 Treatment was also found to be effective in treating children with Kawasaki disease in association to COVID-19.
Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome
 Multisystem Inflammatory Syndrome (MIS-C) is rare but serious conditions where children with COVID-19
develop inflammation that affects the various organs of the body.
 Symptoms - Stomach pain, bloodshot eyes, diarrhea, dizziness or light-headedness (signs of low blood
pressure), skin rash and vomiting.
 The patient develops heart problems, the severity of which may determine the line of treatment.
 In severe cases, children need intensive care and pacemakers.
 Although MIS-C is a serious condition, with the right medical care, children with this condition recover.
 Diagnosis - Blood tests, Chest x-ray, Heart ultrasound and Abdominal ultrasound.
5.35 Norovirus
PyeongChang 2018, the ongoing XXIII Olympic Winter Games at Pyeongchang, South Korea has been hit by a disease
outbreak - Norovirus infection.
 Norovirus is a bug similar to the diarrhoea-inducing rotavirus for which India has included a vaccine in its
universal immunisation programme.
 While rotavirus primarily affects children, Norovirus infects people across age groups.
 Disease outbreaks typically occur aboard cruise ships, in nursing homes, dormitories, and other closed spaces.
 Symptoms usually show up 1 or 2 days after exposure to the virus. This includes a sudden onset of vomiting
and/or diarrhoea, nausea and abdominal pain, and may have fever, headaches and body aches.
 In extreme cases, loss of fluids could lead to dehydration.
 This self-limiting disease normally lasts only 2 or 3 days, and most individuals who are not very young, very
old, or malnourished can ride it out with sufficient rest and hydration.
 Transmission - Norovirus is highly contagious, and can be transmitted through contaminated food, water,
and surfaces. The primary route is oral-faecal.
 One may get infected multiple times as the virus has different strains.
 Norovirus is resistant to many disinfectants and heat up to 60°C.
 Therefore, merely steaming food or chlorinating water does not kill the virus. The virus can also survive many
common hand sanitisers.
 Commonality - Norovirus is the most common pathogen implicated in outbreaks of gastrointestinal disease
(inflammation of the stomach and intestines), according to the World Health Organisation.

 The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention estimates that 1 out of every 5 cases of acute gastroenteritis
globally is caused by Norovirus.
 Prevention - The basic precaution is repeatedly washing hands with soap after using the lavatory or changing
diapers; and before eating or preparing food.
 During outbreaks, surfaces must be disinfected with hypochlorite solution at 5,000 parts per million.
 Treatment - Diagnosis is done by real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction.
 No vaccines are available for the disease. It is important to maintain hydration in the acute phase.
 In extreme cases, patients have to be administered rehydration fluids intravenously.
5.36 Papilloma virus and Cervical Cancer

On Day of Action for Cervical Cancer Elimination, the WHO said that 9 out of 10 women who die of cervical cancer
live in low- & middle-income countries.
These countries also have low rates of vaccination against the human papilloma virus (HPV), which causes the cancer.
 Cervical cancer develops in a woman's cervix (the entrance to the uterus from the vagina).
 It is preventable and curable, as long as it is detected early and managed effectively. Yet it is the fourth most
common cancer in women.
 Causes - Almost all cervical cancer cases (99%) are caused due to high-risk HPV, a highly common virus
transmitted through sexual contact.
 Other risk factors include many sexual partners, early sexual activity, other sexually transmitted infections, a
weakened immune system, smoking, exposure to miscarriage prevention drug, etc.
 Symptoms - Vaginal bleeding after intercourse, between periods or after menopause, and pelvic pain or pain
during intercourse
 Watery, bloody vaginal discharge that may be heavy and have a foul odor
 Prevention - Effective primary (HPV vaccination) and secondary prevention approaches (screening for, and
treating precancerous lesions) will prevent most cervical cancer cases.
Global Strategy for Cervical Cancer Elimination
 In 2020, the WHO adopted this strategy in order to eliminate cervical cancer as a public health problem.
 To eliminate cervical cancer, all countries must reach and maintain an incidence rate of below four per 100 000
women.
 Achieving that goal rests on 3 key pillars and their corresponding targets:
1. Vaccination: 90% of girls fully vaccinated with the HPV vaccine by the age of 15;
2. Screening: 70% of women screened using a high-performance test by the age of 35, and again by the age
of 45;
3. Treatment: 90% of women with pre-cancer treated and 90% of women with invasive cancer managed.
 Each country should meet the 90-70-90 targets by 2030 to get on the path to eliminate cervical cancer
within the next century.
5.37 Parvovirus
Nearly 2,000 dogs in Amravati city were affected by canine parvovirus virus with veterinarians cautioning pet
owners against a severe outbreak.
 Canine Parvovirus (CPV) is a highly contagious viral disease that has reported a 90% mortality rate in puppies
and dogs.
 It affects the intestinal tract of canines with puppies being more susceptible.
 Symptoms - Bloody diarrhoea, vomiting, drastic weight loss, dehydration and lethargy.
 Spread - The highly contagious virus spreads through direct contact with an infected dog or by indirect contact
with a contaminated object, including the hands and clothing of people who handle infected dogs.

 The dogs can get exposed to the parvovirus every time it sniffs, licks, or consume infected faeces.
 Prevention - Parvovirus has no cure and inoculating a puppy or a dog gives them a fighting chance against the
infection.
 The first dose is given at 45 days old and the second dose after 21 days.
 To properly protect canines, it is necessary to administer the vaccine to them while they are puppies and then
continue to do the same every year.
 Treatment - Currently, there is no specific drug available to kill the Canine Parvovirus.
 Supportive care for parvovirus generally includes hospitalization with intravenous fluids, Antiemetics to stop
vomiting, Correction of any electrolyte imbalances or low blood glucose.
5.38 Immune Amnesia

As the global vaccination rate of the measles vaccine fell from 86% (2019) to 84% (2020), this has mounted a concern
over the immune amnesia caused by measles.
 Immune amnesia means the contagious infection can wipe out the immune system’s memory of other illnesses.
 The children who recover from measles may become susceptible to other pathogens they may have had
protection from before they had the measles virus.
 It was found, in 2012, that measles infects and destroys memory and memory-like cells, thus erasing the
recollection of past encounters with various microbes and vaccines.
 The loss of immune memory is near-total and permanent.
 Once the measles infection is over, the body has to relearn everything almost from scratch. Oddly, the only virus
we'll definitely be able to recognise after falling sick with measles is measles itself.
5.39 Lassa Fever

According to the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control, about 80% of the Lassa fever cases are
asymptomatic and therefore remain undiagnosed.
 Lassa fever is a zoonotic acute viral haemorrhagic disease.
 Discovery - The Lassa fever-causing virus is found in West Africa and was first discovered in 1969 in Lassa,
Nigeria.
 The fever is primarily found in countries in West Africa including Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, and Nigeria
where it is endemic.
 Spread - The host of Lassa virus is a rodent known as the multimammate rat (Mastomys natalensis).
 A person can become infected if they come in contact with household items of food that is contaminated with
the urine or feces of an infected rat.
 It can also be spread, though rarely, if a person comes in contact with a sick person’s infected bodily fluids or
through mucous membranes such as the eyes, nose or the mouth.
 Person-to-person transmission is more common in healthcare settings.
 Even so, people don’t usually become contagious before symptoms appear and cannot transmit the infection
through casual contact such as through hugging, shaking hands or sitting near someone who is infected.
 Symptoms typically appear 1-3 weeks after exposure.
 Mild symptoms include slight fever, fatigue, weakness and headache and more serious symptoms include
bleeding, difficulty breathing, vomiting, facial swelling, pain in the chest, back, and abdomen and shock.
 Death can occur from 2 weeks of the onset of symptoms, usually as a result of multi-organ failure.
 Nearly one-third of those infected report various degrees of deafness. In many such cases, the hearing loss can
be permanent.
 Prevention - The best way to avoid getting infected is to avoid contact with rats.
 Treatment - Lassa fever can be fatal, but it can be treated if diagnosed early.

5.40 Immunosensor for Japanese Encephalitis Virus

Hyderabad-based National Institute of Animal Biotechnology has developed an electrochemical based immunosensor
for detecting the Non-Structural 1 (NS1) secretory protein, a biomarker for Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV).
 NS1 secretory protein is suitable biomarker for JEV found circulating in the blood and has been reported to
elicit an immune response.
 This immunosensor was developed by fabricating fluorine-doped Tin Oxide electrode with reduced Graphene
Oxide for the rapid, sensitive and specific detection of the NS1 secretory protein.
 The synthesized NS1 Antibodies were used as the bioreceptor to fabricate the electrode with reduced graphene
oxide as a conductivity enhancing nanomaterial for the detection of JEV NS1 antigen (Ag).
 Significance - Detection of the NS1 instead of antibody has an added advantage since the antigen is present
from day 1 of the infection and hence facilitates early detection.
 On the other hand, antibodies appear only after Day 4/5 of the infection.
 Since there is no cure available for JEV, early detection is essential to mitigate a breakout.
 Limit of Detection (LOD) range is more sensitive than other sensors developed for JEV.
 This immunosensor was also specific towards JEV NS1Ag as compared to other flaviviral NS1Ag.
BACTERIAL DISEASES
5.41 Fusobacterium
Several groups have corroborated the finding that oral tumours among Indian patients are not driven by HPV
infection but by theFusobacterium.
 Fusobacterium species is a genus of anaerobic, elongated, Gram-negative, non-sporeforming bacteria, similar
to Bacteroides.
 They are common obligately anaerobic bacteria of the oral cavity that may act as a bridge between early and late
colonizing bacteria in dental plaque and have a role in oral and extra-oral infections.
 There are multiple species of Fusobacterium, but the one most associated with human disease is F.
Necrophorum.
 F. Necrophorum is a cause of periodontal disease, tonsillitis, peritonsillar abscess, and thrombophlebitis of the
jugular vein (Lemierre syndrome).
 Since the beginning of the 20th Century, Fusobacteriumis known that infections could play a role in cancer, with
18-20% of cancers associated with infectious agents.
 This could be relatively higher in developing countries like India, than in the developed countries where the
incidence of human papillomavirus (HPV) genome is more.
 Fusobacterium nucleatum has a crucial role in oral biofilm structure and ecology, as revealed in experimental
and clinical biofilm models.
DISEASES CAUSED BY PARASITES, PROTOZOANS
5.42 Mosquirix
Mosquirix or RTS,S/ASO1 (RTS.S), which was endorsed by the World Health Organisation (WHO) is the first and only
vaccine shown to have the capability of significantly reducing malaria.
 This is the first malaria vaccine that has completed the clinical development process and acts against
Plasmodium falciparum.
 Mosquirix provides short-term protection that could potentially save lives in the age group most at risk from
malaria.
 Mosquirix also helps protect against infection of the liver with the hepatitis B virus but should not be used only
for this purpose.

 The active substance in Mosquirix is made up of proteins found on the surface of the P. falciparum parasites
and the Hepatitis B Virus.
 The vaccine thus limits the ability of the parasites to mature in the liver.
 Malaria is a life-threatening disease caused by parasites transmitted to people through the bites of infected
female Anopheles mosquitoes and disease is preventable and curable.
 WHO has recommended that the RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine be used for the prevention of P. falciparum.
NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASES
5.43 First CAR-T Cell Therapy

 The Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-cell (CAR-T) therapy emerged as a breakthrough in cancer treatment.
 So, the IIT Bombay and Tata Memorial Hospital, Mumbai in collaborated t0 conduct the early phase pilot
clinical trial of the “first in India” CAR-T therapy.
 The CAR-T cells were designed and manufactured at Bioscience and Bioengineering (BSBE) department of IIT
Bombay. This work is partly supported by BIRAC-PACE scheme.
 The TMC-IIT Bombay team are further supported to extend this project for conducting Phase I/II trial of their
CAR-T product by DBT/BIRAC, through National Biopharma Mission.
 The development of CAR-T cell technology for diseases including acute lymphocytic leukemia, multiple
myeloma, glioblastoma, hepatocellular carcinoma and type-2 diabetes is supported through DBT.
 Challenges - Though this technology has a good therapeutic potential for cancer patients, at present this
technology is not available in India.
 The challenge is to develop the CAR-T therapy in cost-effective manner and make it available for the patients
(currently, it costs 3-4 crore INR).
 The manufacturing complexity is a major reason for the therapy cost.
 National Biopharma Mission is also supporting the development of,
1. Lentiviral vector manufacturing facility for packaging plasmids used to transfer the modified T cell
inside the body,
2. cGMP facility for T-cell transduction and expansion for CAR T-cell manufacturing to 2 other
organizations.
5.44 Rheumatic Heart Disease

A new study has found that penicillin can prevent latent Rheumatic Heart Disease from progressing in children and
adolescents.
 Rheumatic Heart Disease (RHD) is the most commonly acquired heart disease in people under age 25, caused
by rheumatic fever.
 [Rheumatic fever is an autoimmune inflammatory reaction to throat infection with group A streptococci].
 It arises from poorly treated, repeat infections of streptococcus bacteria.]
 It most commonly occurs in childhood, and can lead to death or life-long disability.
 Risk groups - Rheumatic fever mostly affects children and adolescents in low- and middle-income countries.
 People who live in overcrowded and poor conditions are at greatest risk of developing the disease.
 Treatment - There is no cure for RHD and the damage to the heart valves is permanent.
 Patients with severe RHD will often require surgery to replace or repair the damages valve or valves.Depending
on the severity of disease, medications that thin the blood to reduce the risk of blood clots may also be needed.
 Prevention - Since RHD results from rheumatic fever, treatment of strep throat with appropriate antibiotics
will prevent rheumatic fever.
 Worldwide, around 40.5 million people, mostly people under the age of 25, suffer from the disease and 306,000
people die of it every year.

5.45 Treatment for Prostate Cancer

Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Kanpur team identifies a novel target - DLX1 gene - to treat prostate cancer.
 The team has discovered that DLX1 gene has an important role to play in
the growth and development of prostate cancer.
 DLX1 protein helps in the growth and development of the tumour and the
spread of the cancer to other organs in the body (metastasis).
 When the team genetically removed the DLX1 gene that produces the
protein, the ability of cancer cells to grow, develop and spread to other
parts of the body was compromised.
 The team has further shown that both androgen receptor and fusion
gene product ‘ERG’ are responsible for increased level of DLX1 in
prostate cancer cells.
o Androgen receptor is responsible for promoting the development of prostate cancer.
o About 50% of prostate cancer harbour an aberrant gene which is a product of two genes (TMPRSS2 and
ERG) being fused together and results in production of higher levels of ERG protein.
 The team also found that Bromodomain and extra terminal (BET) protein assists the function of both
androgen receptor and ERG.
 If the BET protein is inhibited using small molecules, the function of both the androgen receptor and the ERG
protein to upregulate DLX1 gets inhibited. So, this will help in treatment of cancer.
5.46 Aducanumab
 Aducanumab (Aduhelm), from the company Biogen, is the new drug approved by the US Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) for treating Alzheimer’s disease.
 Aduhelm is not a cure, but it slows down cognitive decline.
 Alzheimer’s disease causes the accumulation of the debris caused by the breakdown of neurons in the brain,
leading to plaque formation.
 So, Aducanumab is a monoclonal antibody that is designed to reduce the presence of amyloid beta, a protein
that forms plaques in the brain.
Alzheimer’s Disease
 Dementia is an umbrella term for a range of conditions that involve a loss of cognitive functioning.
 Alzheimer’s dementia is the most common type and involves plaques and tangles forming in the brain.
 Symptoms - Forgetfulness and memory problems are early symptoms.
 But as the illness progresses, patients tend to become confused, may lose their way around familiar places, and
have difficulties with planning and completing simple tasks.
 The disease is basically an accelerated ageing of certain neurons in the brain that are concerned with storage
and processing of memory.
 Estimates - According to World Health Organization (WHO) estimates for 2017, dementia affects
approximately 50 million people worldwide.
 This is projected to grow to 82 million by 2030.
 In India, it is estimated that 5.3 million people (1 in 27) above the age of 60 have dementia in 2020, as per the
Dementia in India 2020 report (published by the Alzheimer’s and Related Disorders Society of India).
 This is projected to rise to 7.6 million by 2030.
5.47 Peter Pan Syndrome

During a hearing in a special court in Mumbai, the accused had told the court he suffered from “Peter Pan Syndrome”.
 The term ‘Peter Pan Syndrome’ first appeared in 1983, in Dr Dan Kiley’s book. He described it as a “social-
psychological phenomenon”.

 While the World Health Organization doesn’t recognise Peter Pan Syndrome as a health disorder, many experts
believe it is a mental health condition that can
affect one’s quality of life.
 Peter Pan Syndrome is not currently
considered a psychopathology.
 Symptoms - It is said that people who
develop behaviours of living life carefree,
finding responsibilities challenging in
adulthood and basically, “never growing up”
suffer from Peter Pan Syndrome.
 It could affect one’s daily routine,
relationships, work ethic, and result in
attitudinal changes.
 The affected people have body of an adult but
the mind of a child.
 The syndrome can affect anyone, irrespective of gender, race or culture. However, it appears to be more common
among men.
5.48 Rise in Myopia in Children

Ophthalmologists have reported a sharp rise in myopia in children - 25% rise in onset and 100% progression with
myopia - in 2020 during the pandemic.
 Myopia (nearsightedness) is a condition where objects at a distance are not clearly visible and a person must
wear corrective spectacles.
 It occurs when the eyeball becomes longer, relative to the focusing power of the cornea and the lens; this leads
to focus not on the surface of the retina, but at a point before it.
“Distant objects appear blurred but close objects look clear.”
 Symptoms - The most common ones are squinting, eye strain, headaches and fatigue.
 It can lead to complications like early onset of cataract, retinal detachment, glaucoma, myopic maculopathy,
and myopic strabismus fixus.
 Causes - The recent progression and early onset of myopia in children during the pandemic is attributed to
1. Overdose of exposure to mobile phones, and
2. Lack of physical activity and sunlight.
 1 in 4 children is affected by myopia, due to online classes. An average child spends around 8 to 10 hours on a
laptop or desktop.
 Precautions - Limiting the time with devices will help in the well-being of the children.
 A balanced diet which will include carrots, greens, fish and eggs should be followed.
 They must be taught to do yoga and listen to music.
 Children must be allowed to play so that they can absorb sunlight.
5.49 Esotropia
There is a five-fold increase in children with acute onset of esotropia.
 When an eye crosses inward, it is termed esotropia (“Eso” means to turn inward toward the nose.)
 Intermittent crossing of an infant’s eyes under about 4 to 5 months is normal. However, constant crossing of
the eyes may be a concern.
 Esotropia is a type of strabismus.It can occur in just one eye or alternate between both eyes.
 It is rare for both eyes to cross in at the same time.
 Three forms of esotropia - Congenital or infantile esotropia, Acquired strabismus and Microstrabismus.

Types of strabismus (Based on the positions of the eye)

 Hypertropia is when the eye turns upwards
 Hypotropia is when the eye turns downwards
 Esotropia is when the eye turns inwards
 Exotropia is when the eye turns outwards
 Cyclotropia refers to the rotation of one eye around its visual axis.
o Anisolated form of strabismus (i.e., one that does not occur in
combination with paralytic strabismus),
o This disorder is extremely rare.
5.50 Autism Spectrum Disorder

Indian researchers have developed a compound called “6BIO” that can provide a better method to treat Autism
Spectrum Disorder (ASD) / Intellectual disability (ID).
 This compound has potential for improving daily activities like learning and recollecting new tasks in patients
with ASD/ ID.
 ASD is the name for a group of developmental disorders thatincludes a wide range, “a spectrum” of symptoms,
skills, and levels of disability.
o Fragile X Syndrome (FXS) is the leading inherited cause of autism in 4% of the global population.
 ASD includes conditions that were previously considered separate - autism, Asperger's syndrome, childhood
disintegrative disorder and an unspecified form of pervasive developmental disorder.
 People with ASD often have these characteristics:
1. Ongoing social problems that include difficulty in communicating and interacting with others.
2. Repetitive behaviours as well as limited interests or activities.
3. Symptoms that typically are recognized in the first 2 years of life.
4. Symptoms that hurt the individual’s ability to function socially, at school or work, or in other areas of
life.
 While there is no cure for autism spectrum disorder, intensive, early treatment can make a big difference in the
lives of many children.
5.51 Type 1 Diabetes

According to a new study, Type 1 diabetes in those below 25 years accounted for at least 73.7% of the overall diabetes
deaths in this age group in 2019.
 Inadequate diagnosis and treatment of diabetes is likely to be a major contributor to these early deaths,
highlighting the urgent need to provide better access to
insulin and basic diabetes education and care.
 The death rate varied based on the socio-demographic
index (SDI) of a country.
 Between 1990 and 2019, global death rates for all types
of diabetes after age-standardisation decreased by 17%
and that for Type-1 diabetes by 21%.
 Myanmar, Papua New Guinea and Haiti had the highest
age-standardised death rates for diabetes. Cyprus,
Slovenia and Switzerland had the lowest death rates.
 The UN and the World Health Organization in the
2013-2020 global action plan had recognised diabetes
as one of the key challenges in the non-communicable
diseases group and aimed to confront it.

5.52 Sickle Cell Anaemia

 Sickle cell anaemia is an autosomal recessive disease or Mendelian disorder (Genetic Disorder).
 It is caused by a mutation in the hemoglobin-β gene found on chromosome 11. This mutation results in defective
haemoglobin (Hb).
 After giving up oxygen, these defective Hb molecules cluster together resulting in formation of rod like
structures.
 The red blood cells become stiff and assume sickle shape.
 The defect is caused by the substitution of Glutamic acid by Valine at the sixth position of the beta globin chain
of the haemoglobin molecule.
 Genotypes - The disease is controlled by a single pair of allele, HbA and HbS.
 Out of the three possible genotypes, only homozygous individuals for HbS (HbSHbS) show the diseased
phenotype.
 Heterozygous (HbAHbS) individuals appear apparently unaffected but they are carrier of the disease as there is
50% probability of transmission of the mutant gene to the progeny, thus exhibiting sickle-cell trait.
 Commonality - The disease is mostly common among people whose ancestors originated from sub-Saharan
Africa, South America, Cuba, Central America, Saudi Arabia, India, and Mediterranean countries.
 In India, it is common among people of the Deccan plateau of central India with a smaller focus in the north of
Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
DISEASES CAUSED BY MALNUTRITION
5.53 Goitre
Prevalence of self-reported goitre in National Family Health Survey (NFHS) IV (2015-2016) was 2.2%, while it was
2.9% in NFHS-V (2019-2021).
 Goitre may be an overall enlargement of the thyroid gland, or it may be the result of irregular cell growth.
 The swelling of the thyroid gland forms one or more lumps (nodules) in the front of the neck. The lump will
move up & down when you swallow.
 A goiter may be associated with no change in thyroid function or with an increase or decrease in thyroid
hormones.
 Causes of goiter
1. Not enough iodine or lack of iodine in your diet (most common),
2. Hypothyroidism (Underactive thyroid),
3. Hyperthyroidism (Overactive thyroid),
4. An inflamed thyroid gland (thyroiditis),
5. Hormone changes during puberty, pregnancy or the menopause,
6. Taking some types of medicine, such as lithium, a medicine used to treat some mental health conditions,
7. Having radiation treatment to your neck or chest area,
8. Nodules or cysts within the thyroid,
9. Thyroid cancer.
 Treatment depends on the cause of the goiter, symptoms, and complications resulting from the goiter.
 Small goiters that aren't noticeable and don't cause problems usually don't need treatment. A wait-and-see
approach is usually recommended.
 Other possible treatments include radioiodine treatment and thyroid surgery.
Thyroid gland
 Thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped gland located at the base of the neck just below the Adam's apple.

 This gland is just in front of the windpipe (trachea).

 This gland produces thyroid hormones, which help regulate the body's metabolism, the chemical processes that
occur in the body.
OTHERS
5.54 Wilful Control of Dopamine

A new study reveals that impulses of dopamine chemical can be wilfully controlled.
 Dopamine is the neurological messenger or neurotransmitter that carries signals between brain cells.
 It has been popularly described as the "feel good" chemical of the brain related to reward and pleasure.
 It is involved in multiple aspects of cognitive processing - unique human ability to think and plan.
 Previously, dopamine was thought to occur only when presented with pleasurable or reward-based expectations.
 In the study, the mice learned to anticipate and wilfully act upon a portion of the dopamine.
 Mice learned to reliably elicit dopamine impulses prior to receiving a reward. These effects reversed when the
reward was removed.
5.55 Havana Syndrome

The CIA director and a US intelligence officer have reported symptoms of Havana Syndrome while the two were in
India recently.
 Havana Syndrome is a set of mental health symptoms that are experienced by US intelligence and embassy
officials in other countries.
 This Syndrome traces its roots to Cuba (2016), where the US officials in their embassy began experiencing the
symptoms.
 Symptoms are hearing certain sounds without any outside noise being present, nausea, vertigo and headaches,
memory loss and issues with balance.
 The injuries in the brains of the victims resembled concussions, like those suffered by soldiers struck by roadside
bombs in Iraq.
 Causes - No one is entirely sure of the causes of Havana Syndrome.
 But, some studies suggest that the victims may have been subjected to high-powered microwaves that interfered
with the nervous system. It has had lasting impact on mental health.
Microwave weapons
 They are a type of direct energy weapons, which aim highly focused energy in the form of sonic, laser, or
microwaves, at a target.
 People exposed to high-intensity microwave pulses can have both acute and long-term mental effects, without
any physical damage.
 Greater exposure to high-powered microwaves is said to
1. Interfere with the body’s sense of balance, and
2. Impact memory and cause permanent brain damage.
5.56 Gaming Disorder

As the pandemic increased screen time across age groups, the concerns over gaming disorder have been growing.
 According to the WHO, Gaming disorder is defined as a pattern of gaming behavior (“digital-gaming” or “video-
gaming”) characterized by,
1. Impaired control over gaming,
2. Increasing priority given to gaming over other activities to the extent that gaming takes precedence over
other interests and daily activities, and

3. Continuation or escalation of gaming despite the occurrence of negative consequences.

 It is the obsessive and compulsive overuse of internet games and
video games as an escape from life.
 Symptoms - Insomnia, withdrawal from social contacts, academic
failure, extreme anger and irritability, and refusal to eat food.
 Online gaming has not only been a problem for children and youth
but adults too get addicted to games that involve real money.
 Ultimately, gaming addictions can cause physical, social and
emotional damages, impairing sleep, appetites, careers and social
lives.
 Diagnosis - For gaming disorder to be diagnosed, the behaviour
pattern must be of sufficient severity to result in significant impairment in important areas of functioning.
 It would normally have been evident for at least 12 months.
International Classification of Diseases
 It is the basis for identification of health trends and statistics globally and the international standard for
reporting diseases and health conditions.
 It is used by medical practitioners around the world to diagnose conditions and by researchers to categorize
conditions.
 The inclusion of a disorder in ICD is a consideration which countries take into account when planning public
health strategies and monitoring trends of disorders.
Issues
5.57 Doctor to Population Ratio

The World Health Organisation (WHO) has recommended 1:1000 as the doctor to population ratio.
 Currently, the doctor-population ratio in India is 1:1456. But, India is on the path to achieve the WHO-
recommended ratio by 2024, and is increasing the number of beds from 11 lakh to 22 lakhs.
 Ayushman Bharat Yojna and Jan Arogya Yojna are the programmes that focus on providing all kinds of health
facilities to people.
5.58 Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances

 Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) are a complex, ever-expanding group of manufactured
chemicals.
 PFAS molecules are made up of a chain of linked carbon and fluorine atoms.
 As the carbon-fluorine bond is one of the strongest, these chemicals do not degrade in the environment.
 Uses - PFAS are used to make various types of everyday products.
o E.g.: They keep food from sticking to cookware, make clothes and carpets resistant to stains, and create
effective firefighting foam.
 They are used in industries like aerospace, automotive, construction, electronics, and military.
 There are two kinds of PFAS, Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS).
 PFOA and PFOS were manufactured for the longest time, and are the most widespread in the environment.
Recently, they are being replaced by alternatives, such as GenX.
 Concerns about the public health impact of PFAS have arisen for the following reasons:
1. Widespread occurrence of PFAS in blood and urine of people.
2. Numerous exposures - PFAS are used in hundreds of products globally, with many opportunities for
human exposure.

3. Persistent - PFAS remain in the environment for an unknown amount of time and may take years to
leave the body.
4. Bioaccumulation - Different PFAS chemicals may enter the food chain in various ways, gradually
accumulating and remaining in a body over time. This occurs due to more intake than excretion of the
chemicals.
 Impacts - People are most likely exposed to these chemicals by consuming PFAS-contaminated water or food,
using products made with PFAS, or breathing air containing PFAS.
 Health effects on humans include
1. Altered metabolism,
2. Fertility and reduced fetal growth,
3. Increased risk of being overweight or obese, and
4. Reduced ability of the immune system to fight infections.
5.59 Quick Reaction to Negative Smells

Researchers have found that negative smells associated with unpleasantness or unease are processed earlier than
positive smells and trigger a physical avoidance response.
 This cognitive process is not only unconscious but is also extremely rapid. This goes against the
conventional wisdom that unpleasant smells associated with danger is a conscious cognitive process.
 The olfactory organ takes up about 5% of the human brain and enables us to distinguish between different
smells.
 In humans, the olfactory sense is important for detecting and
reacting to potentially harmful stimuli.
 For the first time, the researchers have identified neural
mechanisms that are involved in the conversion of an
unpleasant smell into avoidance behaviour in humans. This
conversion is done by the olfactory bulb.
 Olfactory bulb is the first part of the rhinencephalon (literally
"nose brain").
 It has direct connections to the important central parts of the
nervous system that helps us detect and remember threatening
and dangerous situations and substances.
 It processes smells and in turn can transmit signals to parts of the brain that control movement and avoidance
behaviour.
 In the study, the researchers have found that the bulb reacts specifically and rapidly to negative smells and sends
a direct signal to the motor cortex within 300 milliseconds.
5.60 Silicosis
Silicosis is ravaging mine and factory workers in several villages of Jharkhand.
 Silicosis is a type of pulmonary fibrosis, a lung disease caused by breathing in tiny bits of silica, a common
mineral found in sand, quartz and many other types of rock.
 It usually happens in jobs where you breathe in dust that contains silica.
 [High-risk jobs are construction work, stone countertop fabrication, foundry work, ceramics manufacturing,
mining and hydraulic fracturing (fracking).]
 Over time, exposure to silica particles causes scarring in the lungs, which can harm your ability to breathe.
 Symptoms of silicosis usually appear after many years of exposure.
 In early stages, symptoms are mild and include cough, sputum and progressive shortness of breath.
 As the scarring continues to worsen, the first real signs of a problem may be an abnormal chest X-ray and a
slowly developing cough.

 Complications from silicosis can include tuberculosis, lung cancer, chronic bronchitis, autoimmune disorders
and kidney disease.
 Treatment - There is no cure for silicosis, but treatment is available, and employers and workers can take steps
to prevent it.
 Medications (Inhaled steroids reduce lung mucus; Bronchodilators help relax your breathing passages; Oxygen
therapy)
 Lung transplant surgery
 Cigarette smoking adds to the lung damage caused by silicosis. Quitting smoking is an important part of
managing the disease.
5.61 Wolbachia Mosquitoes

Researchers from the World Mosquito Program (WMP) have found a way to fight disease-bearing mosquitoes by
breeding Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, which carries Wolbachia bacteria.
 Wolbachia is a common bacterium that occurs naturally in 60% of insect species, including some mosquitoes,
fruit flies, moths and butterflies.
 But, it is not found in dengue-carrying Aedes aegypti mosquitoes, the primary species responsible for
transmitting human viruses such as Zika, dengue, chikungunya and yellow fever.
 Now, the lab-bred mosquitoes with Wolbachia will mate with mosquitoes with dengue, which will produce
Wolbachia mosquitoes.
 Wolbachia bacteria in the mosquitoes prevent viruses like dengue from growing inside them. So even if they bite
people, it won't affect them.
 Trial results showed that deploying mosquitoes with Wolbachia reduced dengue cases by as much as 77% and
hospitalisations by up to 86%.
 Wolbachia method helps to protect communities from mosquito-borne diseases like Zika, dengue, chikungunya
and yellow fever, and does so without posing a risk to natural ecosystems or human health.
 According to the World Health Organization (WHO), global dengue infections have risen rapidly in recent
decades, with about half of the world's population now at risk. An estimated 100-400 million infections are
reported every year.
5.62 Muscle Dysfunction and Vitamin D

A new study has examined the molecular nature of muscle dysfunction in mice, in the absence of vitamin D.
 Usually, the glucose absorbed from the food is converted into glycogen and stored in the skeletal muscle.
 This stored energy reserve is used by muscles to produce energy after the food consumed is digested.
 Without the vitamin D, the skeletal muscles continued to make glycogen, but could not convert them into
glucose (usable form of energy).
 When the glycogen storage does not give energy, particularly in a post-absorb state, the skeletal muscle draws
more glucose from the blood. This leads to a systemic energy shortage.
 When there is systemic lack of energy, the protein degradation in muscle is triggered leading to muscle wasting.
 This shows that vitamin D deficiency starves the skeletal muscles, leading to muscle wasting.
Functions of Vitamin D
 Vitamin D works more as a hormone than and is involved in a host of biochemical reactions.
 It is key to maintaining metabolic functions, immune system, bone health and plays a crucial role in depression,
mood swings, anxiety and sleep quality.
 As part of the normal metabolic process, proteins produced in our body degrade, and in due course, new proteins
are made to replace them.
 Usually, when the protein degradation exceeds protein synthesis, skeletal muscle atrophy or simply a decrease
in muscle mass occurs. This is what happens during Vitamin D deficiency.

6. BIO-TECHNOLOGY
Introduction
6.1 Stem Cells

 Stem cells differ from other kinds of cells in the body.
 They have the remarkable potential to develop into different cell types in the body during early life and growth.
 They have three unique properties.
1. They are capable of dividing and renewing themselves for long periods;
2. They are unspecialized; and
3. They can give rise to specialized cell types.
 Commonly, stem cells come from two main sources:
1. Embryonic Stem Cell - Embryos formed during the blastocyst phase of embryological development.
2. Adult stem cells – Exist throughout the body after embryonic development and are found inside of
different types of tissue such as the brain, bone marrow, blood, blood vessels, skeletal muscles, skin, and
the liver
 The capacity to differentiate into specialized cell types and be able to give rise to any mature cell type is referred
to as potency.
 When a stem cell divides, each new cell has the potential either to remain a stem cell or become another type of
cell with a more specialized function, such as a muscle cell, a red blood cell, or a brain cell.
 Totipotent stem cells can differentiate into embryonic and extra embryonic cell types. These cells are
produced from the fusion of an egg and sperm cell and can construct a complete, viable organism.
 The only totipotent cells are the fertilized egg and the cells produced by the first few divisions of the fertilized
egg are also totipotent.
 Pluripotent stem cells are the descendants of totipotent cells and can differentiate into nearly all cells, i.e.
cells derived from any of the three germ layers.
 These are true stem cells, with the potential to make any differentiated cell in the body. Embryonic Stem
Cells come under this category.
 Multipotent stem cells can differentiate into a number of cells, but only those of a closely related family of
cells (i.e) it can only differentiate into a limited number of types.
 Eg. The bone marrow contains multipotent stem cells that give rise to all the cells of the blood but not to other
types of cells.
 Oligopotent stem cells can differentiate into only a few cells, such as lymphoid or myeloid stem cells.
 Unipotent cells can produce only one cell type, their own, but have the property of self-renewal, which
distinguishes them from non-stem cells.
 Such Unipotent cells include muscle stem cells.
B Cells and T Cells
 The principle of immunisation or vaccination is based on the property of ‘memory’ of the immune system.
 In vaccination, a preparation of antigenic proteins of pathogen or inactivated/weakened pathogen (vaccine) is
introduced into the body.
 The antibodies produced in the body against these antigens would neutralise the pathogenic agents during
actual infection.
 The vaccines also generate memory – B and T-cells or lymphocytes that recognise the pathogen quickly on
subsequent exposure and overwhelm the invaders with a massive production of antibodies.
Similarities between B and T cells

 B cells and T cells are the White Blood Cells of the immune system that are responsible for adaptive immune
response in an organism.
 Both B and T cells are structurally similar and originate in bone marrow.
 Both the cells are non-phagocytic and are a part of lymphatic system.
6.2 Gene Editing

 Genetic modification involves the introduction of foreign DNA into an organism.On the other hand, gene editing
involves editing of the organism’s native genome.
 CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) is a gene editing technology.
 It allows researchers to permanently modify genes in living cells and organisms by targeting specific stretches
of genetic code to edit DNA at precise locations.
 This is done by introducing a protein (Cas9) containing the code of a defective gene.
 The protein then seeks out parts of the defective DNA that match this code.

 It then attaches itself to it, cuts it out, and then the DNA is allowed to repair itself by getting rid of the defect.
 It can be used to target multiple genes simultaneously and can also activate gene expression instead of cutting
the DNA.
 This can be used to correct mutations at precise locations in the human
genome to treat genetic causes of diseases.
 Correcting the mutation in an embryo ensures that the child is born
healthy and the defective gene is not passed on to future generations.
 Apart from being used as a gene-editing tool, CRISPR CAS-9 can also
function as a diagnostic tool.
 It can recognise target DNA very quickly and identify viruses such as
Zika and dengue very efficiently.
 When an alien bacteria or virus invades the body, CRISPR is
“programmed” to recognise the alien material. It then uses CAS-9, an
enzyme produced by the CRISPR system to bond with the alien DNA
and excise it.
6.3 Genomic Sequencing

Scientists detect new variants of the virus that causes COVID-19 using the process called DNA sequencing.
 Genomic Sequencing or DNA Sequencing determines the order of the four chemical building blocks (‘bases’) or
nucleotides that make up the DNA molecule - Adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine.
 These nucleotides pair up together collectively to make up a genome that contains all the genetic information
an organism needs to survive.
 When an organism replicates, it makes a copy of its entire genome to pass on to its offspring.
 Sometimes errors in the copying process can lead to mutations in which one or more building blocks are
swapped, deleted or inserted.
 This may alter genes, and can affect the physical characteristics of that organism.
Types of Sequencing
 There are three generations of sequencing technologies -
1. First-generation sequencing (used in the 1970s and 1980s) - Maxam-Gilbert method, and Sanger
method (or dideoxy method),
2. Next-generation sequencing or NGS (used since the late 1990s)
 Second-generation sequencing and
 Third-generation sequencing.

 Comparatively, the Next-generation sequencing technologies are able to process much higher volumes of DNA
at the same time, significantly reducing the amount of time it takes to sequence a genome.
 Sanger sequencing involves cutting up DNA into short fragments and adding radioactive or fluorescent tags
to identify each nucleotide. The fragments are then put through an electric sieve that sorts them by size.
 Compared with newer methods, Sanger sequencing is slow and can process only relatively short stretches of
DNA.
 But it provides highly accurate data, and some researchers are still using this method to sequence SARS-CoV-2
samples.
 Second-generation sequencing marks each nucleotide with a specific colour. These technologies are able
to read DNA directly.
 After DNA is cut up into fragments, short stretches of genetic material called adapters are added to give each
nucleotide a different colour.
 Finally, these DNA fragments are fed into a computer and reassembled into the entire genomic sequence.
 Third-generation sequencing technologies like the Nanopore MinIon detect changes in an electrical current
to identify nucleotides.
 As each pair of nucleotides disrupts the electrical current in a particular way, the sequencer can read these
changes and upload them directly to a computer.
 This allows clinicians to sequence samples at point-of-care clinical and treatment facilities. However, Nanopore
sequences smaller volumes of DNA compared with other NGS platforms.
Recent Developments
6.4 Three-step Synthesis Route for Molnupiravir

Researchers have engineered enzymes to enable faster manufacture of antiviral drug molnupiravir.
 Molnupiravir is an investigational oral antiviral for treatment of Covid-19, which was originally developed to
treat influenza.
 Molnupiravir works by causing viruses to make errors when copying their own RNA, introducing mutations that
inhibit replication.
 Recently, molnupiravir reduced the risk of hospitalization and death from COVID-19 for newly diagnosed, at-
risk patients, and that it worked equally well against different SARS-CoV-2 variants.
 Developed initially to treat influenza, Molnupiravir (MK-4482, EIDD-2801) is repurposed as an anti-viral
candidate to treat Covid-19 patients.
 It is an oral form of potent ribonucleoside analogues that works by introducing errors into the SARS-CoV-2
virus’ genetic code, which prevents the virus from further replicating.
 This prevention of replication reduces the severity of the disease.
 In India, the drug has been cleared for the treatment of adult patients with Covid-19 and who have a high risk
of progression of the disease.
 [Risk factors include Obesity, Older age (>60 years), Diabetes mellitus, or Heart disease.]
 In the new study, a 3-step synthesis route was developed - from a sugar molecule called ribose - to increase
the yield of Molnupiravir.
 They identified enzymes or chemical treatments to sequentially add the appropriate chemical groups to ribose
to generate the molecule.
 For the 2nd step of the synthesis, the team identified bacterial enzymes that weakly catalyzed the desired
reactions.
 Using in vitro evolution, they greatly enhanced these enzymes' activities.
 This new route, which also included a phosphate recycling strategy, was 70% shorter and had a 7-fold higher
overall yield than the original route.

Analogues
 Nucleoside and nucleotide analogues are the two types of analogues.
 They can be used in therapeutic drugs, include a range of antiviral products used to prevent viral
replication in infected cells.
 Nucleoside analogues are nucleosides which contain a nucleic acid analogue and a sugar.
 This includes any group of antiviral drugs that inhibit the viral enzyme reverse transcriptase and are used in the
treatment of HIV infection.
 Nucleoside analog inhibitors compete with nucleotide substrate to bind to the active site of polymerase.
 Once they are incorporated into the elongation chain of nucleic acid, chain termination results.
 Similar to nucleoside analogues, Nucleotide analogues are nucleotides which contain a nucleic acid
analogue, a sugar, and a phosphate groups with one to three phosphates.
6.5 ASPAGNII
Department of Biotechnology- National Institute of Immunology (DBT-NII) receives ASPAGNII trademark for India’s
First Indigenous Tumour Antigen SPAG9. SPAG9 was discovered by Dr Anil Suri in 1998.
 Currently, ASPAGNII is being used in dendritic cell (DC) based immunotherapy in cervical, ovarian cancer and
will be used in breast cancer.
 Immunotherapy is a new approach that exploits the body’s inner capability to put up a fight against cancer.
 With this approach, either the immune system is given a boost, or the T cells are “trained’’ to identify recalcitrant
cancer cells and kill them.
 In this personalised intervention, those patients expressing SPAG9 protein can be treated with the DC-based
vaccine approach.
 In DC-based vaccine, patient’s cells called monocytes are collected from their blood and modified into dendritic
cells.
 The DCs are primed with ASPAGNII and are injected back to the patient to help the ‘fighter’ cells, or T-cells, in
the body to kill the cancer cells.
 DC-based immunotherapy is safe, affordable and can promote antitumor immune responses and prolonged
survival of cancer patients.
6.6 Cryptogamic Garden

India’s first cryptogamic garden housing nearly 50 species of lichens, ferns and fungi was inaugurated at Deoban of
Uttarakhand’s Dehradun district.
 This garden at Deoban is at a height of 9,000 ft. Deoban was chosen to locate the garden because of its low
pollution levels and moist conditions which are conducive for the growth of cryptogamic species.
 Deoban has pristine majestic forests of Deodar and Oak which create a natural habitat for these cryptogamic
species.
 Cryptogamae means “hidden reproduction” referring to the fact that they produce no flowers, fruits and seeds.
It includes all non-seed bearing plants.
 They are classified as lower plants because they don't have many of the structures we associate with plants.
 These can both be aquatic or terrestrial. These reproduce vegetatively, asexually and sexually.
o Vegetative reproduction takes place cell division or fragmentation.
o Asexual reproduction takes place by the means of spores.
o Sexual reproduction takes place by fusion of male and female gametes.
 Algae, bryophytes (moss, liverworts), lichens, ferns and fungi are the groups of cryptogams that require moist
conditions to survive.
 Lichens are a complex life form that is a symbiotic partnership of two separate organisms, a fungus and an
algae.

 Fungi are a kingdom of eukaryotic organisms that are heterotrophs.

 Ferns are the largest living group of vascular plants.
 The Plant Kingdom has two groups -Cryptogams (Non-seed bearing plants) and Phanerogams (Seed bearing
plants).
Classification of Cryptogams
 Cryptogams are further divided into 3 groups such as Thallophyta, Bryophyta and Pteridophytes.
 Thallophyta include algae, fungi, bacteria, and lichens. These are the simplest plants where the body is not
differentiated into roots, leaves, and stems. The simplest thallophytes are bacteria.
 These are aquatic plants that can grow in fresh as well as marine water. These lack vascular system.
 Bryophyta includes liverworts, horned liverworts, and mosses. are the simplest and primitive non-vascular
land plants that occupy an intermediate position between algae and pteridophytes.
 These are also an undifferentiated plant with no vascular tissues. They prefer moist habitats but they can survive
in dry environments too.
 These have rhizoids (root like structure) for anchorage. These
are generally found in damp and moist places.
 These can grow both on land and in water. These are simplest
of all land plants and also known as amphibians of the plant
kingdom.
 Pteridophytes or vascular cryptogams include all kinds
of ferns.
 These have well-differentiated plant body and vascular system
is also present in them. These are most advanced of all
cryptogams.
 They are vascular plants that disperse spores. It is the first
plant to have xylem and phloem.
6.7 Harit Dhara

It is an anti-methanogenic feed supplement developed by an Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) institute
- National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology (NIANP), Bengaluru.
 When given to bovines and sheep, it cuts down their methane emissions by 17-20%, and also results in higher
milk production and body weight gain.
 Emission - An average lactating cow or buffalo in India emits around 200 litres of methane per day, while it is
85-95 litres for young growing heifers and 20-25 litres for adult sheep.
 Methane Production by Cattle - Methane is produced by animals having rumen, the first of their four
stomachs.
 In Rumen, the plant material they eat - cellulose, fibre, starch and sugars - gets fermented or broken down by
microorganisms prior to further digestion and nutrient absorption.
 Carbohydrate fermentation leads to production of CO2 and hydrogen.
 These are used as substrate by archaea - microbes in the rumen - to produce methane, which the animals then
expel through burping.
6.8 Gamma Irradiation Technology

Presently, there are 26 Gamma Radiation Processing Plants operational in India in private, semi government
and government sector.
 Gamma Irradiation technology is used for food preservation/shelf life extension by applying pre-
determined radiation doses, as it
1. Inhibits sprouting in bulbs and tubers,
2. Insect disinfestation of cereals, pulses and grains,

3. Microbial decontamination (hygienization) of dry spices etc.

 Setting of food irradiation facilities in the PPP mode mitigates the huge quantum of post-harvest and storage
losses of agricultural produce and food that results in national saving.
Food irradiation
 It is the process of exposing food and food packaging to ionizing radiation, such as from gamma rays, x-rays, or
electron beams, without direct contact to the food product.
 When ionizing radiation passes through a food product, some energy is absorbed by some chemical bonds.
 Some bonds rupture and produce free radicals which are highly reactive and unstable. They instantaneously
rejoin with neighbouring compounds and the results are called radiolytic compounds.
 Food irradiation is used to improve food safety by
1. Extending product shelf life (preservation),
2. Reducing the risk of food-borne illness,
3. Delaying or eliminating sprouting or ripening,
4. Sterilization of foods, and
 It is used as a means of controlling insects and invasive pests.
6.9 Fortification of Rice

Emphasising that malnutrition is a hurdle in the development of women and children, Prime Minister announced
fortification of rice distributed under various government schemes by 2024.
 This announcement is important as the government distributes rice under various schemes - TPDS, MDM and
ICDS - covered under the National Food Security Act, 2013.
 Fortification is defined by FSSAI as deliberately increasing the content of essential micronutrients in a food so
as to improve the nutritional quality of food and to provide public health benefit with minimal risk to health.
 [Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) sets standards for food items in the country.]
 According to the FSSAI norms, 1-kg fortified rice shall contain iron (28mg-42.5mg), folic acid (75-125 mg) and
Vitamin B-12 (0.75-1.25 mg).
 In addition, rice may also be fortified with micronutrients, singly or in combination, with zinc, and Vitamins A,
B1, B2, B3 and B6.
 India accounts for over 1/5thof the world’s rice production. It is the largest consumer of rice, with a per capita
rice consumption of 6.8 kg per month.
Fortification of Rice and its Distribution Under PDS
 Ministry of Consumer Affairs had launched a pilot scheme on “Fortification of Rice and its Distribution under
Public Distribution System (PDS)” for a period of 3 years beginning 2019-20.
 This centrally sponsored scheme focuses on 15 districts in 15 states - AP, Kerala, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Odisha, Gujarat, UP, Assam, TN, Telangana, Punjab, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand and MP.
 Under the scheme, the blending of rice is done at the milling stage.
 The Scheme is funded by the Government of India in the ratio of,
a. 90:10 in respect of North Eastern, hilly and island states and
b. 75:25 in respect of the rest of the states and UTs.
6.10 Junk DNA

A Study has identified the NTR2-1 DNA region (Junk DNA) that appears to drive the activity of the telomerase gene,
which prevents aging in certain types of cells.
 Knowing how the telomerase gene is regulated and activated and why it is only active in certain cell types could
be the key to understanding how humans age and how to stop the spread of cancer.
 The study describes that one of the 'junk DNA' units enhances the activity of the telomerase gene.

 About 50% of our genome has repetitive DNA that doesn’t code for protein. These are called 'junk DNA' or dark
matters of genome.
 Their finding is based on a series of experiments that found that deleting the DNA sequence from cancer cells
caused telomeres to shorten, cells to age, and tumors to stop growing.
 The length of the sequence ranged from as short as 53 repeats or copies of the DNA to as long as 160 repeats.
 The study actually shows that the telomerase gene is more active in people with a longer sequence.
 But, having a shorter sequence doesn’t necessarily mean shorter lifespan.
 It means the telomerase gene is less active and your telomere length may be shorter, which could make you less
likely to develop cancer.
 These findings tell that this VNTR2-1 sequence contributes to the genetic diversity of how we age and how we
get cancer.
Telomerase Gene
 This gene controls the activity of the telomerase enzyme, which helps produce telomeres, the caps at the end of
each strand of DNA that protect the chromosomes within our cells.
 In normal cells, the length of telomeres gets a little bit shorter every time cells duplicate their DNA before they
divide.
 When telomeres get too short, cells can no longer reproduce, causing them to age and die.
 However, in certain cell types - reproductive cells and cancer cells - the activity of the telomerase gene ensures
that telomeres are reset to the same length when DNA is copied.
 This is what restarts the aging clock in new offspring but is also the reason why cancer cells can continue to
multiply and form tumors.
6.11 DNA Fingerprinting

Though DNA fingerprinting technology has helped in solving many crimes, its efficiency is being suspected in the
conviction of criminals
 It is a technique for identification of an individual by examining their DNA
 DNA 0r Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid is composed of bases, (adenine (A), cytosine (C),
guanine (G), and thymine (T)) , sugar and phosphate
 Two bases link to each other using hydrogen bonds to form basepairs
 Though 99.7% of the makeup is similar between any two people there is a 0.3%
difference which accounts to almost 10 million different base pairs
 By examining this we can identify the relation between two people
 Blood, semen ,hair and teeth (with roots), , bones, flesh, saliva etc. can be used to study the DNA
 Uses –
o For criminal identification
o To resolve disputes of maternity /paternity
o To identify mutilated remains
o In cases of exchange of babies in hospital wards,
o In forensic wildlife
o Close to 60 countries have got the legislations on DNA profiling
Click here to learn about DNA Technology (Use and Application) Regulation Bill
 Issues -
o Ecological impacts - Degradation of a sample with prolonged contact to sunlight, humidity, and heat
o Unreliable results - Instrumental errors also lead to unreliable results

o Privacy issues - Sensitive genetic information of a person is exposed to another individual and it is
against human rights
o Security concerns - DNA databases holding DNA profiles
o Lack of expertise - Leads to mishandling of samples
o Intermixing of samples - Corruption, tampering with evidence, misconception during labeling
sample is possible
o Targeting of groups - If people from one ethnic group are more often convicted, they will be
overrepresented and leads to targeting
6.12 Synthetic Biology

The Central government is working on a national policy on synthetic biology.
 Synthetic Biology is a field of science that involves redesigning organisms by engineering them to have new
abilities.
 It designs and constructs new biological parts, devices, and
systems, and re-designs the existing, natural biological systems for
useful purposes.
 It harnesses the power of nature to solve problems in medicine,
manufacturing and agriculture.
 Some examples of use of Synthetic Biology are,
o Microorganisms harnessed for bioremediation to clean
pollutants from our water, soil and air.
o Rice modified to produce beta-carotene, a nutrient usually
associated with carrots that prevents vitamin A deficiency.
o Yeast engineered to produce rose oil as an eco-friendly
substitute for real roses that perfumers use to make luxury scents.
 Difference - In some ways, synthetic biology is similar to "genome editing" because both involve changing an
organism's genetic code.
 However, there is a distinction between these two approaches based on how that change is made.
 In synthetic biology, scientists typically stitch together long stretches of DNA and insert them into an organism's
genome.
 These synthesized pieces of DNA could be genes that are found in other organisms or they could be entirely
novel.
 In genome editing, scientists typically use genome editing tools to make smaller changes to the organism's own
DNA. These tools can also be used to delete or add small stretches of DNA in the genome.
 Concern - Synthetic biology can be used to synthesize an organism's entire genome. It could be used to develop
biological weapons.
 The first synthetic bacterial genome was completed in 2008 with the synthesis of the genome of Mycoplasm
genitalium, a bacterium that can cause urinary and genital tract infections in humans.
 As part of the 12th Five-Year Plan, India had set up a task force on systems biology and synthetic biology research
in 2011.
 This body underlined the potential benefits from synthetic biotechnology in bio fuels, bioremediation,
biosensors, food and health and made a strong case for a push for the technology.
 It highlighted that India could be a world leader as a protector and supporter of “open source biological
platforms”.
Significance
 It shows us how evolution has resulted in remarkably fine-tuned solutions to problems.
 Study about antimicrobial protein - For instance, the duck-billed platypus, a mammal that lays eggs has
evolved a milk pad but not teats.

 As a result, its newborn sucklings are exposed to a large load and variety of microbes.
 An unusually potent antimicrobial protein, MLP (Monotreme Lactation Protein) found only in platypus
milk serves to protect its babies from pathogens.
 Promote business - Studying the mammalian lactation can aid to build sustainable businesses in the vegan
milk sector.
 Amongst the most ambitious approaches are the ones trying
to grow cell cultures of the mammary organs themselves to
secrete human and other mammalian milks.
 Several start-ups are attempting to make “animal-free”
value-added dairy products and atleast one start-up is
trying to re-constitute human breast milk with critical
proteins made through synthetic biology.
 Understanding the proteins - It helps scientists
understand how lactoferrin, a whey protein,
modulates in multiple ways thus promoting a beneficial gut
microbiome among infants.
 Recently whey proteins have been produced using synthetic
biology techniques by relying on re-programming a type of fungus called Trichoderma.
 The Vechur cow (now almost extinct), a dwarf cow, native to the Kuttanad region of Kerala yields milk
containing as much lactoferrin as human breast milk.
6.13 Xenobots
Scientists have witnessed a never-before-seen type of self-replication in world’s first living robots (xenobots) created
in the lab using frog cells.
 Xenobots are synthetic life forms that are designed by computers to perform
some desired function and built by combining together different biological
tissues.
 Xenobots are named after the African clawed frog (Xenopus laevis).
 The world’s first Xenobots were developed in 2020 by assembling African
clawed frog cells.
 These frog cells aren't genetically modified at all, but simply combined in
different arrangements to produce the xenobots.
 The C-shaped Xenobots propel themselves by using tiny hair-like structures called cilia.
 These “parent” Xenobots move around their environment, they collect loose stem cells in their “mouths”, over
time, aggregate to create “offspring” Xenobots that develop to look like their creators.
 This reproduction happens at the molecular level, and there is no other organism that reproduces or replicates
in this way.
 But, the idea of kinematic self-replication is not entirely new - it was first suggested in the late 1940s by
mathematician John von Neumann.
 Benefits - One day these xenobots could be programmed to perform useful functions such as finding cancer
cells in the human body or trapping harmful microplastics in the ocean.
6.14 Dark Genome

Scientists investigating the ‘dark genome’ have discovered recently evolved regions that code for proteins associated
with schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.
 Dark genome - Human genome is conventionally divided into,
1. Coding genome, which generates the ~20,000 annotated human protein coding genes, and
2. Dark genome, which does not encode proteins.

 Dark genome is a vast space, accounting for the ~98.5% of genomic space where repeat elements, enhancers,
regulatory sequences, and non-coding RNAs reside.
 It comprises the DNA outside our genes. These are the regions, not classed as genes in the traditional sense,
which create proteins.
 Study - The scientists say that these new proteins can be used as biological indicators to distinguish between
the two conditions - schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.
 It can also be used to identify patients more prone to psychosis or suicide.
 Related Links - Genome India Project
6.15 IndiGau Chip

 IndiGau is the world’s largest cattle genomic chip launched by the National
Institute of Animal Biotechnology (NIAB), Hyderabad.
 IndiGau is India’s first Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) based chip
for the conservation of pure varieties of indigenous cattle breeds like, Gir,
Kankrej, Sahiwal, Ongole, etc.
 Significance - This chip will have practical utility in the Governments
schemes to achieve the goal of conservation of our own breeds with better
characters and help towards doubling of farmers’ income by 2022.
6.16 Nutraceuticals
Pradhan Mantri Bhartiya Janaushadhi Pariyojana (PMBJP) Kendras have added to its product basket, nutraceuticals
like protein powder and bar, malt-based food supplements and immunity bar for its customers.
 The term “nutraceutical” combines two words “nutrient” (the nourishing food component), and
“pharmaceutical,” (which is a medical drug).
 The name was coined in 1989 by Stephen DeFelice.
 Nutraceuticals is a broad umbrella term that is used to describe any product derived from food sources with
extra health benefits in addition to the basic nutritional value found in foods.
 Nutraceuticals are food or part of food that provides medical or health benefits including the prevention
and/or treatment of a disease.
 A nutraceutical product may be defined as a substance, which has physiological benefit or provides protection
against chronic disease.
 Nutraceuticals may be used to improve health, delay the aging process, prevent chronic diseases, increase life
expectancy, or support the structure or function of the body.
 Recent studies have shown promising results for these compounds in various complications.
 Emphasis has been made to present herbal nutraceuticals effective on hard curative disorders related to
oxidative stress including allergy, alzheimer, cardiovascular, cancer, diabetes, etc.
Functional Foods
 Functional foods are foods that have a potentially positive effect on health beyond basic nutrition.
 Proponents of functional foods say they promote optimal health and help reduce the risk of disease.
 Examples - Oatmeal (because it contains soluble fiber that can help lower cholesterol levels); Orange juice
that's been fortified with calcium for bone health.
6.17 Kalanamak Rice

 It is named Kalanamak Rice because it has black husk (Kala) and it has a mild salty (namak) taste.
 It is a non-basmati scented rice variety grown primarily in the tarai region of Uttar Pradesh.
 It is described as Buddha Prasad (an offering to Buddha).
 It has been rebranded as Buddha Rice in order to promote the sale of this GI-tagged rice in Buddhist countries.

 Traits - Its elongation after cooking - a trait that is the second major determinant of prices in the international
market - is also greater.
 In addition, great head rice recovery after polishing (unbroken grains that can then be marketed) adds to its
profitability.
 Kalanamak is a successful adapter to usar soils characterised by higher salt concentration and high pH.
 It is also highly resistant to notorious, and in India common, rice diseases such as panicle blast, stem rot and
brown spot. Bacterial blight is quite rarely observed.
 It is drought tolerant. It is normally grown under rain-fed conditions and in uplands. Water requirement is quite
low as compared to basmati.
 Kalanamak is traditionally grown using no fertiliser, herbicide and pesticide, which makes it suitable for organic
cultivation.
6.18 Precision-guided Sterile Insect Technique (pgSIT)

Researchers have created pgSIT system that restrains populations of mosquitoes that infect millions each year with
debilitating diseases.
 The pgSIT will use CRISPR-based genetic engineering system to alter the Aedes aegypti mosquito’s genes linked
to
1. Male fertility (creating sterile offspring) and
2. Female flight (rendering female mosquitoes flightless).
 [Aedes aegypti is the mosquito species responsible for spreading diseases including dengue fever, chikungunya
and Zika.]
 pgSIT is self-limiting and is not predicted to persist or spread in the environment.
 pgSIT eggs can be shipped to a location threatened by mosquito-borne disease or developed at an on-site facility
that could produce the eggs for nearby deployment.
 Once the pgSIT eggs are released in the wild, sterile pgSIT males will emerge and mate with females, driving
down the wild population.
7. NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY
7.1 China’s Artificial Sun ‘EAST’

China’s “artificial sun” Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST) has set a new record after it ran at
216 million degrees Fahrenheit (120 million degrees Celsius) for 101 seconds.
 For another 20 seconds, it achieved a peak temperature of 288 million degrees Fahrenheit (160 million degrees
Celsius), which is over ten times hotter than the sun’s core (15 million degrees Celsius).
 EAST - The China’s EAST reactor is an advanced nuclear fusion experimental research device located at the
Institute of Plasma Physics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (ASIPP) in Hefei, China.
 EAST is one of three major domestic tokamaks that are presently being operated across the country. Other two
are HL-2A reactor and J-TEXT.
 The EAST project, operational since 2006, is part of the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor
(ITER) facility.
 Working - The EAST Tokamak device is designed to mimic the energy generation process of the sun. It
replicates the process of nuclear fusion process carried out by the sun and stars.
 Also, in 2020, South Korea’s KSTAR reactor set a record by maintaining a plasma temperature of 100 million
degrees C for 20 seconds.
International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor

 ITER is the world’s largest experimental fusion reactor facility in France.

 It includes the contributions of several countries, including India, South Korea, Japan, Russia and the United
States.
 To know more about International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER), click here.
7.2 Nuclear Fusion

An experiment carried out in National Ignition Facility (California) has made a breakthrough in nuclear fusion
research.
 Nuclear fusion is defined as the combining of many small nuclei into a large nucleus with the subsequent
release of huge amounts of energy.
 It powers our sun and harnessing this fusion energy could provide an unlimited amount of renewable energy.
 [Base load energy refers to the minimum amount of electric power needed to be supplied to the electrical grid
at any given time.]
 Nuclear fusion energy is a good choice as the base load energy in the future as it has many advantages.
 Advantages - Inexhaustibility of resources, inherent safety, no long-lived radioactive wastes, and almost no CO2
emissions.
 In the experiment, lasers were used to heat a small fuel pellets, having deuterium and tritium, in the inertial
confinement fusion process.
 This pressurised the fuel pellets at conditions similar to that at the centre of the Sun. This triggered the fusion
reactions.
 These reactions released alpha particles (positively charged), which in turn heated the surrounding plasma.
 [At high temperatures, electrons are ripped from atom’s nuclei and become plasma or the 4 th state of matter or
an ionised state of matter.]
 Heated plasma released alpha particles and a self-sustaining reaction called ignition took place. Ignition
amplifies the energy output.
 Significance - This could help provide clean energy for the future.
 Reproducing the conditions at the centre of the Sun will help studying the states of matter we were unable to
create in the lab before.
7.3 AFR Facility

Kudankulam Village Panchayat adopts resolution against the construction of the ‘Away From Reactor’ (AFR) facility
at the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Project (KKNPP) site for storing nuclear waste.
 All nuclear power stations in operation in India and other countries had facilities to store new as well as spent
(used) fuel.
 The scheme for the storage of spent fuel in a nuclear power plant was two-fold
1. One facility is located within the reactor building/service building, generally known as the spent fuel
storage pool/bay, and
2. The other facility is located away from the reactor, called the Away From Reactor (AFR) Facility, but
within the plant’s premises.
 The spent fuel storage pool inside the reactor building has a limited capacity and is used for immediate storage
of the spent fuel removed from the reactor during refuelling.
 The ATR facility will be used to permanently store the highly radioactive spent nuclear fuel waste.
 This highly radioactive waste was buried 15 metres below the ground level.
 This waste would seriously jeopardise the environment of this region.
 The people fear that the radioactivity would spread, spoiling the groundwater, the drinking water being supplied
through pipes and the water being used for irrigation.

8. INNOVATIONS
8.1 AmbiTAG
Indian Institute of Technology, Ropar has developed a first-of-its-kind IoT device called AmbiTag (Available at the
production cost of Rs. 400).
 AmbiTag records real-time ambient temperature during the transportation of perishable products (like
vegetables, meat and dairy products), vaccines (like COVID vaccine), body organs and blood.
 It generates an alert when the temperature goes beyond a pre-set limit.
 That recorded temperature further helps to know whether that particular item transported from anywhere in
the world is still usable or perished because of temperature variation.
 Shaped as USB device, AmbiTag continuously records the temperature of its immediate surroundings from -40
to +80 degrees in any time zone for a full 90 days on a single charge.
 The device has been developed under IIT Ropar Technology Innovation Hub - AWaDH (Agriculture and Water
Technology Development Hub) and its Startup ScratchNest. AWaDH is a Govt of India project.
8.2 Train Collision Avoidance System

Indian Railways has approved Train Collision Avoidance System (TCAS), an indigenously developed Automatic Train
Protection (ATP) System.
 Purpose - TCAS will help in avoiding train collisions thereby reducing accidents and ensuring passenger safety.
It will increase the line capacity to accommodate more trains using the existing infrastructure.
 Also, it will attract multinational industries to set up manufacturing units to fulfil the ‘Make in India’ mission
and generate employment.
 LTE - The Cabinet has approved allotment of 5 MHz LTE spectrum in 700 MHz band to Indian Railways.
 It would provide secure and reliable voice, video and data communication services for operational, safety and
security applications.
 It will be used for modern signalling and train protection systems and ensure seamless communication between
loco pilots and guards.
 Spectrum charges may be levied based on formula prescribed by Dept of Telecommunications for Royalty
Charges and License Fee for Captive use as recommended by Telecom Regulatory Authority of India.
8.3 High Strength Metastable Beta Titanium Alloy

 This Alloy was developed by the Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory (DMRL), a premier Hyderabad
based laboratory of DRDO.
 It contains Vanadium, Iron and Aluminium (Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al) on industrial scale for applications in aerospace
structural forgings.
 It is already being used by many developed nations as beneficial substitute for the relatively heavier traditional
Ni-Cr-Mo structural steels to achieve weight savings.
 It is unique due to their higher strength, ductility, fatigue, and fracture toughness - making them attractive for
aircraft structural applications.
 Their relatively lower lifetime cost, owing to superior corrosion resistance in comparison to steels, is an effective
trade-off to justify the use of this expensive material in India too.
 Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) has identified over 15 steel components which may be replaced by
high strength-to-weight ratio Ti-10V-2Fe-3Al alloy forgings in the near future.
 The excellent forgeability of the alloy facilitates manufacture of intricately configured components for
aerospace applications with potential for 40% weight savings.

8.4 Viscose
 It is a semi-synthetic material or manufactured fiber used in clothes, upholstery and other bedding
materials.
 It’s one of the three types of rayon - modal, lyocell, and viscose.
 It is made from natural materials like wood pulp, which is treated and spun into yarns to make fabric.
 Viscose was manufactured as an affordable alternative to natural silk, hence known as artificial silk.
 In India, it is largely used to make apparel for women and children.
 Viscose products are seen as easy to maintain too and viscose consumption in India has witnessed 11% CAGR
for the last 5 to 6 years.
8.5 Xenotransplantation to Humans

New York surgeons have successfully transplanted a kidney from a genetically engineered pig into a brain-dead
human.
 During the observation, the kidney began functioning and producing large
amounts of urine within minutes of being connected to the person’s blood
vessels.
 Creatinine which is cleared from the blood by the kidney dropped from
1.9 to 0.8 demonstrating that the kidney was functioning optimally.
 If found compatible in the long run, this process of Xenotransplantation
could help provide an alternative and additional supply of organs for
people facing life-threatening diseases.
GalSafe Pigs
 The transplant used a kidney that was obtained from a pig that had undergone editing to knock out a gene that
codes for a sugar molecule called Alpha-gal.
 Alpha-gal is not normally found in humans and this molecule can elicit a devastating immune response in
humans.
 The pigs with this gene alteration are called GalSafe pigs.
 GalSafe pigs have been FDA approved for human use for those who have pork allergies and also for use in
pharmacology.
 Generally, pigs are preferred, as they are,
1. Easier to genetically modify,
2. Breed better with large litter,
3. Grow faster,
4. They are less likely to transmit infections, and
5. The size of their organs is also similar to humans.
8.6 Ubreathe Life

Indian Scientists have recently developed World’s first state-of-the-art ‘Plant based’ air purifier.
 Ubreathe Life is a living-plant based air purifier that amplifies the air purification
process in the indoor spaces like hospitals, schools, offices and homes.
 It uses Smart Bio-Filter that removes particulate, gaseous and biological
contaminants and increases the oxygen levels in the indoor space.
 It works through leafy plant in which the room air interacts with its leaves and goes
to the soil-root zone where pollutants are purified.
 The novel technology used in this product is ‘Urban Munnar Effect’ along with
patent pending “Breathing Roots” to amplify phytoremediation.

 It has specific plants, UV disinfection and a stack of Pre-filter, Charcoal filter

and HEPA (high efficiency particulate air) filter fitted in a specially designed
wooden box.
 Peace Lily, Snake Plant, Spider plant are some of the specific plants tested for it
and given good results.
 It has been incubated at IIT Ropar by the Department of Science and
Technology, Govt. of India.
8.7 Fabricated Guar gum-Chitosan Film

Indian scientists have developed an environmentally friendly, non-toxic, biodegradable polymer using guar gum and
chitosan.
 Both guar gum and chitosan are polysaccharides extracted from guar beans and shells of crab and shrimps.
 Due to the low mechanical properties, high water-solubility, and low barrier properties of the polysaccharides,
these biopolymers are not preferred.
 The fabricated guar gum-chitosan composite film will help in overcoming these challenges of polysaccharide.
 This film is a cross-linked polysaccharide without using any plasticizer with the help of a method called
the solution casting method (a simple technique to make polymer films).
 The fabricated film can potentially be used in packaging applications, due to its,
1. High water stability - Fabricated film does not dissolve in water even after 240 hours,
2. Higher mechanical strength compared to general biopolymer (Biopolymer are known to possess
poor strength),
3. High water repellence or hydrophobic nature due to its high contact angle of 92.8º. It had low water
vapor permeability when compared with the film made only from chitosan.
4. Excellent resistance to harsh environmental conditions.
8.8 Lyocell Fibre

The Lenzing Group has partnered with Italy’s Orange Fiber to create the lyocell fibre made from orange peels.
 Lyocell Fibre is a semi-synthetic fabric that is commonly used as a substitute for cotton or silk.
 This fabric is a form of rayon, and it is composed primarily of cellulose derived from wood.
 Originally developed by American Enka in 1972, lyocell burst into popularity in the latter decades of the 20th
century.
 Since it is primarily made from organic ingredients, this fabric is seen as a more sustainable alternative to fully
synthetic fibers.
 Orange Fibre is a lyocell fibre that is produced from ‘Pastazzo’.
 [Pastazzo is the by-product of the citrus processing industry.]
 Orange Fibre could help to put citrus waste to use. Also, the material contains essential oils and vitamin C, is
lightweight and absorbs moisture. It can be used in combination with wood pulp.
Refibra
 Refibra technology involves upcycling cotton scraps from garment production. These cotton scraps are
transformed into cotton pulp.
 Up to one third of the Refibra is added to wood pulp, and the combined raw material is transformed to produce
new virgin Lyocell fibers to make fabrics and garments.
Ecovero
 Ecovero is a viscose natural fiber, which are environmentally responsible and have a low environmental
impact.
 They are derived from sustainable wood and pulp, coming from certified and controlled sources.

8.9 Crumb Rubber

The Government has decided to use Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen in bituminous pavement courses during road
construction.
 Bituminous pavements are constructed in different layers such as base course, binder course and surface course.
 Crumb rubber is recycled rubber produced by reducing scrap tires or other rubber into uniform granules.
 Crumb rubber is manufactured from 2 primary feedstocks:
1. Tire buffings, a by-product of tire retreading and
2. Scrap tire rubber.
 During the recycling process, the inherent reinforcing materials such as steel and fiber are removed along with
any other type of inert contaminants such as dust, glass, or rock.
 Normal bitumen modified with crumb rubber & other additives has improved performance compared to normal
bitumen.
8.10 Aquamation
The body of Nobel Peace Prize winning Anglican archbishop and anti-apartheid campaigner Desmond Tutu
underwent aquamation.
 Also known as water cremation, green cremation or chemical cremation or alkaline hydrolysis, Aquamation is
a “flameless cremation” process that involves of cremation by water rather than fire.
 Aquamation is a process in which the body of the deceased is immersed for 3 to 4 hours in a mixture of water
(95%) and a strong alkali (5%) in a pressurized metal cylinder and heated to around 150 degree centigrade.
 The combination of gentle water flow, temperature and alkalinity in this process accentuate the breakdown of
the organic materials.
 The decomposition that occurs in alkaline hydrolysis is the same as that which occurs during burial, just sped
up dramatically by the chemicals.
 Resultant - The process liquifies everything, and leaves behind bones and a neutral liquid called effluent.
 Bones are then dried with the help of an oven and reduced to white dust.
 Effluent is sterile, and contains salts, sugars, amino acids and peptides. There is no tissue and no DNA left after
the process completes.
 This effluent is discharged with all other wastewater, and is a welcome addition to the water systems.
 History - The process of Aquamation was developed and patented in 1888 by Amos Herbert Hanson, a farmer
who was trying to develop an ingenious way to make fertilizer from animal carcasses.
 The first commercial system was installed at Albany Medical College in 1993. Thereafter, the process continued
to be in use by hospitals and universities with donated body programmes.
 Benefits - The process of aquamation uses energy which is 5 times less than fire.
 It also reduces by about 35% the amount of greenhouse gases that are emitted during cremation.
 The process is a greener alternative to the traditional cremation methods as it uses significantly less fuel and
has an overall lower carbon footprint than traditional methods.
 Legality - Aquamation was introduced in South Africa in 2019. It is authorized in only a few countries.
8.11 Perovskite-based Solar Cells

IIT-Guwahati scientists have created a polyelectrolyte (polymer with positive or negative charge) to increase the
stability of the perovskite films used in the hybrid perovskite-based solar or photovoltaic devices.
 Perovskite Solar Cell (PSC) includes a perovskite-structured compound, most commonly a hybrid organic-
inorganic lead or tin halide-based material, as the light-harvesting active layer.
 Perovskite-based devices are considered heavily used semiconductor materials as they are affordable and
easy to manufacture.

 Developing large-scale perovskite solar cells requires high-quality defect-free perovskite films with improved
surface coverage.
 But, perovskite materials are extremely unstable towards ambient (humidity and oxygen) conditions that
restrict their commercialisation.
 Stabilisation - The most convenient way to harness the maximum potential of the perovskite active layer is to
use a coating of an appropriate passivation material.
 This will make the perovskite active layer ‘stable’ or less readily affected by the environment, in this case
humidity and oxygen.
 Perovskite-based solar cells can be manufactured at room temperature, making them cost-effective and
more eco-friendly.
 As the all components used in the hybrid perovskite-based solar cells are recyclable, they will help reduce the
growing problem of Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE).
 An International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) report estimated the global PV waste will touch 78 million
tonnes by 2050, with India being one of the top five PV waste creators.
8.12 Solid-state Batteries

 A solid-state lithium-metal battery replaces the polymer separator used in conventional lithium-ion batteries
with a solid-state separator (electrolyte) separating the two electrodes.
 The replacement of the separator enables the use of a lithium-metal anode in place of the traditional
carbon/graphite anode.
 A Solid-state Battery could offer a safer, cheaper alternative to lithium-ion batteries.
 [Lithium-ion batteries use aqueous electrolyte solutions, where ions transfer to and fro between the anode
(made of graphite) and cathode (made of lithium), triggering the recharge and discharge of electrons.]
 Development of solid state batteries which would help in overcoming the main problems of batteries containing
liquid electrolytes, i.e. leakage and/or corrosion at the electrodes.
 A solid-state battery has higher energy density than a Li-ion
battery that uses liquid electrolyte solution.
 Advantages of the solid-state battery technology include
1. Higher cell energy density (by eliminating the
carbon anode),
2. Lower charge time (by eliminating the need to have
lithium diffuse into the carbon particles in
conventional lithium-ion cells),
3. Ability to undertake more charging cycles and thereby a longer life, and improved safety,
4. Lower cost.
8.13 Aluminium
The Indian Railways (IR) plans to use Aluminium to produce body coaches in the new generation energy efficient
Vande Bharat Train sets.
 Aluminium (Al) is a highly electropositive metal with the atomic number of 13.
 Among metals, aluminium is the most abundant. It is the third most abundant element in earth’s crust (8.3%
approx. by weight).
 It is a major component of many igneous minerals like mica and clays.
 Properties - Even though Aluminium is a metal, it shows many chemical similarities to boron, a non-metal.
 It has high tensile strength, high electrical and thermal conductivity.
 Extraction - For the purpose of extraction, Bauxite (Al2O3. 2H2O) and Cryolite (Na3AlF6) are chosen for
aluminium.

 From bauxite ore, aluminium is extracted using leaching.

 In India, bauxite mining sites are located in Orissa (the largest bauxite producer), Jharkhand, Maharashtra,
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, etc.
 Aluminium industry is the 2nd most important industry after the iron and steel industry.
Anodising
 Anodising is a process of forming a thick oxide layer of aluminium. Aluminium develops a thin oxide layer when
exposed to air.
 This aluminium oxide coat makes it resistant to further corrosion.
 Resistance can be improved further by making the oxide layer thicker.
 During anodising, a clean aluminium article is made the anode and is electrolysed with dilute sulphuric acid.
The oxygen gas evolved at the anode reacts with aluminium to make a thicker protective oxide layer.
8.14 Gallium nitride

Union Minister of State for Electronics & Information Technology visited the Gallium Nitride Ecosystem Enabling
Centre and Incubator (GEECI) facility at the Indian Institute of Sciences (IISc), Bengaluru.
 GEECI facility has been jointly set up by Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology and IISc Bengaluru
aimed at establishing GaN based Development Line Foundry facility, especially for RF and power applications.
 Gallium Nitride is a binary III/V direct bandgap semiconductor.
 It is very hard and mechanically stable.
 It is well-suited for high-power transistors capable of operating at high temperatures.
 Uses - Since the 1990s, it has been commonly used in Light Emitting Diodes (LED).
 Gallium nitride gives off a blue light used for disc-reading in Blu-ray.
 Additionally, gallium nitride is used in semiconductor power devices, RF components, lasers, and photonics.
 In the future, we will see GaN in sensor technology.
 Advantages - Reduced Weight, Reduced Size, Reduced Costs and Increased Energy Efficiency.
9. IT & COMPUTER
9.1 How Digital Currencies Work

Thousands of Indians are flocking to these digital assets and pumping in crores of rupees and there comes a need to
know about cryptocurrencies before joining them.
 Satoshi Nakamoto is said to have conceptualised an accounting system in the aftermath of the 2008 financial
crisis which has mooted the idea of blockchain.
 A cryptocurrency is a medium of exchange, such as the rupee or the US dollar, but is digital in format and uses
encryption techniques to both control the creation of monetary units and to verify the exchange of money.
 Bitcoin is the largest in the world according to market capitalisation, followed by Ethereum.
 With cryptocurrencies, a chain of private computers (a network) is constantly working towards authenticating
the transactions by solving complex cryptographic puzzles.
 For solving the puzzles, these systems are rewarded with cryptocurrencies and this process is called mining.
 A blockchain wallet is used to store the cryptocoins which facilitate smooth exchanges and secure transactions
as they are cryptographically signed.
 Working - Cryptocurrency runs on blockchain technology which is simply a digital ledger of transactions.
 This ledger (or database) is distributed across a network of computer systems.

 No single system controls the ledger and instead, a decentralized network of computers keeps a blockchain
running and authenticates its transactions.
 Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies are essentially codes recorded on a blockchain that gets longer and longer as
more people use them.
Cryptocurrencies Transactions
 Buying it from someone – It usually happens in two ways
1. An exchange-facilitated transaction
2. A peer-to-peer transaction
 Cryptocurrency exchanges are platforms that broker the trading of cryptocurrencies for other assets, including
digital and fiat currencies.
 They are independent and operate just like stock exchanges do globally.
 Cypto exchanges operating in India include WazirX, CoinDCX, CoinSwitch Kuber, Zebpay, Bitbns, Giottus, etc.
 Peer to peer (P2P) trading is the act of buying and selling cryptocurrencies directly between users without a
third party or intermediary.
 Mining new cryptocoins - Mining is a process of creating new crypto coins by solving complex mathematical
equations.
 The transactions using cryptocurrency is complete only when a “miner” verifies the transaction as legitimate.
 This verification process requires miners to solve complex equations and those who do that first are paid a
fraction of the transaction as a fee for their effort.
 The Indian exchanges allow sale of cryptocurrencies in exchange for INR as well.
 But many of the smaller banks that support the transactions do not have the necessary digital infrastructure to
handle the volumes of withdrawal.
 The volatility experienced by these virtual currencies and disruption in withdrawal services is a common
occurrence.
Pros of cryptocurrency
 Potential for high returns
 Transparency
 No chance of personal information leakage
 Immediate and secure ownership transfer
 Potential diversification
 Instantand 24 hour accessibilty
Cons of cryptocurrency
 Illegal activities can be performed
 Loss risk is high
 Cryptocurrency market is highly volatile
 Poor store of value and limited acceptance
 Difficult to comprehend
 Challenges of market fluctuations
Available Alternatives
 Stablecoins are a type of cryptocurrency that offer more stability than other cryptos because they are backed by
assets.
 Their market value is pegged to some external reference such as the US dollar thus giving it an intrinsic value.
 Stablecoins achieve their price stability via collateralization or through algorithmic mechanisms of buying and
selling the reference asset or its derivatives.

 Most of the sovereign governments push for stablecoins such as Tether, USD Coin and Diem (proposed by
Facebook’s parent company Meta) as it could increase the reach of the fiat currencies in the digital ecosystem.
 Stablecoins attempt to bridge the gap between fiat currencies and cryptocurrencies and there are three
categories of stablecoins.
 Fiat-Collateralized Stablecoins - These stablecoins use a specific amount of a standard fiat currency, like
the US dollar, as collateral to issue crypto coins.
 Other forms of collateral can include precious metals like gold and silver and commodities like oil.
 Tether (USDT) and TrueUSD are popular crypto coins that are backed by dollar deposits.
 Crypto-collateralized stablecoins - Here the underlying collateral is another cryptocurrency instead of a
tangible commodity or a fiat currency.
 An example of crypto-backed stablecoin is dai, which is pegged to the U.S. dollar and runs on the Ethereum
blockchain.
 Algorithmic Stablecoins - These stablecoins use a computer algorithm to keep the coin’s value from
fluctuating too much.
 Risk in Stablecoins - The credibility of stable coins such as tether has been the subject of controversy because
the issuer of the coins may not actually hold fiat currencies against the tether or may not hold them in sufficient
quantities.
 The providers promise they have reserves worth 100% of the value of their stablecoins, but that’s not quite
accurate.
 A large part of the assets are based on commercial paper and is not cash equivalent thereby posing a solvency
risk in the event of a sudden collapse in the value of these assets.
 Another issue is the e-dollarisation as most stablecoins are likely to be pegged to the US dollar.
 The US might actually see that as an advantage to strengthen the reach of the dollar which in turn disincentivises
the regulation of stablecoins.
9.2 Regulatory Clarity on Crypto Assets

One of the most striking moves in the Union Budget’s taxation proposals for 2022-23 is the introduction of a taxation
regime for virtual digital assets.
 Virtual digital assets are defined as
o any information or code or number or token (not being Indian currency or any foreign currency)
o generated through cryptographic means or
otherwise
o providing a digital representation of value which
is exchanged with or without consideration
o promise or representation of having inherent
value
o functions as a store of value or a unit of account
o includes its use in any financial transaction or
investment, but not limited to investment
schemes
o can be transferred, stored or traded
electronically
 Virtual digital assets include evolving manifestations of cryptocurrencies, codes and non-fungible tokens.
Government’s Approach
 Taxation- The government has proposed to tax all profits from transactions in such assets at 30% along with
the applicable surcharge and cess,
 All transfers of such assets will attract 1 % tax deducted at source (TDS).

 Gifting- The term ‘property’ under the IT Act is being expanded to include virtual digital assets so that such
assets received as a gift shall be taxable except when received from relatives.
 Gifts of virtual digital asset will now be taxable at 30% in the hands of the recipient. However, gifting to the
close relative which includes wife or children, is not liable to tax.
 Enforcement- The new virtual digital asset tax comes into force on April 1, 2022.
 The trading profits will be taxed at, according to crypto industry players, a higher rate compared to other
jurisdictions.
 Off losses- No deductions will be allowed on account of setting off losses from such trading or from any other
capital losses and the only deduction permitted would be the cost of acquiring the asset.
o For instance, if you have invested Rs 1 lakh in crypto and sold for Rs 1.5 lakh, then only the gain of Rs
50,000 will be taxed without any other deduction.
 Legitimacy- The taxation regime by itself, does not grant legitimacy to the trade in these currently unregulated
assets and a consultation process is underway, which will determine the legal position of such assets.
 Significance - The Budget proposals aim to tax both the transfer and sale of virtual assets.
 Exchanging a Bitcoin for an Ethereum is covered within the definition of transfer, whereas, sale of cryptocoin
involves normal cash or currency.
 Though the Government may still not consider them fully legitimate, the tax regime indicates the hard option
of an outright ban that was signalled in the proposed crypto law last year.
 It also solves the concerns of being lured by crypto players’ misleading ads, with no norms brought in place, and
no regulatory watch.
 The Government had also indicated a forward-looking approach to crypto market oversight.
 Concerns –
 Lack of clarity- There rises a question of whether transferring my coin between my own wallets is taxable
or not.
 We need to get more clarity with respect to what they mean by transfer.
 No set-offs- No set-offs will be allowed on losses incurred in the transfer of virtual assets.
 This means losses or profits of crypto cannot be adjusted with any other income or losses in the current
financial year and losses cannot be carried forward to the next year.
 Heavy taxation- Virtual assets are now taxed so highly that only the rich can afford to invest in crypto.
 Delay- The delay in arriving at a decision prevents Indian start-ups and innovators from developing
products and ideas that can be scaled up globally given the nature of these assets.
9.3 The Legal Considerations of Blockchain Gaming in India

The vast scope and potential of blockchain technology has attracted the gaming industry over the past few years.
 Blockchain is a decentralised database that stores information. As new data comes in, it is entered into a fresh
block. Once the block is filled with data, it is chained onto the previous block, which makes the data chained
together in chronological order.
 Blockchain games are online video games that are developed integrating blockchain technology into them.
 NFTs - NFTs represent in-game virtual assets that can be owned by players, such as maps, armor or land.
 These NFTs act as asset tags, identifying ownership of the in-game assets, and are stored on the blockchain.
 There is also scope for transfer of in-game assets from one game to another making the in-game assets
marketable.
 Cryptocurrency- Cryptocurrency such as tokens based on the Ethereumblockchain, may be used for the
purchase of in-game assets.
 These in-game purchases usually enable gamers to buy items like extra lives, coins and so on directly from the
game.

 Gaming coins- Gaming coins such as Axie Infinity and Enjin Coin are in-game cryptocurrency which may be
used for the purchase of in-game assets.
 These gaming coins may be purchased from crypto exchanges or be acquired as winnings in games that have
adopted the play-to-earn model.
 Status in India - Since blockchain is merely the underlying technology, there is no express regulation of it in
India.
 However, it would be suitable to explore the legality of the games from the lens of existing Indian gaming
regulation.
 Games of skill vs. games of chance- The Supreme Court recognized that no game is purely a ‘game of skill’
and almost all games have an element of chance.
 A ‘dominant element test’ is to be utilized to determine whether chance or skill is the dominating element in
determining the result of the game.
 The dominant element may be determined by factors such as superior knowledge, training, experience, expertise
or attention of a player have a material impact on the outcome of the game.
 Staking money or property on the outcome of a ‘game of chance’ is prohibited and subjects the guilty parties to
criminal sanctions but staking on the outcome of a ‘game of skill’ is not illegal per se and may be permissible.
 Common gaming house- Owning or keeping or being present for the purpose of gaming in a common gaming
house is ordinarily prohibited in terms of the state gaming laws.
 Courts have clarified in the past that the mere charging of an extra fee to facilitate playing the game or to
maintain the facilities may not necessarily be seen as making a profit or gain.
 Other than states such as Sikkim, Nagaland, and Telangana, which recognize online gaming, in most states and
union territories, there is currently a lacuna in gaming law.
 It can be inferred that each blockchain game must first pass as a ‘game of skill’, as against a ‘game of chance’, to
legally be made available in most Indian states.
 The Supreme Court has rejected the video games being ‘games of skill’, as the outcomes of these games could be
manipulated by tampering with the machines and the skill of players could not be a dominant factor of the game.
 Delhi District Court has held that a gaming portal would be covered within the definition of a ‘common gaming
house’, if it were to take commission / earn revenue from the game offered.
 In 2021, the Finance Ministry has announced that the Cryptocurrency and Regulation of Official Digital
Currency Bill, 2021, was to be tabled in the Parliament that seeks to prohibit all private cryptocurrencies.
 If the legislature does indeed successfully place a ban on private cryptocurrencies, then, the existing blockchain
games relying on cryptocurrencies would be considered illegal in India.
 Also, it was announced in Budget Speech that the income from the transfer of any ‘virtual digital assets’ would
be subject to income tax at the rate of 30%.
Intellectual property protections to blockchain games
 Patents- For a blockchain game or any of its elements to be patented in India, it will need satisfy the
patentability requirements of:
o being a new product or process (having novelty)
o involving an inventive step (having a feature that involves technical advancement or having economic
significance or both)
o being capable of industrial application
 In terms of Section 3(k) of the Patent Act, 1970, computer programs are per se not inventions and hence, cannot
be patented.
 However, judicial pronouncements have clarified that if an invention has a technical contribution or a technical
effect then it would be patentable.
 The Office of the Controller General of Patents, Designs and Trade Marks has issued the CRI Guidelines, stating
that ‘databases’ would be considered computer programs and are not patentable.
 Game developers or publishers may seek patent protection for any element of the game (such as its game play
method) which has led to technological advancement as in case of the US.

 Trademarks - A trademark is used as an identifying mark to determine the source of a particular good or
service, and is obtained to protect the goodwill and reputation of the brand.
 Any distinguishing mark in a blockchain game or NFT may be trademarked.
 In India, certain underlying aspects of the blockchain game may be trademarked, including
o the name of the game
o a tag line attached to it
o the logo of the game
o the character names in the game
o the name of the in-game currency (similar to the trademark for the name ETHEREUM in the US)
 If the inventor of an NFT decides to give proprietary names to their own tokens, then such names may be
protected as trademarks.
 Copyrights- In India, artistic work, musical work, cinematographic films, dramatic works, sound recordings
and computer software are capable being of being protected under copyright law.
 Although there is no specific provision in the Copyright Act that deals with video games, copyright protection of
video games may be sought under the category of ‘multimedia products’.
 Certain aspects of blockchain games, such as the artwork and sounds used in the game as audiovisual work along
with the underlying source code as a literary work can be copyrighted.
9.4 P versus NP Problem

Some scientists have neared solving a problem in Computer Science related to the P versus NP question.
 Polynomial versus Nondeterministic Polynomial (P vs. NP) problem is a cornerstone problem of computational
complexity.
 It classifies computing problems into classes according to the time and resources that will be used up in tackling
them. It is the question of whether all so-called NP problems are actually P problems.
 P Problems - A problem is called P, if the problem can be solved in “polynomial time”.
 It means that an algorithm exists for its solution such that the number of steps in the algorithm is bounded by
a polynomial function of n. n corresponds to the length of the input for the problem.
 NP Problems - A problem is called NP if its solution can be guessed and verified in polynomial time, and
nondeterministic means that no particular rule is followed to make the guess.
9.5 Pegasus Spyware

Recently, the Pegasus spyware has evolved from its earlier spear-phishing methods using text links or messages to
‘zero-click’ attacks which do not require any action from the phone’s user.
 [Built and marketed by Israeli company NSO, Pegasus is a spyware that infects devices and spies on the victim
by transferring data to a master server in an unauthorised manner.]
 This had made what was without a doubt the most powerful spyware out there, more potent and almost
impossible to detect or stop.
 Once a phone was infiltrated, Pegasus had more control over it than the owner. This is because the spyware
gains root-level privileges in a phone.
 Amnesty claims even patched devices with the latest software have been breached.
Zero-click attacks
 Working - A zero-click attack helps a spyware gain control over a device without human interaction or human
error.
 Most of these attacks exploit software which receive data even before it can determine whether what is coming
in is trustworthy or not, like an email client.
 The vulnerability allows remote code execution capabilities and enables an attacker to remotely infect a device
by sending emails that consume a significant amount of memory.

 Prevention - Zero-click attacks are hard to prevent as it is harder to detect. Detection becomes even harder in
encrypted environments where there is no visibility on the data packets being sent or received.
 One of the things users can do is to ensure all software and operating systems are up to date so that they would
have the patches for at least vulnerabilities that have been spotted.
 Also, the apps shouldn’t be sideloaded and should be to downloaded only via Google Play or Apple’s App Store.
 It is even more secure to stop using apps altogether and switch to the browser for checking mails or social media,
even on the phone.
9.6 Banking Malware ‘Drink’

Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-In) of India has issued an advisory to bank customers of an android
malware called ‘Drink’ that steals information and money.
 ‘Drink’ is the new banking malware that has evolved from a primitive
SMS stealer in 2016 to a banking trojan that persuades users to
enter sensitive banking information.
 The attack campaign can effectively jeopardise security of sensitive
customer data and lead to large scale attacks and financial fraud.
 The malicious app disguises as Income Tax Department app and asks
users for permissions to a user's SMS, call logs and contacts.
 CERT-In’s Advisory - Users must limit their download sources to
official app stores and review app details along with permissions that
the app requests. They must install Android updates and patches.
 Users should not click on suspicious website domains and URLs, and not enter critical information on any
website without ensuring its legitimacy.
 They should look for suspicious numbers that do not look like real mobile numbers as scammers hide behind
email-to-text services to avoid revealing their actual phone number.
 If any suspicious activity is observed in a user’s account, they should immediately report it to their respective
bank.
9.7 Planetarium Innovation Challenge

MyGov India has launched the Planetarium Innovation Challenge for tech start-ups and entrepreneurs (based out of
India).
 The challenge aims to bring together the Start-ups with the potential to build indigenous planetariums system
software using technologies like
o Augmented Reality (A.R.),
o Virtual Reality (V.R.) and
o Merged Reality (M.R.).
Augmented Reality (AR)
 Augmented reality is an enhanced version of
the real physical world that is achieved
through the use of digital visual elements,
sound, or other sensory stimuli delivered via
technology.
 Almost any person with a smart
phone can get access to AR, making it more
efficient than VR as a branding and gaming
tool.
Virtual Reality (VR)
 Virtual Reality produces an entirely computer-generated simulation of an alternate world.

 These immersive simulations can create almost any visual or place imaginable for the player using special
equipment such as computers, sensors, headsets, and gloves.
Merged Reality
 Merged Reality or Mixed Reality is when the real and virtual world are merged and objects from both can
interact.
 For example, Intel’s Project Alloy uses mixed reality to allow people to use their real hands in the virtual world.
 Before this point, users had to hold controllers that represented their hands.
9.8 Internet Freedom Index

The 11th edition of the ‘Freedom on the Net’ Report was released by the Freedom House.
 Findings - China stood last in this index for the 7th consecutive year.
 India is among the 20 countries that shut internet for a section of society this year. The report criticised India
for Internet Shutdowns and the New IT Rules.
 Freedom on the Net is Freedom House’s annual survey and analysis of internet freedom around the world.
 This cutting-edge project consists of ground-breaking research and analysis, fact-based advocacy, and on-the-
ground capacity building.
 It features a ranked, country-by-country assessment of online freedom, a global overview of the latest
developments, as well as in depth country reports.
9.9 Hybrid Cloud and the Remote Reality

As businesses shift priorities to enable remote work, it’s time to rely on an effective multi-cloud, multi-edge, hybrid
approach
 Hybrid cloud is an IT infrastructure that combines and unifies public cloud and private cloud services from
multiple cloud vendors.
 Hybrid cloud architecture focuses on the mechanics of transforming portions of a company's on-premises data
centre into private cloud infrastructure
 It then connects that infrastructure to public cloud environments hosted off-premises by a public cloud
providers such as Google Cloud Services, IBM Cloud, Microsoft Azure, etc.
Benefits
 High scalability - With the scope of new additions in
existing infrastructure
 Very secure - Giving businesses crucial control over
their data and improved security
 High flexibility - Certain types of data can be stored
on-premise while allowing less sensitive data to be
stored on the cloud
 Greater infrastructure efficiency by strengthening
remote work
 Cost and time efficient
 Modernisation of application landscape
 Seamless cross-functional communication
 Overall business acceleration
9.10 Outage of Facebook

Facebook Inc.’s services suffered a massive outage for as long as six hours.
 Facebook said that the configuration changes on the backbone routers that coordinate network traffic between
their data centres caused the outage.

 ut, network experts said that the outage was due to an update to Border-Gateway Protocol (BGP).
 Facebook is a network, which advertises its presence to
other networks. This enables Internet service providers
across the world to route web traffic to different networks
via BGP process.
 In the case of Facebook, an update to the BGP removed
its online properties from being available to world’s
computers.
 Any time a change made to a network’s BGP, be it an
announcement or withdrawal, a message is sent to a router
informing the update.
 It was found that the route withdrawals from Facebook
made its Domain Name System (DNS) servers offline. So,
the social network’s DNS was not accessible to other
networks, and the Internet.
 When a DNS resolver fails to translate a domain name into an IP address, people won’t be able to access that
specific website.
 As a direct consequence, the webpage won’t load. This is what happened in the case of Facebook.
9.11 Challenges posed by Automation

Over the past decade, automation has increased across sector and it is imperative to consider multiple approaches in
order to vercome the challenges posed by them.
 Automation is the fourth irreversible trend after globalization, digitization and mobility.
 According to a report by McKinsey, around 88% of finance and insurance executives, and 76% of IT executives
reported an increased implementation of automation since the pandemic.
 Robotic Process Automation - RPA is a software technology that is used to build, deploy, and manage
software robots that emulate humans actions interacting with digital systems and software.
 Intelligent automation – IA, also called as cognitive automation is a combination RPA , business process
management (BPM) and artificial intelligence (AI) that streamlines and scales decision-making across
organizations.
 Intelligent automation is comprised of three cognitive technologies.
1. Artificial intelligence - This is the decision engine of IA which uses machine learning and complex
algorithms.
2. Business process management - It automates workflows to provide greater consistency to business
processes.
3. Robotic process automation - It uses software robots, or bots, to complete back-office tasks, such
as extracting data or filling out forms.
Benefits of automation
1. Accelerated transformation
2. Major cost savings
3. Greater resilience
4. Higher accuracy
5. Improved compliance
6. Boosted productivity
7. Increased employee
satisfaction
8. Improve customer
experience

Challenges in the automation

 Selecting the right adoption approach - In a bottoms-up approach, automation is usually seen as a back-
office necessity, restricting its value and benefits to a few departments.
 In a top-down approach, creating a fully automated enterprise is seen as a strategic business enabler that
promotes competitive advantage.
 Employee involvement – Only if large number of employees use automation, it will result in greater return
on investment.
 Using low-code and citizen developer concepts - Low-code platforms employ visual, drag-and-drop
techniques instead of traditional lines of programming.
 However, it might lead to difficulties in enforcing standards and could also cause security issues.
 Steps to overcome the challenges - Task mining and process mining capabilities of an automation platform
can be determined to determine the best way for enterprise automation.
 Business leaders must also deploy multiple integrated automation solutions to benefit the overall business.
 A hybrid approach can be used to determine what to automate in which a feedback loop is created that amplifies
use cases and drives adoption.
 It is imperative to have a mechanism to regulate citizen developer concepts and to ensure alignment with the
organizational strategy.
9.12 Web3.0 Imagines a Decentralized Web

 Web3 or Web3.0 refers to the next generation of the worldwide web, which is supposed to take over from
Web2.0.
 Web3.0 may be a more decentralised web than the Web2.0 and it may challenge the dominance of the tech
giants.
 Web1.0 - This is the term used for basic websites that provide a limited or static user experience.
 This term would be used to describe the simple "shop front" websites of the past.
 e-Commerce was the main area of explosion that saw the web first used in a commercial manner.
 Web 2.0 - As technology evolved, websites were able to provide a richer and more interactive user experience.
 Web 2.0 has been used to describe this web phenomenon.
 Examples include Facebook, MySpace, YouTube and Wikipedia.
 If Web 2.0 has stood for anything it is the creation and sharing of information delivered via the web.
 Web2.0 is more centralised and focused on user-created content.
 Here few corporations hold the power of data. we don’t own or control that data, and this concept gets changed
on Web3.
 In Web 2.0 we provide our personal data over and over again on each platform we sign up for.
 Web 3.0 differs from Web 2.0 - Web3 is supposed to be a more decentralised web.
 It challenges the dominance of the tech giants by concentrating the
power and data in the hands of the users.
 This means that data is distributed across networks and no single
entity owns the information.
 Instead of providing your personal data over and over again on each
platform you sign up for, you will instead simply authorise the
platforms to use your data.
Benefits of Web 3.0
 Data Protection - Massive data breaches that have proliferated
during the Web2 era.
 Data protection must be central to the next wave of tech innovations.

 Web3 applications sometimes referred to DApps are built on decentralised peer-to-peer networks like Ethereum
and IPFS.
 Instead of being run by some tech giants companies, these networks are built, operated, and maintained by
users.
 It is possible to split up large files into smaller chunks.
 It can be individually encrypted and stored in other locations, making it nearly impossible to hack.
 User Friendly - Any change in personal data like your address or credit card number needs to be changed
once on your end.
 Automatically all your sites will be updated. This will make the Web much more user-friendly.
 They aren’t subject to the business hours of mainstream financial institutions.
 Web3 allows for low-cost, nearly instantaneous, borderless, peer-to-peer transfers of actual value.
 Innovations - Centralisation helped billions of people get access to amazing technologies (mostly free to use),
but it has stifled innovation.
 Companies that own networks have unilateral power over who gets network access, how revenue is divided,
what features are supported, etc.
 That makes it harder for start-ups, creators and other groups to grow their internet presence.
 Decentralising the web removes these hurdles for new start ups.
Recent applications of Web3.0
 The applications are much larger and wilder. It is growing beyond its financial origins such as cryptocurrency.
 Web3 will power the new financial world order on metaverse.
 It is different from reality but is built by taking inspiration from the real environment around us.
 It will unleash innovation in online gaming, tokenisation of assets in virtual spaces.
 Some of the use cases of Web3 are Decentralised Autonomous Organisations (DAOs), Decentralised Finance
(DeFi), Stablecoins and Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs), private and digital infrastructure, and creator
economy enablers like NFTs and blockchain-based games.
9.13 5G Technology
Lava International becomes the first Indian brand to launch 5G smart phone under the brand name 'Agni' for domestic
consumers.
 5G is the fifth-generation wireless
technology that operates in
the millimeter wave spectrum (30-
300 GHz).
 It is the latest upgrade in the long-
term evolution (LTE) mobile
broadband networks.
 5G mainly works in 3 bands, namely
low, mid and high frequency
spectrum.
 Pros of 5G - 5G can provide higher
speed (20 Gbps speed), lower
latency and greater capacity than 4G
LTE networks.
 It increases more bandwidth that
will help transfer the data as soon as
possible. Less tower congestion.

 Cons of 5G - Limited global coverage, decreased broadcast distance, the upload speeds are not over 100 Mbps
when compared to 4G, weakened device batteries, lack of early encryption in the connection process, etc
9.14 6G
Minister for Communication said that the 6G development has already started. That will be seen somewhere in the
time frame 2024 or 2023-end.
 Wireless generations (G) are standardized by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and occur
every 10 years or so.
 They're generally marked by a break in the "air interface," meaning a change in transmission or encoding.
 This is done so previous-generation devices can't be upgraded to the new generation.
 6G is the sixth generation of wireless communication and networking technology. It is a mostly theoretical
concept.
 It is built upon the infrastructure of 5G, and will accomplish more than 5G in terms of adoption, reduction of
cost, and better service.
 While 5G provided less than 1ms latency, 6G provides less than 0.1ms latency.
 6G will operate on the mid bands (7 – 20 GHz) for places that are crowded, low bands (460 – 694 MHz) for
long-distance coverage, and use sub-THz for peak data rates in the short range of up to 100 Gbps.
 6G will also used significantly advanced network devices, including MIMO (multiple input, multiple output)
antennaes.
 While 4G uses 2x2 MIMO and 4x4MIMO, and 5G uses around 200 antenna elements, 6G may support upto
1024 antenna elements.
 Characteristics - Higher speed than 5G, horizontal foundation of various industries in a society, high latency,
etc
 6G will be a collection of the heterogeneous networks, like cellular networks covering large outdoor space;
WiFi for indoor or low-speed outdoor use, satellite networks such as low earth orbit constellation.
 It is part of “edge computing,” which moves network management away from centralized clouds towards
more localized devices, making everything work way smoother and reducing response times.
 Benefits - The important areas that will benefit from this technology are the likes of smart devices and self-
driving cars.
 6G will also be beneficial to the advancement of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning.

9.15 Quantum Technologies

Indian Army has established the Quantum Lab at Military College of Telecommunication Engineering, Mhow (MP).
 Key thrust areas are Quantum Computing, Quantum Communication, Quantum Key Distribution and Post
Quantum Cryptography.
 Quantum Theory explains the behaviour of energy and material on the atomic and subatomic levels. It works
using the quantum bits or qubits.
Quantum Computing
 Quantum computing is an area of computing focused on developing computer technology based on the
principles of quantum theory.
 It helps to solve problems too complex for classical computers.
 Normal Computers can only encode information in bits that take the value of 1 or 0 - restricting their ability.
 Quantum computing uses quantum bits or qubits. They harnesses the ability of subatomic particles that allows
them to exist in more than one state (1 and 0 at the same time i.e, a state of superposition).
 The power of quantum computers grows exponentially with more qubits.
 This is unlike classical computers, where adding more transistors only adds power linearly.
Quantum Communication
 Quantum communication is a field of applied quantum physics closely related to quantum information
processing and quantum teleportation.
 It takes advantage of the laws of quantum physics to protect data.
 These laws allow particles (qubits) - typically photons of light for transmitting data along optical cables - to take
on a state of superposition.
 This means they can represent multiple combinations of 1 and 0 simultaneously.
Quantum Key Distribution
 Quantum key distribution (QKD) is a secure communication method which implements a cryptographic
protocol involving components of quantum mechanics.
 QKD enables two parties to produce a shared random secret key (encryption key) known only to them.
 These encryption keys can be exchanged only between the shared parties. (This makes the communication
private.).These keys can then be used to encrypt & decrypt messages.
 QKD involves sending encrypted data as classical bits over networks, while the keys to decrypt the information
are encoded and transmitted in a quantum state using qubits.
Post Quantum Cryptography
 The private communication of individuals and organizations is protected online by cryptography. Cryptography
protects our information as it travels over and is stored on the internet.
 Post-quantum cryptography (quantum-proof, quantum-safe or quantum-resistant) refers to the existing
cryptographic algorithms (especially public-key algorithms).
 These algorithms were thought to be secure against a cryptographic attack by a quantum computer.
 But, the problem with currently popular algorithms is that their security relies on one of three hard
mathematical problems:
1. Integer factorization problem,
2. Discrete logarithm problem or
3. Elliptic-curve discrete logarithm problem.
 All of these problems can be easily solved on a sufficiently powerful quantum computer running Shor's
algorithm.
 Post-quantum cryptography is all about preparing for the era of quantum computing by updating existing
mathematical-based algorithms and standards.

9.16 Satellite Broadband Service

 Broadband essentially means a wide bandwidth, high-capacity data transmission technique, using a broad range
of frequencies.
 Satellite Service is super-fast and does not need wires or towers to connect to the World Wide Web.
 Advantage - High-speed internet services can be provided in remote areas (in the middle of the ocean, in
rugged unreachable terrain such as the Himalayas), where terrestrial networks cannot be set up.
 This is especially pertinent to India (with a wide range of geography), given that 20-25% of the Indian population
resides in areas where it is extremely hard for terrestrial operators to set up shop.
 Availability in India - Now, VSAT operators offer satellite broadband services at a very limited capacity in
India in a few remote locations.
 The utilisation of satellite services is restricted to minimal applications - such as disaster management, defence,
scientific locations, etc.
 Key hurdles are high latency of these services, which means that real-time transmission is hard.
 But this hurdle can be overcome with the ISRO’s high throughput Geostationary Equatorial Orbit (GEO)
satellites, which can beam high-speed internet up to 300 gigabytes per second.
 The launch of the constellation of Low earth orbit (LEO) satellites very close to the earth’s surface will reduce
the latency of satellite broadband.
 Example - Elon Musk’s Starlink, Sunil Bharti Mittal backed OneWeb and the Canadian satellite major Telesat.
 Related Links - Internet from the Sky
9.17 Log4Shell Vulnerability

A new vulnerability named Log4Shell is being touted as one of the worst cyber security flaws to have been discovered.
 Log4Shell vulnerability, which is officially known as CVE-2021-44228, is a critical log4j Vulnerability.
 [CVE number is the unique number given to each vulnerability discovered across the world].
 This vulnerability impacts an open-source logging library Log4j2 version (common logging library used
by applications across the world).
 Logging lets developers see all the activity of an application.
 Tech companies (like Apple, Microsoft, Google), enterprise applications (from CISCO, CloudFare, Amazon and
others) and even government agencies all rely on this open-source logging library.
 Log4Shell vulnerability could allow a remote hacker to control java-based web servers and launch arbitrary
‘remote code execution’ (RCE) attacks on a system with software using the log4j2 Java library.
 It could potentially let the users to run malicious software on a device or servers. It allows a hacker to take
control of a system.

 The flaw can be exploited either over HTTP or HTTPS (the encrypted version of browsing), which adds to the
problems.
9.18 Millimetre Wave Band in 5G Auctions

Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) has asked for views on band plan, block size, and conditions for auction
of spectrum in 5G bands, which includes Millimetre (mm) Wave band of 24.25-28.5 GHz.
 Millimetre Wave band or mmWave is a segment of radio frequency spectrum that range between 24 GHz
and 100 GHz.
 This spectrum, as the name suggests, has a short wavelength.
 This spectrum is apt to deliver greater speeds and lower latencies.
 This makes data transfer efficient and seamless as the current available networks work optimally only on lower
frequency bandwidths.
 5G services can be deployed using lower frequency bands.
 They can cover greater distances and are proven to work efficiently even in urban environments, which are
prone to interference.
 But, when it comes to data speeds, these bands fail to hit peak potential needed for a true 5G experience.
 So, mmWave is that quintessential piece in the 5G jigsaw puzzle for mobile service providers.
9.19 Geomagnetic Storm that killed Starlink Satellites

Elon Musk’s Starlink has lost 40 out 49 of satellites that were caught in a geomagnetic storm a day after they were
launched.
 Space Internet - Broadband from space (BFS) is a high-speed wireless communication to bring internet traffic
to a consumer’s home/office via a satellite network in space.
 Satellite broadband data speeds can go beyond 300 Mbps, but initial peak speeds likely 100 Mbps.
 Working- A satellite network involves geostationary or low-earth orbit (LEO) satellites.
 The heart of a satellite network operation is an earth station gateway located in a particular region that links
satellite network to the Net.
 Consumer needs a device, called a user access terminal (UT) and antenna to connect to a satellite network.
 Bharti-backed OneWeb, Elon Musk’s SpaceX , Canada’s Telesat and Amazon’s Project Kuiper are in the row.
Starlink project
 Starlink is the name of a satellite network developed by the private spaceflight company SpaceX to provide low
latency, low-cost internet to remote locations.
 SpaceX eventually hopes to have as many as 42,000 satellites in this so-called megaconstellation.
 SpaceX's satellite internet proposal was announced in 2015.
 SpaceX launched its first two Starlink test craft, named TinTinA and TinTinB, in February 2018.
 The first 60 Starlink satellites launched in 2019 and were placed in Low Earth Orbit at an altitude of 340 miles
(550 kilometers), so that it is easy to get pulled down to Earth by atmospheric drag by avoiding space junk.
 The current version of each Starlink satellite weighs 573 lbs(260 kilograms).
 As of early January 2022, SpaceX had launched more than 1,900 Starlink satellites overall.
 SpaceX plans to refresh the Starlink megaconstellation every five years with newer technology.
Concerns
 Light pollution- concerns about future images from highly sensitive telescopes as satellite streaks interfere in
the data
 Interference from Starlink's radio-based antennas
 Threat to existing and future astronomical infrastructures

 Affects the pristine nature of the night sky

 Increased probability of space collisions
 At the end of their service, the old satellites will be steered into Earth's atmosphere where they will burn up that
could actually alter the atmospheric chemistry
 Burning of satellites will produce aluminum oxide or alumina which is known to cause ozone depletion
 Alumina reflects light at certain wavelengths that may create scattering and eventually change the albedo of the
planet leading to an out-of-control geoengineering experiment
9.20 Doxxing
Meta’s oversight board suggested that Facebook and Instagram must make strict doxxing rules.
 Doxxing is publishing and analysing others' personal information on the internet with a malicious intent that
can reveal the person's real identity making them victims of harassments and cyber attacks.
 Generally, doxxing is used to shame or punish people who would rather stay anonymous, because of their
controversial beliefs or other types of non-mainstream activity.
 The term doxxing (sometimes spelled doxing) is a longtime hacker term derived from “dropping dox” or
documents about an adversary.
 Motivations range from personal revenge to political ends.
 Some doxers act with the intent of exposing criminals or perpetrators of heinous acts.
 However, there are plenty of examples of people who have been wrongly doxxed and harmed as a result.
9.21 Radio Frequency Identification

Indian Army has commenced the implementation of Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tagging of its ammunition
inventory.
 Radio Frequency Identification is a wireless communication technology.
 It uses the electromagnetic or electrostatic coupling in the radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic
spectrum to passively identify a tagged object.
 RFID system comprised of two components: tags and readers.
 RFID Tags use radio waves to communicate their identity and other information to nearby readers.
 RFID tags can store a range of information from one serial number to several pages of data. They can be passive
or active.
1. Passive tags are powered by the reader and do not have a battery.
2. Active tags are powered by batteries.
 Reader is a network-connected device that has one or more antennas that emit radio waves and receive signals
back from the RFID tag.
 It uses radio waves to transmit signals that activate the tag. Once activated, the tag sends a wave back to the
antenna, where it is translated into data.
 Readers can be mobile so that they can be carried by hand, or they can be mounted on a post or overhead.
9.22 M2M Communication

The Government has taken steps to facilitate wider proliferation and innovation in Machine to Machine
communication (M2M) sector.
 Machine-to-machine (M2M) refers to any technology that enables networked devices to exchange information
and perform actions without the manual assistance of humans.
 M2M is also the foundation for the internet of things.
 The first use of M2M communication is often credited to Theodore Paraskevakos, who invented technology
related to the transmission of data over telephone lines, the basis for modern-day caller ID.

 Purpose - The main purpose of M2M technology is to tap into sensor data and transmit it to a network.
 Unlike SCADA or other remote monitoring tools, M2M systems often use public networks and access methods
- cellular or Ethernet - to make it more cost-effective.
 Components - The main components of an M2M system include sensors, RFID, a Wi-Fi or cellular
communications link, and autonomic computing software programmed to help a network device interpret data
and make decisions.
 These M2M applications translate the data, which can trigger preprogrammed, automated actions.
 Artificial intelligence and machine learning facilitate the communication between systems, allowing them to
make their own autonomous choices.
 Uses - M2M technology helps remotely monitor equipment and systems.
 It reduces costs by minimizing equipment maintenance and downtime.
 It was first adopted in manufacturing and industrial settings, where other technologies, such as and remote
monitoring, helped remotely manage and control data from equipment.
 M2M has since found applications in other sectors, such as healthcare, business and insurance.
9.23 Param Pravega

The Indian Institute of Science (IISc) has installed and commissioned Param Pravega, one of the most powerful
supercomputers in India.
 It is the largest supercomputer in an Indian academic institution.
 It was installed and commissioned under the National Supercomputing Mission (NSM).
 The system is expected to power diverse research and educational pursuits.
 It has a supercomputing capacity of 3.3 petaflops (1 petaflop equals a quadrillion, or 1015 operations per
second).
 It has been designed by the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC).
National Supercomputing Mission
 NSM is steered jointly by the Department of Science and Technology (DST) and Ministry of Electronics and
Information Technology (MeitY).
 It is implemented by the eCentre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) and the Indian Institute of
Science (IISc).
 The Mission has supported the deployment of 10 supercomputer systems so far at IISc., in IITs, IISER Pune,
JNCASR, NABI-Mohali and C-DAC, with a cumulative computing power of 17 petaflops.
 These systems have greatly helped faculty members and students carry out major R&D activities, and optimising
telecom networks.
 To know more about the National Supercomputing Mission, click here.
9.24 PARAM Ganga

Petascale Supercomputer “PARAM Ganga” was established at IIT Roorkee under the National Supercomputing
Mission.
 “PARAM Ganga” is a supercomputer with a supercomputing capacity of 1.66 Petaflops.
 The system is designed and commissioned by C-DAC under Phase 2 of the build approach of the NSM.
9.25 AI Research SuperCluster

Facebook-parent Meta is building an AI supercomputer, the AI Research SuperCluster (RSC).
 AI supercomputers are built by combining multiple graphic processing units (GPUs) into compute nodes, which
are then connected by a high-performance network fabric to allow fast communication between those GPUs.

 RSC is a powerful supercomputer that can perform tasks like translating text between languages and help
identify potentially harmful content on Meta's platform.
 It can run computer vision workflows up to 20 times faster.
 It can train large-scale Natural Language Processing (NLP) models three times faster.
 It can help its researchers build better AI models that can work across different languages, seamlessly analyse
text, images and video together.
 It also power real-time voice translations to large groups of people speaking different languages so that they can
collaborate on a research project, and develop new augmented reality tools.
 With the pandemic, the demand for data centres of AI and ML among Government and educational entities is
witnessing exponential growth which in turn is boosting the demand for supercomputers.
 RSC can keep people safe in the metaverse through its training models that can detect harmful content faster
than earlier systems.
9.26 Meta's AI Supercomputer

Facebook-parent Meta announced that it is building an AI supercomputer, the AI Research SuperCluster (RSC) which
will be the fastest supercomputer in the world once fully built by mid-2022.
 A supercomputer can perform high-level processing at a faster rate when compared to a normal computer.
 Supercomputing is measured in floating-point operations per second (FLOPS).
 Supercomputers are made up of thousands of powerful machines which use better artificial intelligence (AI)
models to improve operations processing huge amounts of data in less time.
 They work together to perform complex operations that are not possible with normal computing systems.
 AI supercomputers are built by combining multiple graphic processing units (GPUs) into compute nodes, which
are then connected by a high-performance network fabric to allow fast communication between those GPUs.
 The National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) envisaged setting up a network of 70 high-performance
computing facilities across academia and research institutes by 2022.
 RSC is a powerful supercomputer that can perform tasks like translating text between languages and help
identify potentially harmful content on Meta's platform.
 It can run computer vision workflows up to 20 times faster.
 It can train large-scale Natural Language Processing (NLP) models 3 times faster.
 It can help its researchers build better AI models that can work across different languages, seamlessly analyse
text, images and video together.
 It also powers real-time voice translations to large groups of people speaking different languages so that they
can collaborate on a research project, and develop new augmented reality tools.
 The AI supercomputers will help build the
foundation of metaverse to create AI agents
in that environment for
o rich user interaction
o mimicking the real world
o provide high-performance
computing to specific tasks
 Meta computes that RSC will pave the way
toward building technologies for the
metaverse where AI-driven applications and
products will play an important role.
 RSC can keep people safe in the metaverse through its training models that can detect harmful content faster
than earlier systems.

 Challenges - To fully realise the benefits of advanced AI self-supervised learning of various domains will
require training large and complex models for critical use cases like identifying harmful content on Meta's
platform.
 Computer vision needs to process larger, longer videos with higher data sampling rates.
 Speech recognition needs to work well even in challenging conditions with a lot of background noise and needs
to understand more languages, dialects, and accents.
 There are large-scale scientific problems that need the right level of depth, accuracy and speed which cannot be
handled with the current generation of supercomputers.
9.27 Lapsus$ Attack

Microsoft has confirmed that its systems were breached by the hacker group Lapsus$.
 Other prominent companies such as NVIDIA, Samsung, Ubisoft, Okta, etc have been targeted by the same
group.
 The Okta hack is particularly worrisome because the San Francisco-based company provides online
authentication services to prominent players such as FedEx Corp, Coinbase Global, T-Mobile, Cloudflare, etc.
 Lapsus$ is a South America-based group.
 It is known for publicly posting details about their hacks and sharing screenshots of stolen data on platforms
such as Telegram and Twitter.
 Targets - The group started by targeting organisations in the United Kingdom and South America but has
expanded globally.
 Their targets are across a range of sectors: government, technology telecom, media, retail and healthcare. It is
also attacking cryptocurrency exchanges to steal cryptocurrency holdings.
 Methods - The hackers of Lapsus$ relied on large-scale social engineering and extortion campaigns against
multiple organizations.
 The group relies on a pure extortion and destruction model without deploying ransomware payloads.
 The group is also relying on some tactics that are less frequently used by other threat actors.
 These include methods such as SIM-swapping to take over accounts, accessing personal email accounts of
employees at target organisations.
Social Engineering Attacks
 In social engineering attacks, cybercriminals try to lure individuals into revealing critical personal information
via phishing attacks.
 All of this information might be used to either guess passwords or even answers to security questions for an
account.
Safety Measures
 For now, Microsoft has recommended that businesses rely on Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA) to protect
themselves from such attacks.
 It also recommends against weak MFA factors such as text messages, since these are susceptible to SIM
swapping.
 It has also cautioned against simple voice approvals, push notifications, or even “secondary email” based MFA
methods.
 It also recommends increasing awareness among employees and IT help desks around social engineering
attacks.
9.28 LiFi Network

Students' Educational and Cultural Movement of Ladakh (SECMOL), India's highest altitude educational
organisation, has become the 1st institute in Ladakh to have an internet connection using LiFi technology.
 Light Fidelity (LiFi) is a wireless communication technology that transmits data with a light beam
spectrum through open space in outdoor and indoor environments.

 It is a Visible Light Communications (VLC) system that has components such as,
o Solid-state lighting (SSL) such as LED bulbs,
o Photo-detector (photodiode) to receive light signals and
o Signal processing element to convert the data (embedded in the light beam) into ‘stream-able’ content.
 Data is fed into an LED light bulb (with signal processing technology). Then the LED bulb sends data at rapid
speeds to the photo-detector.
 Uses - LiFi systems provide ultra-fast, safe and cheap data connections.
 They are chiefly useful in urban areas where radio spectra are congested.
 They are also very useful in rural areas wherein Fiber Optic Cables or networks are not reachable.
 Specialty - LiFi can be up to 100 times faster than Wi-Fi.
9.29 Central Equipment Identity Register

 The Central Equipment Identity Registry (CEIR) tries to connect the 15-digit International Mobile Equipment
Identity (IMEI) database of all the mobile Operators.
 [From your mobile, you can check the IMEI number by dialling *#06#.]
 CEIR acts as a central system for all network Operators to share black listed mobile devices so even if the
Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card in the device is changed these devices won’t work in any network.
 The Department of Telecommunications intends to implement the CEIR with the aim to
1. Curtail the counterfeit mobile phone market,
2. Discourage mobile phone theft,
3. Protect consumer interest and
4. Facilitate law enforcement authorities for lawful interception.
 Functions - The CEIR project facilitates the blocking and tracing of lost and stolen mobile phones using the
IMEI.
 The traceability data for the IMEIs will be made available to police of the respective LSA to facilitate recovery of
handsets.
 People can request the CEIR system for blocking the IMEI number.
 Accessibility - CEIR is a multi-stakeholder system where respective stakeholders have a limited access as
per their defined roles and responsibilities.
 [Stakeholders include the Department of Telecommunications, Telecom Service Providers, Police, Mobile
phone manufacturers and mobile phone subscribers.]
 Currently, this accessibility includes
1. Information to the subscriber about the make & model corresponding to IMEI of his/her mobile
handset,
2. Information to mobile phone manufacturers about genuineness of IMEI during import of consignment
of mobile phones etc.
 The CEIR project has been launched in Delhi, Mumbai and Maharashtra licensed service areas (LSAs) in a
phased manner.
Know Your Mobile
 Through Know Your Mobile (KYM), one can check the validity of their mobile device even before buying it.
 IMEI is written on the mobile packaging box or the mobile bill/invoice.
 If the status of the mobile is shown as Black-listed, duplicate or already in use, please avoid buying the mobile.
 KYM could be used through any of the following 3 methods - SMS (Type KYM and send to 14422), app or web
portal.

10. NANO TECHNOLOGY
10.1 Nanofibers
 Researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology have constructed small molecules which when added with
water form nanofibers.
 These hard and rigid molecules become so tough that they it can hold about 200 times their own weight.
 Nanofibers are fibers with diameters in the nanometer range.
 They can be generated from different polymers and hence have different physical properties and application
potentials.
 The diameters of nanofibers depend on the type of polymer used and the method of production.
10.2 Nanosniffer
 It is the world’s first Microsensor based Explosive Trace Detector (ETD) developed by an Indian Institute of
Technology (IIT) Bombay incubated startup called NanoSniff Technologies.
 Its core technology is protected by patents in the U.S. & Europe.
 Nan oSniffer is an advanced, affordable and a 100% Made in India product in terms of research, development
& manufacturing.
 It will reduce dependency on imported ETD devices.
10.3 Nano Urea Liquid

 The Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO) launched the World’s 1st Nano Urea Liquid for the
farmers across the World.
 It has been indigenously developed at Nano Biotechnology Research Centre, Gujrat in line with Atmanirbhar
Bharat and Atmanirbhar Krishi.
 IFFCO Nano Urea Liquid is a nutrient to provide nitrogen to plants as an alternative to the conventional urea.
 It is developed to replace conventional urea and it can curtail the requirement of the same by at least 50%.
 It contains 40,000 ppm of nitrogen in a 500 ml bottle which is equivalent to the impact of nitrogen nutrient
provided by one bag of conventional urea.
 The conventional urea is effective 30-40% in delivering nitrogen to plants, while the effectiveness of the Nano
Urea Liquid is over 80%.
 Currently, India is dependent on imports to meet its urea requirements.
 During 2019-20, the production of urea was only 244.55 lakh metric tonnes as against the consumption volume
of 336 LMT leaving a gap of over 91 LMT.
Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited

 It is one of India's biggest cooperative societies, which is wholly owned by Indian Cooperatives.
 Founded in 1967 with just 57 cooperatives, today it is an amalgamation of over 36,000 Indian Cooperatives with
diversified business interests.
 Its aim is to enable Indian farmers to prosper through timely supply of reliable, quality agricultural inputs and
services in a sustainable manner and to undertake other activities to improve their welfare.
10.4 Electrically Configured Nanochannels

 Scientists from the S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences have developed electrically reconfigured
parallel nanochannels that tune the behaviour of spin waves in nano-structure elements.
 They have done this by periodically tailoring the property that confers a preferred direction on the spin of a
system, also called voltage-controlled magnetic anisotropy using the electric field.

 Spintronics or spin electronics, in addition to its fundamental electronic charge, in solid-state devices offer to
harness electron spins.
 [Spintronics is the study of the intrinsic spin of the electron and its associated magnetic moment.]
 Spin-waves were efficiently transferred through these nanochannels, and this could be switched ‘ON’ and ‘OFF’
and its magnitude altered by a meagre voltage of few volts.
 Significance - These reconfigured nanochannels can eliminate unwanted energy waste and promise wave-
based computing.
 The collective precession can carry information encoded in its amplitude, phase, wavelength, and frequency
without any physical motion of particles, eliminating unwanted energy waste.
 These nanochannels can be engineered further to transfer specific bands of frequencies through designed
parallel channels towards development of on-chip multiplexing devices.
10.5 Soft Robotic Actuators

Indian scientists have developed soft robotic actuators with enhanced photomechanical capacity, using highly Porous
Carbon Nanoparticles (PCN) from waste onion peels.
 Soft robotic Actuators consisting of rubber-like polymer with embedded nanomaterials can act as efficient traps
for the illuminating low-power near-infrared (NIR) light.
 [Actuation is the state or condition of being impelled or moved to action]
 Actuators can convert the control signal (source of energy) into mechanical motion with bioengineering
applications.
 Generation of predesigned motion is facilitated by their flexibility, affordability, and easy customization.
 High thermal conductivity of the nanoforms results in rapid distribution of the heat generated locally by thermal
and photo-thermal stimuli.
 Specific surface area of PCNs were efficient traps for the illuminating NIR light resulting in the film comprising
PCNs and PDMS achieving large magnitude (multi-mm) actuation with sub-second responses.
 With an additional ultrathin (30 nm) gold layer, the magnitude of actuation could be more than doubled, and
bidirectional photo-controlled face-sensitive movement realized.
 Applications - Actuators can be used for bio-medical applications (drug delivery, wearable and assistive
devices, prostheses and artificial organs), military, and remote space operations.
10.6 Nanoantenna
Researchers have developed a nanoantenna made of DNA and polyethylene glycol (PEG) to study changes in the
structure of protein molecules.
 Working - The DNA-based nanoantenna works like a two-way radio that can both receive and transmit radio
waves.
 It receives light in one wavelength.
 It transmits light in another colour depending upon the protein changes it senses, and this can be detected and
studied.
 Characteristics - These fluorescent nanoantennae remained stable at higher temperatures.
 These nanoantenna offer a distinct advantage over the fluorescent dyes that are ubiquitously used in
biotechnology.
 The latter ‘display a low affinity for proteins’, while these nanoantennae have an affinity to a specific region of a
protein, which is contingent on the structure and chemistry of the protein.
 So, they are able to detect even the most minute of changes.
 The nanoantenna was able to pass muster even with respect to protein-protein interactions.
 This nanoantenna can be synthesised with different lengths and flexibilities to optimize their function.

 Significance - The antenna will help us understand how natural nanomachines function or malfunction,
consequently leading to disease.
 Labs equipped with a conventional spectrofluorometer, could readily employ these nanoantenna[e] to study
proteins.
 This study will in turn help us identify new drugs or to develop new nanotechnologies or nano-machines.
 The antenna performed well when used for examining enzyme kinetics i.e. the speed at which a reaction
11. GOVERNMENT PROGRAMMES/INITIATIVES
11.1 India Semiconductor Mission (ISM)

The Union government has formulated a comprehensive programme for the development of sustainable
semiconductor and display ecosystem.
 A semiconductor is a material product usually comprised of silicon, which conducts electricity more than an
insulator, such as glass, but less than a pure conductor, such as copper or aluminum.
 Success in the semiconductor industry depends on creating smaller, faster, and cheaper products.
 The bulk of semiconductor manufacturing and supply capability concentrated in a handful of countries
including Taiwan, South Korea, U.S., Japan and China.
Types of Semiconductors
 Intrinsic semiconductor- It is a pure semiconductor that does not have any impurities or dopants added to
it and the number of excited electrons and the number of holes are equal: n = p.
 Extrinsic semiconductor- The
conductivity of semiconductors can
be greatly improved by doping
(Adding a small number of suitable
substitute atoms known as
impurities). It is of 2 types.
o N-Type Semiconductor-
It is an impurity mixed
semiconductor that uses
pentavalent impure atoms
like phosphorus, arsenic,
antimony, bismuth.
o Electrons are in the majority and holes are in the minority.
o P-type semiconductor- It is a type of extrinsic semiconductor that contains trivalent impurities such
as boron and aluminum which increases the level of conductivity of a normal semiconductor made
purely of silicon.
o Holes are in the majority, and electrons are in the minority.
Other semiconductors
 Memory- Memory chips serve as temporary storehouses of data and pass information to and from computer
devices' brain
 Microprocessors-These are central processing units that contain the basic logic to perform tasks.
 Commodity Integrated Circuit-Sometimes called "standard chips", these are produced for routine processing
purposes.
 Complex SOC-"System on a Chip" is all about the creation of an IC chip with an entire system's capability on it.
Properties
 At zero Kelvin, a semiconductor serves as an insulator. It functions as a conductor as the temperature increases.
 Semiconductors can be doped to make the semiconductor devices ideal for energy conversion, switches, and
amplifiers due to their exceptional electrical properties.

 There are fewer power losses.

 They have higher resistivity than conductors but a lower resistivity than insulators.
 As the temperature increases, the resistance of semiconductor materials decreases, and vice versa.
Broad incentives under the programme
 Semiconductor Fabs and Display Fabs- This scheme shall extend fiscal support of up to 50% of project
cost to eligible applicants.
 Government of India will work closely with the State Governments to establish High-Tech Clusters with
requisite infrastructure.
 Semi-conductor Laboratory (SCL) - The Cabinet has approved that Ministry of Electronics and
Information Technology will take requisite steps for modernization and commercialization of SCL.
 Compound Semiconductors / Silicon Photonics / Sensors Fabs and Semiconductor ATMP /
OSAT Units- This scheme shall extend fiscal support of 30% of capital expenditure to approved units,
expecting atleast 15 such units of Compound Semiconductors and Semiconductor Packaging.
 Semiconductor Design Companies- The Design Linked Incentive (DLI) Scheme shall extend product
design linked incentive of up to 50% of eligible expenditure and product deployment linked incentive of 6% -
4% on net sales for five years.
 India Semiconductor Mission: For developing a sustainable semiconductors and display ecosystem, an
independent “India Semiconductor Mission
(ISM)” will be set up.
 ISM will be led by global experts in
semiconductor and display industry and it will
act as the nodal agency for efficient and smooth
implementation of the schemes on
Semiconductors and Display ecosystem.
 Comprehensive fiscal support for
semiconductors and electronics- The
Government has approved a programme for
development of semiconductors and display
manufacturing ecosystem in India with an
outlay of Rs.76,000 crore.
 Incentive support has been approved under PLI
for Large Scale Electronics Manufacturing, PLI
for IT Hardware, SPECS Scheme and Modified Electronics Manufacturing Clusters (EMC 2.0) Scheme and for
allied sectors.
 In total, Government of India has committed support of Rs. 2,30,000 crore to position India as global hub
for electronics manufacturing with semiconductors as the foundational building block.
11.2 Possibility of a Semiconductor Crisis

Supply of semiconductors, which was affected due to Covid-related disruptions but had started picking up as
manufacturing chains normalised, is now being threatened once again by the Ukraine crisis.
 The beginning of the Covid-19 pandemic and the subsequent lockdowns across the world forced chip-making
facilities to shut in countries like Japan, South Korea, China and the US.
 The Russia-Ukraine crisis has distrupted the supply of two key raw materials for the production of
semiconductor chips— neon and palladium.
 The period of semiconductor shortage is a function of two variables
o The existing stockpiles of these raw materials with chip manufacturers
o The time for which the crisis in Ukraine prevails
 Russia supplies over 40 % of world’s palladium and Ukraine produces 70 % of neon.
 Neon- Neon gas is used in the photolithography process that is the most common method for fabricating
integrated circuits.

 But for use of neon gas in the semiconductor industry, the gas has to reach 99.99% purity levels which make it
a rarity.
 Palladium- Palladium is used to coat electrodes that help control flow of electricity.
 It is also used in plating of microprocessors and printed circuit boards which is an essential process of chip
making.
 Constraints - A typical semiconductor value chain includes strong research and development followed by
design, production, assembly, testing and distribution and logistics network.
 Several supply-side constraints inhibiting its local manufacturing include
o Inadequate availability of ultra-pure and clean water and clean sand used for growing wafers
o Uninterrupted quality electricity supplies
o Controlled pollution free environment, etc.
 Inadequate logistics and absence of proper waste disposal have further exacerbated the poor state of its
production.
 Heavy investments into establishing production lines both in terms of capital and gestation period do not
encourage private players to venture into it.
11.3 Graphene
The Kerala government announced the country’s first Graphene Innovation Centre, a joint venture of Digital
University of Kerala, Centre for Materials for Electronics Technology (C-MET) and Tata Steel Limited.
 Graphene is a single layer or monolayer of carbon atoms, tightly bound in a hexagonal honeycomb lattice.
 It is an allotrope of carbon in the form of a plane of sp2-bonded atoms with a molecular bond length of 0.142
nanometres.
 The separate layers of graphene in graphite are held together by van der Waals forces, which can be
overcome during exfoliation of graphene from graphite.
 Characteristics - Graphene is
1. The thinnest compound known to man at one atom thick,
2. The lightest material known (with 1 sq. M. weighing 0.77 mg),
3. The strongest compound discovered (due to the very strong covalent bonds),
4. The best conductor of heat at room temperature,
5. The best conductor of electricity known and
6. High melting and boiling points.
11.4 Bullet Train

Ministry of Railways has decided to undertake Survey and
prepare the Detailed Project Reports (DPR) for the High
Speed Bullet Train Corridors.
 Bullet Train is a very fast passenger train with a
smooth, pointed shape.
 This rail runs significantly faster than traditional rail
traffic, using an integrated system of specialised
rolling stock and dedicated tracks.
 While there is no single standard that applies
worldwide, lines built to handle speeds in excess of
250 km/h and upgraded lines in excess of 200 km/h
are widely considered to be high-speed.

11.5 Vande Bharat Trains

In the Union Budget 2022-2023, the Union Finance Minister has proposed the manufacture of 400 new Vande Bharat
trains in the next 3 years.
 Dubbed as Train 18, the Vande Bharat train is an indigenously designed and manufactured self-propelled
“engineless” train.
 The Vande Bharat is India’s first semi high-speed train that can achieve a maximum speed of 160 kmph.
 Its faster acceleration and deceleration results in reduced journey time by 25% to 45%.
 These trains operate without a locomotive and are based on a propulsion system called distributed traction
power technology, by which each car of the train set is powered.
 These have an intelligent braking system with power regeneration for better energy efficiency thereby making
it cost, energy and environment efficient.
 The current version of the train has 16 coaches with 14 ordinary chair cars and two executive class chair cars.
11.6 Aviation Turbine Fuel

The Union Finance Minister said that the government will take up the issue of inclusion of the Aviation Turbine Fuel
in the Goods and Services Tax (GST) system before the next GST Council meeting.
 Jet fuel or Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF) is a specialized by-product of crude or petroleum used to power aircraft.
 It is kerosene-based fuel used for powering jet and turboprop engine aircraft.
 It must meet performance guidelines for both the rich mixture condition required for take-off power settings
and the cleaner mixtures used during cruise to reduce fuel consumption.
 The primary functions of aviation turbine fuel are to power an aircraft, energy content and combustion quality.
 Apart from being a source of energy, other significant performance properties of ATF are stability, lubricity,
fluidity, volatility, non-corrosivity and cleanliness.
 It is also used as hydraulic fluid in engine control systems and as a coolant for certain fuel system components.

12. AWARDS
12.1 History of Nobel Prize

 The Nobel Prize was set up when businessman Alfred Nobel died and left the majority of his fortune to the
establishment of prizes in physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature and peace.
 His will stated that the prizes should be awarded to those who shall have conferred the greatest benefit to
humankind.
 Since the 1st Nobel Prizes were awarded in 1901, they have been awarded annually. It was not
awarded, mostly during World War I and II.
 A Nobel Prize cannot be awarded
posthumously.
 [Norwegian Nobel Committee is a 5-member
committee of the Norwegian Parliament
(Storting).]
 Fund - When Alfred Nobel died leaving the
majority of his fortune to the establishment of
the Nobel Prize he stated that
the money should be converted into a fund
and invested in “safe securities.”
 Today the interest earned on that money is
used to fund the Nobel Prizes.
Nobel Prize Laureate
 The word “laureate” refers to being signified
by the laurel wreath.
 In ancient Greece, laurel wreaths were awarded to victors as a sign of honour.
12.2 Nobel Prize in Physics 2021

The Nobel Prize in Physics 2021 was awarded with one half jointly to Syukuro Manabe, Klaus Hasselmann and the
other half to Giorgio Parisi for groundbreaking contributions to our understanding of complex systems.
 They have laid the foundation of our knowledge of the Earth’s climate and how humanity influences it.
 They have revolutionized the theory of disordered materials and random processes.
Complex Systems
 Complex systems are systems composed of many
components which may interact with each other.
 They are characterised by randomness and
disorder and are difficult to understand.
 Examples are Earth's global climate, organisms,
the human brain, etc.,
 One complex system of vital importance
is Earth’s climate.
12.3 Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2021

The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2021 was awarded jointly to Benjamin List and David W.C. MacMillan for the
development of Asymmetric Organocatalysis.
 Organocatalysis is a precise new tool for molecular construction.
 In Organocatalysis, organic catalysts are used to drive multitudes of the chemical reactions.
 The rapid expansion in the use of organic catalysts is primarily due to their ability to drive asymmetric catalysis.

 In asymmetric catalysis, two different molecules are built, in which each molecule is a mirror image of the other
one.
 Using Organocatalysis, researchers can now more efficiently construct anything from new pharmaceuticals to
molecules that can capture light in solar cells.
Catalysts
 Catalyst is any substance that increases the rate of a reaction without itself being consumed.
 Enzymes are naturally occurring catalysts responsible for many essential biochemical reactions.
 Catalysts are categorized into,
1. Homogeneous catalyst - Reaction mixture and catalyst both are present in the same phase. (e.g.):
Brønsted and Lewis acids, transition metals, organometallic complexes, organocatalyst.
2. Heterogeneous catalyst - Catalysts exist in a different phase than the reaction mixture.
3. Biocatalysts - Natural proteins (enzymes) or nucleic acids (RNA or DNA or ribozymes) used to
catalyze specific chemical reactions outside the living cells is called biocatalysis.
Organic catalysts
 They have a stable framework of carbon atoms, to which more active chemical groups can attach.
 These often contain common elements such as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur or phosphorus.
 This means that these catalysts are both environmentally friendly and cheap to produce.
Catalysis - Examples
 Homogeneous catalysis - Carbonylation, oxidation, hydrocyanation, metathesis, and hydrogenation.
 Heterogeneous catalysis - Haber-Bosch process for the synthesis of ammonia, Fischer–Tropsch process to
produce hydrocarbons.
12.4 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2021

The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2021 was awarded jointly to David Julius and Ardem Patapoutian for their
discoveries of receptors for temperature and touch.
 The work of the scientists is focused on the field of somatosensation.
 Temperature - Capsaicin from chili peppers was used to identify TRPV1, an ion channel activated by painful
heat.
 Menthol was used to identify TRPM8, a receptor that was shown to be activated by cold.
 Additional ion channels related to TRPV1 and
TRPM8 were identified and found to be
activated by a range of different temperatures.
 These ion channels help us understand how
different temperatures can induce electrical
signals in the nervous system.
 Touch - Cultured mechanosensitive
cells were used to identify Piezo1, an ion
channel activated by mechanical force.
 Based on its similarity to Piezo1, a second ion
channel Piezo2 was found.
 Piezo1 & Piezo2 have been shown to regulate
additional important physiological processes
including blood pressure, respiration and
urinary bladder control.

12.5 Nobel Prize in Literature 2021

The Nobel Prize in Literature 2021 was awarded to Abdulrazak Gurnah, who was born in Zanzibar.
 It was awarded for his uncompromising and compassionate penetration of the effects of colonialism and the
fate of the refugee in the gulf between cultures and continents.
 Born in Zanzibar, Gurnah was forced to flee to the United Kindom at the end of the 1960s after a revolution
occurred in Zanzibar.

12.6 Nobel Peace Prize 2021

The Nobel Peace Prize 2021 was awarded jointly to Maria Ressa and Dmitry Andreyevich Muratov for their efforts to
safeguard freedom of expression, which is a precondition for democracy and lasting peace.
 Maria Ressa uses freedom of expression to expose
abuse of power, use of violence and growing
authoritarianism in her country, the Philippines.
 In 2012, she co-founded Rappler, a digital media
company for investigative journalism, which she still
heads.
 Dmitry Andreyevich Muratov has for decades defended
freedom of speech in Russia under increasingly
challenging conditions.
 In 1993, he was one of the founders of the Novaja
Gazeta - the most independent newspaper in Russia -
that has a fundamentally critical attitude towards
power.
12.7 Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences 2021

The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 2021 was awarded to three people.
 The one half of the award was given to David Card for his empirical contributions to labour economics.
o Using natural experiments, David Card has analysed the labour market effects of minimum wages,
immigration and education.
o The results showed that increasing the minimum wage do not necessarily lead to fewer jobs, among
other things.
o So, we now know that the incomes of people who were born in a country can benefit from new
immigration, while people who immigrated at an earlier time risk being negatively affected.
o It also showed that resources in schools are far more important for students’ future labour market
success than was previously thought.
 The other half of the award was jointly given to Joshua D. Angrist and Guido W. Imbens for their
methodological contributions to the analysis of causal relationships.
o They demonstrated how precise conclusions about cause and effect can be drawn from natural
experiments.
Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences
 In 1968, Sveriges Riksbank (Sweden’s central bank) established the Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of
Alfred Nobel.
 The Prize is based on a donation received by the Nobel Foundation in 1968 from Sveriges Riksbank.
 The first Prize in Economic Sciences was awarded to Ragnar Frisch and Jan Tinbergen in 1969.
 The Prize in Economic Sciences is awarded by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, Sweden,
according to the same principles as for the Nobel Prizes that have been awarded since 1901.
13. OTHERS
13.1 Using Magnets to Produce Hydrogen

 Indian researchers have come up with a new hydrogen manufacture route that involves electrolysis of water to
produce hydrogen (H2) in the presence of an external magnetic field i.e. magneto-electrocatalysis.
 In this method, the same existing system that produces 1 ml of H2 gas require 19% lower energy to produce 3
ml of hydrogen in the same time.
 This is achieved by synergistically coupling the electric and magnetic fields at the catalytic site.

 The electrocatalytic materials - cobalt-oxide nanocubes - are dispersed over hard-carbon based nanostructured
carbon florets.
o This material was developed with the support of the Department of Science & Technology’s Material for
Energy Storage program.
 Advantages - This route forms a system that doesn’t require the constant presence of the external magnetic
field and is able to sustain the magnetisation for prolonged time periods.
 The enhancements achieved are 650% increase in current density, 19% lowering of energy required and a 3-fold
increase in volumetric hydrogen production rate.
 This route can be directly adopted in existing electrolysers with external magnets without any change in design
or mode of operation.
 [Electrolysers use electricity to break water into hydrogen and oxygen.]
 One-time exposure of magnetic field for 10 minutes is enough to achieve the high rate of hydrogen production
for over 45 minutes.
13.2 Blood Honey

 Sunderbans being the home to the Royal Bengal tigers, every year people die venturing into the forests to collect
this honey. Due to the risks involved in its collection, it is called blood honey.
 It is also called Sundarban honey, as it is collected by the Sunderbans’ Moulis community.
 This comparatively less thick honey has high demand for its nutritional value and purity.
 As this honey is multi-floral and there is practically no use of antibiotics or pesticides in Sundarbans.
 It is nearly twice as expensive as the branded honey.
 Reasons for the high cost - One major part of the cost input is going deep into the forest area. This means
that there are also no pesticides or chemicals or any other impurities in this honey.
 Additionally, the purpose of ventures like this is the financial upkeep of this community too.
13.3 Indian Royal Jelly

For the first time, Indian Royal Jelly has been found to surpass top-quality global sellers.
 It is a pearly white or pale yellow-coloured cohesive mixture of honey and secretions from worker honeybees.
Composition of Indian Royal Jelly
1. Moisture Or Water (60-70%),
2. Lipids (1-10%),
3. Minerals (0.8-3 %),
4. Proteins (9-18 %),
5. Sugar (7 %)
 Artificial Production – The bee colonies grown outside its
natural habitat are stimulated to produce queen bee.
 The larvae in the queen bee are then fed with nutritious royal jelly,
which gets accumulated in maximum amount upon 5th day.
 In a season of 5 to 6 months, a well-maintained hive can produce an estimated 900gms of royal jelly.
 The quality and protein content of the jelly varies from the plant and their respective pollen.
 Honeybees that gather pollen from mustard, coconut and multi-flora variants produce top international quality
jelly whereas maize pollens were not as good.
 Requirements –
1. Recommended Temperature is below –200c
2. A special machine called Freezee drier to remove moisture from the fresh produce.

3. It needs to be stored in sub-zero temperatures immediately after production and throughout its supply
chain.
 Uses – It is highly nutritious and a good antioxidant. It helps women
with fertility issues.
 Standards - It meets the ISO-prescribed standards imposed by the
Food Safety and Standards Authority of India in 2019.
 It is based on the concentration of moisture, sugars, protein and
Hydroxy acids with 10 carbon atoms (10 HDA), a fatty acid found in
the jelly.
 Presently, country specific standards are available only in Switzerland,
Bulgaria, Brazil and Uruguay.
 Indian royal jelly is been found as better in quality than jelly produced
from Thailand and China and almost same as the Italian royal jelly.
13.4 Suffering from ‘Climate Change’

A Canadian woman becomes world’s first patient to be diagnosed with breathing trouble as suffering from ‘climate
change’.
 She was struggling to breathe after the recent wildfires in Kootenays region in the British Columbia province
worsened her asthma.
 In this diagnosis, the doctor linked mortality or severe illness to heat waves or air pollution.
 If we’re not looking at the underlying cause (climate change), and we’re just treating the symptoms, we’re just
gonna keep falling further behind.
13.5 Technical Textiles

Union Minister of Textiles said that time has come to target 5 times increase in export of Technical Textiles in 3 years.
 Technical textiles are textiles materials and products manufactured for non-aesthetic purposes, primarily
for technical performance and functional properties.
 Depending upon their application areas, Technical Textiles products are divided into 12 broad categories.
o Agrotech, Buildtech, Clothtech, Geotech, Hometech, Indutech, Mobiltech, Meditech, Protech,
Sportstech, Oekotech, Packtech.
 India shares nearly 6% of world market size of 250 Billion USD.
 The growth of Technical Textiles in India has gained momentum in past 5 years, currently growing at 8 % per
annum rate. The aim is to hasten this growth to 15-20% range during next 5 years.
13.6 The Taproot

Bitcoin went through a major upgrade called the Taproot, which is the most major change to the bitcoin protocol since
the SegWit block capacity change (2017)
 SegWit (Segregated Witness) increased the amount of transactions that could fit into a block by pulling data on
signatures from bitcoin transactions.
 The Taproot upgrade was first proposed by Greg Maxwell in 2018.
 It enables the blockchain of the bitcoin network to execute more complex transactions, potentially widening the
use cases of virtual currency.
 Taproot introduces a new digital signature scheme called "Schnorr" that will help bitcoin transactions become
more efficient and more private.
 Schnorr signatures bundle many signatures required for multi-signature and complex transactions into a single
unique key on-chain.
 Schnorr can also be leveraged to let bitcoin users execute more complex smart contracts on the bitcoin protocol.
o Smart contracts are self-executing transactions whose results depend on pre-programmed inputs.

 Taproot impacts the bitcoin network’s ability to process more smart contracts, making it a little more
competitive with Ethereum.
 Taproot increases privacy by obscuring what type of transaction is being executed.
 Taproot improves the Bitcoin network’s efficiency by drastically reducing the volume of data required to be
stored on-chain to complete complex transactions.
 More flexible transaction types and lower costs may support more development of Decentralized Finance (DeFi)
and Non-fungible Tokens (NFTs) on bitcoin.
13.7 Anti-Doping
National Dope Testing Laboratory (NDTL) regains the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) accreditation.With this,
NDTL’s Anti-Doping testing and activities will be resumed with immediate effect.
 Doping is defined by the International Olympics Committee (IOC) as, ‘the use of any method or substance that
might harm the athlete, in a quest to gain an unfair advantage, over his or her fellow competitors’.
 Doping are the performance enhancing drugs and dietary supplements that have been around since the ancient
Olympic Games.
 These drugs are considered helpful to improve athletic performance.
 The use of banned drugs by athletes is referred to as ‘doping’.
 Types of Doping
o Performance enhancing substance (Stimulants, Anabolic Steroids, Peptide hormones, Beta-2 Agonist,
Narcotics, Diuretics, and Cannabinoids)
o Physical methods (Blood doping and Gene doping)
 Blood doping is the process of increasing the Red blood cells by blood transfusion.
 It increases haemoglobin allows higher amount of Oxygen to fuel an athlete’s muscles. This can improve stamina
and performance, particularly in long distance events.
 Gene doping is the non-therapeutic use of cells, genes, genetic elements or of the modulation of gene
expression, having the capacity to improve athletic performance.
 Anti-doping means opposing or prohibiting illegal doping to improve athletic performance.
 Anti-doping authorities state that using performance-enhancing drugs goes against the ‘spirit of sport’.
 Related Links - Human Growth Hormone, Court of Arbitration for Sport
World Anti-Doping Agency
 The World Anti Doping Agency (WADA) is a foundation created through a collective initiative led by the
International Olympic Committee (IOC).
 Established in 1999 as per the Lausanne Declaration on Doping in Sport, the WADA is an international
independent agency composed and funded equally by the sport movement and governments of the world.
 It was found to promote, coordinate and monitor the fight against drugs in sports.
 Its key activities include scientific research, education, development of anti-doping capacities, and monitoring
of the World Anti-Doping Code.
 This Code is the document harmonizing anti-doping policies in all sports and all countries. The provisions of
this Code are enforced by the UNESCO International Convention against Doping in Sport.
 The aims of the Council of Europe Anti-Doping Convention, the US Anti-Doping Agency and National Anti
Doping Agency (India) are also closely aligned with those of WADA.
National Anti Doping Agency
 National Anti Doping Agency (NADA) was set up as registered society under the Societies Registration Act of
1860 in 2005.
 It was set up with a mandate for Dope free sports in India.
 The primary objectives are

1. To implement anti-doping rules as per WADA code,

2. To regulate dope control programme,
3. To promote education and research and
4. To create awareness about doping and its ill effects.
13.8 Shackleton’s Ship

Scientists of the Endurance22 expedition have found the sunken wreck of polar explorer Ernest Shackleton’s ship
Endurance, more than a century after it was lost to the Antarctic ice.
 The vessel Endurance was crushed by ice and sank in November 1915.
 This ship lies 3,000 m below the surface of the Weddell Sea, about 6.4 km south of the location recorded in 1915
by its captain, Frank Worsley.
 Shackleton’s 1914-16 attempt to become the first person to cross Antarctica via the South Pole failed - he never
set foot on the continent.
 But his successful bid to reach help at a remote South Atlantic whaling station and rescue his men is considered
a heroic feat of endurance.
 The expedition to find the ship comes 100 years after Shackleton’s death in 1922.
 Good Condition - The ship was in good condition - still intact - as it was 3,000 m below the surface of the
Weddell Sea.
 The bottom of the Weddell Sea is a very inhospitable environment for just about everything - especially the
kind of bacteria, mites and wood-eating worms that would enjoy munching on a wooden shipwreck.
 No sunlight penetrates to 10,000 feet that makes the deep waters dark.
 The ship is protected as a historic monument under the 6-decade-old Antarctic Treaty that is intended to protect
the region's environment.

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1.33 Carbon found in Mars ...................................... 22

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

2.26 Eugene Parker .................................................. 43 4.28 INS Vela ............................................................ 59

3. Telescopes & Observatories ............. 43 Other Naval Ships ................................. 59

3.1 Study on Astronomical Observatories .............. 43 4.29 IAC-1 Vikrant ................................................... 59

3.5 Neutrino ............................................................ 46 4.33 Sagar Nidhi....................................................... 61

3.6 X-particles in Quark-gluon Plasma .................. 46 4.34 INS Khukri ........................................................ 62

3.7 SARAS 3 Radio Telescope ................................ 47 5. Health ............................................. 63

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

Diseases in News ................................... 74 Introduction ......................................... 92

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

8.13 Aluminium ...................................................... 109 10. Nano Technology .......................... 130

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

1.1 Types of Orbits

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

1.2 Types of Satellites

1.3 Launch Vehicles

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

1.6 GSLV MK III

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

1.8 Small Satellite Launch Vehicle

1.9 Sounding Rockets

1.10 Vikas Engine

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

1.11 Cryogenic Engine

1.12 Scramjet Engine - TD

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

1.13 Green Propellants

1.14 The International Space Station (ISS)

Indian Missions in News

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

1.16 Lunar Missions

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

Other Notable Missions

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

1.20 GSLV-Mk III - M1 / Chandrayaan-2 Mission

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

1.21 Aditya-L1 Mission

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

1.22 Mangalyaan Mission

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

1.23 GEMINI system

1.24 Mission Venus

1.25 NASA’s Missions to Venus

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

1.26 New Shephard

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

1.29 Lucy Mission - First Mission to Trojans

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

1.30 NASA’s DART Mission

1.31 Sampling Process of Perseverance Rover

CHENNAI |SALEM| MADURAI | COIMBATORE DELHI | BANGALORE | THIRUVANANTHAPURAM

1.32 Laser Communications Relay Demonstration

1.33 Carbon found in Mars

1.34 Parker Solar Probe