Module 2 Unit 1 Learner Guide

Learning Unit 1
The development of babies, toddlers and young
children

After completing this Learning Unit, you will be able to demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the development of babies, toddlers and young children, by successfully
completing the following:

• Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of theories of child development.

• Compare own views about the meaning and use of key terms to the views of others,
showing how such views influence our ways of seeing and working with children.
• Compare different ways of seeing the development of young children to highlight key
similarities and differences in the theories.
• Describe stages in the development of children in each domain in line with existing
theories.
• Identify factors that enable the development of children in each domain in line with relevant
existing theories.
• Ensure that explanations of how gender, socio-economic background, age, environment
and special needs impact on the development of children in each domain are consistent
with established theories or literature and the principles of inclusion and anti-bias.
• Provide descriptions to show how development is shaped by socio-cultural influences.
• Provide descriptions to show how development within each domain is linked to and
affected by development in other domains.

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The development of babies, toddlers and young children

In this unit you will learn about the holistic (that is, total or complete) development of a child.
You will also be able to understand the belief that all the different domains (areas) of child
development are interconnected. When we say the domains are interconnected, we mean that
learning in one domain will cause growth and development in the other domains.
You will also be introduced to psychologists who have produced theories on how children
develop, their developmental stages, and which of their body parts and mind become ready
to work at what age.
It is very important that you take a holistic approach to understand these theories. This means
that you should not see the theories as separate, but as parts of one big whole. Once you are
familiar with the theories of child development, you will need to combine and interpret them
yourself so that you understand how the baby, toddler or young child develops as a whole
person.
By holistic development we mean physical, social, emotional and intellectual development.
This means that you need to provide children with activities that will make them grow and
develop on all three these levels.

Definitions of key terms in child development

Childhood
Childhood refers to the period between infancy (about 1-2 years) and pubescence.
Most of the physical and mental development of a person takes place in childhood. It is the
critical period during which children can establish good habits of both exercise and nutrition
that can last a lifetime. By the age of seven, nearly all of the motor control mechanisms in the
brain are present. Motor control mechanisms are those systems that help the child control
movement. The child is now also quickly developing motor skills (movement skills).
Different cultures at different times have different views about childhood.
These viewpoints are that children:
• are basically good
• are eager to learn
• deserve kindness and respect
• should be seen, not heard

Human development
Human development is a pattern of change or movements that starts when a baby is
conceived and continues through old age. In the younger years, development involves growth
and maturation (becoming an adult).
In the early childhood years, children develop the ability to be fully capable human beings.
They learn to speak their home language - or more than one language if they are exposed to
other languages. They learn to co-ordinate their bodies by walking, talking, climbing, skipping,
hopping, and jumping. They learn to interact socially others, taking turns, sharing, greeting,
communicating ideas and feelings. They learn to physically manage more and more complex
activities – drawing, painting, making models, and completing puzzles. They learn to play in
creative and imaginative ways and use their creativity and imagination in their learning

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activities. They learn to develop and apply values, like kindness and caring, in their daily
activities.

Holistic development
Holistic development is basically the development of everyone's intellectual, emotional, social,
physical, artistic, creative and religious values and feelings. It is pretty much just the
development of the entire brain's thoughts and feelings.
Teaching/Facilitation
Teaching takes place when the teacher presents knowledge to the learner and invites the
learner to become involved in the learning process.
Facilitation is the process during the teacher guides and supports the child in a structured or
unstructured environment.
Why do we talk about facilitating for child development, rather than teaching a child?
In the holistic and integrated perspective of early childhood development, a teacher takes an
active role when he or she presents learning material and shape knowledge. A facilitator simply
promotes and guides a process that is already on track.

Integrated learning
The integrated curriculum views children’s experiences as learning opportunities, which are
all interconnected. Integrated themes for curriculum planning enable children to make
connections among and between ideas and knowledge, which is meaningful to them.
Integrated learning makes it easier to link learning experiences across developmental
domains and across content/learning areas. Learning is therefore viewed in a holistic manner,
and a variety of materials is used to lead children to acquire knowledge, skills and disposition
and feelings.

Developmentally appropriate activities

Developmentally appropriate activities are activities that are appropriate for each child’s
development stage.
You should understand how children develop and grow so that you can choose appropriate
activities for them.
Selection of appropriate activities will lay a solid foundation and accommodate children’s
different learning abilities.

1.1 Theories of child development – ways of seeing the development of babies,

toddlers and young children
Many theories of development have been described by psychologists, doctors and
philosophers, and together they create a field of knowledge about childhood. The theory
focuses mostly on the development process. It regards the individual as being active in the
process of development, with change occurring because of the unfolding of internal forces. It
is assumed that human beings will progress through definite stages of development, directed
by forces within them. (Hook et al. , 2002, p. 382. )
These theories explain that the child slowly grows and develops abilities as his or her body
becomes able to do certain tasks. Each stage of development can proceed well only if the
previous stages have been mastered. For this reason, children may be prevented from

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developing well if some of their abilities are not stimulated at the right stage of their
development.
Organismic development can be described as being similar to the way we bake a cake – if
one ingredient is left out, the whole cake may not taste good, as all the ingredients interact
together. Similarly, child development requires that all the right elements should interact
together to be a total success.
In the same way that new born animals learn to stand on their legs within the first few hours
after their birth if they are in a suitable environment, humans also need certain stimulating
environmental conditions in order to develop all their abilities fully.
As you learn about the main theories of development, you should be aware that the child
functions as a whole person, even though he is described in parts (domains) by the theorists.
It is up to you to combine and integrate the theories so that you understand how the baby,
toddler or young child develops as a whole person. Your work as an ECD practitioner/facilitator
is to provide activities for babies, toddlers and young children, to help them grow and develop
in all domains. Once development begins, it affects progress in all domains at once. You may
not immediately see evidence of this but the parts of the picture will emerge later. (Think of a
rainbow: sometimes you can’t see all the colours at once, or even the whole rainbow, but if
you walk to the end of your street or drive over a hill, you may see the whole thing – the
potential was there all the time. )

Case Study 1 (below) paints a scenario of the holistic development of a child:

Case Study 1: Thandeka Maseko

(Depicts holistic development areas)
Thandeka is a little five-year-old girl who lives with her grandmother, Lumka in a two –
roomed shack in the back yard of the garage owner in Jabavu “SOWETO”.
Lumka loved Thandeka and kept her clean and fed at all times. Thandeka was made to
watch TV for the whole day, when her grandmother was doing other household chores.
One day a neighbour told Lumka that she had seen an advertisement in the community
newspaper for a new preschool that is to be opened in the area, run by non-governmental
organisation and advised Lumka to register Thandeka, for her to get stimulated rather than
sitting at home watching TV.
Thandeka joined the centre, the ECD educator Mrs Mongala decided to take her into her
class for three months to see how she would cope. She was sure that by playing with other
children her own age would be a very constructive experience for Thandeka.
Mrs Mongala couldn’t spend all her time working with Thandeka so she organised friends
of hers to work alongside her, talking to her and making sure she was able to participate in
all the learning areas provided which include:
Painting
Drawing
Play dough kneading
Cutting and pasting
This helped Thandeka to make friends and she learned quickly by copying what her new
friends were doing, which helped her to develop the small muscles.

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After three months, Thandeka was a different child. Her small muscle control was excellent.
Her creativity was good. Other children in the class responded to Thandeka’s positive
attitude and she began to integrate easily and socially into the group.

As this case study shows, there is a strong overlap between the different developmental areas.
Thandeka’s poor fine motor skills were an obstacle to her creative development, as well as
her social and emotional development. However, when her fine motor skills improved, her
development in other areas also improved.
• Holistic development means the need to help the child to develop in a holistic way,
building and strengthening her skills and abilities in all of the main developmental
areas.

Psychoanalytic child development theories by Sigmund Freud

The theories proposed by Sigmund Freud stressed the importance of childhood events and
experiences, but almost exclusively focused on mental disorders rather that normal
functioning.
• He emphasised that a child's personality is formed by the ways which his parents
managed his sexual and aggressive drives. There were five stages:
- oral (0-18 months)
- anal (18 months – 3 1/2 years)
- phallic (3 1/2 years – 6 years)
- latency (6 years – puberty)
- genital (puberty – adulthood)

Stage 1: Beginning at birth:

The Oral Stage: The lips, tongue, and teeth are at the centre of understanding the world. The
impulses of hunger and thirst are paramount -- and can only be gratified orally.
Oral Gratification in adulthood is seen as pathological only in extreme instances. Partial fixation in
the oral stage is seen as a cause of smoking, overeating, or heightened interest in oral sexual
gratification.

Stage 2: Ages 2 to 4.
The Anal Stage: As children learn how to control their own bladder, urination and defecation play an
increasing role in the child’s life. Children associate both praise and criticism with the withholding or
release of body waste. Anal fixation can occur due to the inconsistency between the praise given for
successful toilet practice and the coexisting disgust of fecal material.

Stage 3: 3 years+
The Phallic Stage: If the child has passed through the anal stage. Genital focus now captures the
child’s interest and the child is either obsessed with having a penis or not having one. Sexual pleasure

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is linked to the closeness of one’s parents. During this stage, children often want to sleep with their
parents and become jealous when they are not the focus of their parent's attention.

Stage 4:
The Latency Stage: After the Phallic Stage, children repress sexual thoughts. Internal feelings of
shame, guilt, and morality help maintain this latency period.

Stage 5: Puberty
The Genital Stage: The sexual impulses are reawakened in the adolescent. The sexual behaviour is
now directed toward other people, rather than the self-centred exploration of the phallic period.
Females generally lose their penis envy during this stage. Heterosexuality (desire for a sexual partner
of the opposite sex) is seen as a healthy direction for mature sexual impulses. Homosexuality is seen
by Freud as a genital fixation.

Each psychosexual stage has three main parts:

1. A physical focus: where the child’s energy is concentrated and their gratification obtained.
2. A psychological theme: related to both the physical focus and the demands of the outside
world being made on the developing child. For each stage, there can be two extremes in
psychological reaction – either doing too much or not doing enough of what is ideal.
3. An adult character type: in the first three stages this adult character type is related to being
fixated or stuck at that stage. If a person doesn’t resolve the psychological issues that
arise at that stage they will always have problems relating to those issues.
At each stage, there is a crisis which must be worked through. If the crisis is not properly
worked out, the person could become fixated at that stage of development. Fixations are seen
in adulthood as child-like approaches to gratifying the basic impulses.

Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development

Erik Erikson also proposed a stage theory of development, but his theory involved
development throughout the entire human lifespan.
Erikson believed that each stage of development was focused on overcoming a conflict e. g.
the primary conflict during the adolescent period. This stage involves establishing a sense
of personal identity.
Erikson suggests that success or failure in dealing with the conflicts at each stage can have
an impact on overall functioning. During the adolescent stage, for example, failure to develop
an identity results in role confusion.

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He expanded on Freud's theories.

• He believed that development is life-long.
• Erikson outlined eight stages of psychosocial
development. Each stage is described in terms of a
positive and a negative quality. People are happiest
when they can manage their lives to reach the positive
outcome of a particular stage of development.
• He emphasised that at each stage, the child acquires
attitudes and skills resulting from the successful
negotiation of the psychological conflict.
• He identified the following eight stages:

i. Basic trust vs mistrust (birth – 1 year)

ii. Autonomy vs shame and doubt (ages 1–3)
iii. Initiative vs guilt (ages 3–6)
iv. Industry vs inferiority (ages 6–11)
v. Identity vs identity confusion (adolescence)
vi. Intimacy vs isolation (young adulthood)
vii. Generativity vs stagnation (middle adulthood)
viii. Integrity vs despair (the elderly)
At different ages, certain types of behaviour and relationship might have a special meaning
for socio-emotional development; for example for a school age child, it is important that the
child get a sense of his own competence and ability to work.
With younger children there should be plenty of opportunities for free play and experimentation
so that they can develop autonomy (independence). You as facilitator must balance this with
firm guidance so that children will not experience self-doubt.
Among preschool children, for example, those who have been protected and have had
everything done for them may have a lot of self-doubt. These children strive for perfection and
are afraid of failure. To help children develop autonomy, you should let them know that it is
acceptable to make mistakes and to create solutions that are less than perfect.

Jean Piaget’s cognitive child development theories

Theorist Jean Piaget suggested that children think differently than adults and proposed a stage
theory of cognitive development.
1. The first stage of cognitive development is the sensorimotor stage, which means the
infant uses his senses and motor abilities to understand the world and which occurs
between birth and two years of age.
2. The second stage of cognitive development is the pre-operational stage, which means
the child uses mental representations of objects and is able to use symbolic thought
and language and which lasts from about age two to age seven.

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3. The third stage of cognitive development is the concrete operational stage, which
means the child uses logical operations or principles when solving problems and lasts
from about seven to eleven years of age.
4. The fourth stage of cognitive development is the formal operational stage, which
begins at about twelve years of age. During this stage, children begin to think in more
abstract and logical ways.
He was the first to note that children play an active role in gaining knowledge of the world.
According to his theory, children can be thought of as "little scientists" who actively construct
their knowledge and understanding of the world.

Behavioural Child Development Theories by John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov and B. F.

Skinner
These theories were formulated by theorists such as John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov and B. F.
Skinner.
Behavioural theories of child development focus on how environmental interaction influences
behaviour. The theories deal only with observable behaviour that means behaviour that can
be seen or heard.
These theorists believe that development is considered a reaction to rewards, punishments,
stimuli and reinforcement.
This theory differs considerably from other child development theories because it gives no
consideration to internal thoughts or feelings.
Instead, it focuses purely on how our experience shapes who we are. The behavioural theories
of Skinner continue to influence what goes on in schools, especially for some special
education programmes. The mechanistic theory of behaviourism emphasises the role of the
environment on an individual's development. Preparing the environment for appropriate
reinforcement is a major goal.
Two examples of Skinner's contribution to education are behaviour modification and
programmed learning. Both of these rely heavily on immediate reinforcement, in which a child
has to exhibit the "right" behaviour or produce the "correct" answer in order to be positively
reinforced.
Applications of this theory have resulted in an overemphasis on isolated skills and drill, as well
as a heavy reliance on teacher-directed and teacher-reinforced activities. As a result, teachers
often ignore children's curiosity and prior knowledge.

Social Child Development Theories by John Bowlby

There is a great deal of research on the social development of children. John Bowlby proposed
one of the earliest theories of social development.
Bowlby believed that early relationships with caregivers play a major role in child development
and continue to influence social relationships throughout life.

Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

The psychologist Albert Bandura proposed what is known as social learning theory.
According to this theory of child development, children learn new behaviours by observing
other people.

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Unlike behavioural theories, Bandura believed that external reinforcement was not the only
way that people learn new things.
Instead, intrinsic reinforcements such as a sense of pride, satisfaction and accomplishment
could also lead to learning.
By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children develop new skills
and acquire new information.

Lev Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

Another psychologist named Lev Vygotsky proposed a seminal learning theory that has
become very influential, especially in the field of education.
Like Piaget, Vygotsky believed that children learn actively and through hands-on experiences.
His socio-cultural theory also suggested that parents, caregivers, peers and the culture at
large were responsible for the development of higher order functions.
An example of this might be when a parent "helps" an infant clap or roll her hands to the pat-
a-cake rhyme, until she can clap and roll her hands herself.
Vygotsky was strongly focused on the role of culture in determining the child's pattern of
development:
"Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and
later, on the individual level; first, between people (inter-psychological) and then inside the
child (intra-psychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and
to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between
individuals. "
Vygotsky says that the child's cultural environment plays a large part in his or her cognitive
development. The child learns what and how to think through language. By interacting with
parents, teachers and peers, a child develops and masters problem-solving skills.

1.2 Compare own views to the views of others

We all have an internal viewpoint of how other cultures live, as well as our own bias and stories
that are not necessarily true. Opening your mind to how others think will greatly enrich your
life. South Africa is multi-culturally rich, and offers a fine opportunity to explore and widen your
own viewpoint.
In this section we will compare our own views about the meaning and use of key terms to the
views of others, showing how such views influence our ways of seeing and working with
children:
• "Key terms" include but are not limited to childhood, development, teaching, well-being,
Ubuntu and rights, etc.
• "Views of others" refers to those views in the immediate environment as well as a more
global or international view.

African culture point of view

In African culture, the baby is valued and kept close to the mother at all times. Parental control
begins at about age two when the toddler is mobile and busy exploring the world. Children
should always use their home language at home and respect their origins (where their
ancestors came from) and traditional beliefs. They should be respectful towards adults.

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Ubuntu has its origins in the indigenous languages of southern Africa; the concept focuses
on people's loyalty to and associations with each other.
“Ubuntu” is an ancient African word meaning "humanity to others". It also means "I am what I
am because of who we all are". Children are therefore never orphans since the roles of
mother and father are not limited to in a single individual with respect to a single child. No
adult will ever allow any child around him/her to be an orphan. Your neighbour's child is your
own, and his/her success is your success too.

Western urbanised culture point of view

In Western urbanised culture there is a belief that too much attention may spoil the baby.
The mother should consult experts if she is at all unsure of how to care for the baby.
The baby’s behaviour should fit the norms given in the media.
The mother’s need to earn an income is primary, and children’s needs must come second to
that.
Young children should be respectful and quiet when in the company of adults.
(This urbanised culture is changing all the time as a result of various global influences so you
may want to describe your own culture's beliefs here of the urban perspective on childhood. )

The evolutionary approach to childhood point of view

This is a new viewpoint on what childhood is.
This point of view looks at how human babies and mothers interact and compares it with how
other babies interact with their mothers.
The human baby at birth is extremely weak and dependent, unlike most other babies who can
walk very soon after birth.
Evolutionary adaptation refers to the changes of the human species to ensure that human
beings can adapt to a changing environment.
These behaviours, like crying to be picked up and parenting of the mother, ensure that the
baby gets what it needs in terms of both emotional comfort and food.
If the mother responds to the entire baby’s crying and attachment behaviour, a better
relationship is created and the baby will be easier to manage.
From this point of view, there is no "spoiling" by giving the baby exactly what he or she needs;
rather, it is better that way.
The repeated, long daily separation of the child from the mother goes against the evolutionary
approach.
• Placing a child in a day care centre, increases the level of anxiety in the child-mother
relationship, compared to when the child is raised at home. Though it is a solution for
working mothers, leaving a baby at a full day care centre might negatively effect the
child's development phases.
In this situation, the responsibility of a practitioner within the ECD setting is most important.
The practitioner should respond to the needs of children in the most sensitive and caring way
possible. Children are extremely vulnerable and dependent. The practitioner should give the
same attention to the toddlers and young children in her class like she would give her own
children. Knowing the effects of long separation, it will help if a practitioner is understanding
and supportive when children display signs of anxiety or unhappiness with no apparent
reason.

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1.3 Compare different ways of seeing the development of young children

There are certain key similarities and differences between the theories.
The following table outlines the similarities and differences of development theories:
Table 1
Theorist Theories Main Stages
Jean Piaget Cognitive Stages of Development
Development Children as constructors of knowledge.
Development leading learning.
Environmental factors influence learning.
Children assimilate experiences and then accommodate them
within their current understanding.
Children adjust and use new information continually to make
sense of experiences and perceptions.
John Dewey & Constructivism Learning is active and constructive.
Jean Piaget Learning by doing.
Learning is interactive.
Children learn through play.
Lev Vygotsky Socio-constructivism Children are actively engaged in social and cultural
experiences.
Play leads to development.
Zone of proximal development – the area between actual and
potential learning.
Language is important.
Interaction between children and more experienced others.
Erik Erikson Psychosocial theory Development is described in terms of eight stages that span
childhood and adulthood, each offering opportunities for
personality growth and development.
Abraham Maslow Humanistic Children’s physical needs must be met.
Children must feel psychologically safe and secure.
Urie Ecological Children living and learning in multiple social and cultural
Bronfenbrenner context influence children’s learning and development.
Learning as reciprocal.
Interactions and how they affect children.
Howard Gardner Multiple intelligences Human cognitive competence refers to a set of abilities,
talents, or mental skills, which we call intelligences.
Individuals differ in the degree or skill and the nature of their
combinations.
Brain Researchers Brain-based learning Early childhood is a critical period for brain development.
R. N. Caine and Children learn through all their senses and stimulation triggers
G. Caine, E. chemicals that build connections.
Jensen And R. Children demonstrate different modes of knowing and different
Sylvester ways of representing what they know.
Loris Mamaguzzi Constructivist, Socio- The Reggio Emilia Approach
cultural Child and Childhood
Physical Space
Parental Involvement
Collaborative Relationships
Documentation
The Hundred Languages of Children
D. Weikart and P. Cognitively oriented The High/Scope Curriculum.
Hohmann curriculum-based on Children are active learners.
Piaget and Vygotsky’s Use of a variety of learning centres with adequate materials
Theory and developmentally appropriate activities.
Key experiences
Active problem solving-plan-do-review process.
Balance between child initiated and teacher planned
instructional activities.
Teachers responsible for planning curriculum that reinforces
and extends learning activities.

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Theorist Theories Main Stages

Post-Modernists Post-modernist Theory Understanding children as capable learners having a role and
a voice in the decision-making process, with diverse
understandings, capabilities and dispositions.
Understanding the contextualized and dynamic nature of
practice.
Understanding the danger of universalised practice.
Recognizing many paths to learning.
Having broad and diverse interests.
Children need to be supported socially, culturally and
emotionally as they engage in learning environments.
Diversity is valued.

1.4 Describe stages in the development of children in each domain of

development
The domains of childhood development are relevant to the development concepts of the
following skills:
• gross motor
• fine motor
• cognitive
• social/emotional
• adaptive/self help
• spiritual and moral
Many theorists have come to their own conclusions of what occurs internally at the various
stages of development and ages. Examining these conclusions will allow you to validate your
own often instinctive knowledge of what occurs in the various stages.

Stages of development in different domains

All the domains of children’s development are closely connected and influence each other.
Developmentally appropriate practice embraces the concept that children are active learners
who need direct cognitive, physical, and social experiences in order to construct their own
understandings of the world.
Children need opportunities to form and test their own assumptions through social interaction,
physical manipulation, and their own thought processes by observing what happens, reflecting
on their findings, asking questions, and formulating answers. In addition, developmentally
appropriate practice acknowledges that play is an important vehicle for children’s development
in all areas.

Freud’s stages of childhood development are as follows:

First Stage: Oral

From birth until a child is one year old, Freud theorised an individual's psychic and sexual
energy is concentrated on the mouth, from which he receives all his initial pleasure through
breastfeeding.

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Second Stage: Anal

Toddlers from ages two to three have reached Freud's second stage of psychosexual
development. Freud believed that children at this age connect their developing understanding
of societal rules and regulations to the pleasure they find in controlling their bowel movements.

Third Stage: Phallic

Freud's third stage of development is the phallic stage; it dominates from about age three to
six. According to Freud, during this time a child finds pleasure in the genitals. He believed boys
develop unconscious sexual desires for their mother and feel they must compete with their
father for their mother's affection. This theory is known as the Oedipus complex. Freud
theorized that out of fear, boys ultimately choose to identify with their father instead of fight
him and learn to repress sexual feelings for their mother.
Freud's full psychosexual theory includes two more stages: the latent stage, in which a child's
sexual development goes into a dormant period as he focuses on school from about age six
until puberty, and the genital stage, at which children grow into their sexual maturity and
refocus their source of sexual pleasure in the genitals in preparation for adulthood.

Erikson’s childhood development is as follows:

First Stage: Infancy: Birth to 18 Months

Ego Development Outcome: Trust vs Mistrust. Basic strength: Drive and Hope
Erikson also referred to infancy as the Oral Sensory Stage (as anyone might see who watches
a baby put everything in her mouth) where the major emphasis is on the mother's nurturing
the child, with a big emphasis on visual contact and touch.

Second Stage Early Childhood: 18 Months to 3 Years

Ego Development Outcome: Autonomy vs Shame. Basic Strengths: Self-control, Courage,
and Will.
During this a child masters skills for themselves. They learn to walk, talk and feed as well as
developing finer motor development and toilet training. This is when self-esteem and
autonomy is built and more control is gained over bodies and acquiring new skills, and learning
right from wrong. And one of the skills during the "Terrible twos" is the ability to use the powerful
word "NO!" an important skill of will. The most significant relationships are with parents.

Third Stage Play Age: 3 to 5 Years

Ego Development Outcome: Initiative vs Guilt. Basic Strength: Purpose
During this period the child experiences a desire to copy the adults around them and takes
initiative in creating play situations. They make up stories with their environment of toys and
objects, playing out roles in a trial universe, experimenting with the blueprint for what they
believe it means to be an adult. The word WHY appears and the most significant relationship
is with the basic family.

Piaget’s childhood development is as follows:

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• Sensory-motor stage birth to 2 years. This stage consists of six sub-stages infancy.
Children are using their physical or motor skills and their senses to explore their world
and develop their cognitive understandings.
• Pre-operational stage 2 to 7 years. In this stage children are less reliant upon senses
and physical exploration and, according to Piaget. During this stage, for example,
children can be shown that two balls of dough are exactly the same size, and they will
agree that the balls are the same size, but when one is flattened, they will usually tell
you that one of them is now bigger. This inability to conserve is a feature of the
preoperational stage.

The Behaviourists theories (Skinner, Watson and Pavlov) can be summed up as early
childhood development as follows (Watson's "words")
“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up
in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist
I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief,
regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.
I am going beyond my facts and I admit it, but so have the advocates of the contrary and they
have been doing it for many thousands of years. ”

The Social Learning Theorists:

These theorists agree that any stage is reinforced through rewards and punishment.
The domains of ECD are divided into five areas of development:
1. Physical - During this stage of development children are fast developing their gross
and fine motor skills. They will learn how to jump and balance on one foot, write
numbers and letters, draw shapes, and throw and catch a ball.
2. Cognitive - The cognitive domain is where children begin to think and ask questions
about where why things happen and where they are. Cognitive development rapidly
occurs during the preschool years. In the preschool years children can imagine objects
that are being talked about even though the object is not physically present. Children
also begin to form stable concepts about their environment and their own being.
3. Emotional - This grows as social development grows. Children understand that
actions have consequences and begin to manage their emotions. They realise they
can manage emotions such as fear, sadness, anger and happiness. During this period
their confidence also develops.
4. Social - Children do not have a natural empathy (compassion) at this stage but will
show signs of this development as they begin to share more information willingly. They
begin to develop conflict resolution skills. They start to understand the basic rules of
reasoning and how the world works, and they also understand that there are
advantages and disadvantages of being a cooperative, active member of society.
Participation in group activities becomes clear, especially games, and there is a lot of
imaginary play time.
5. Adaptive - Adaptive domains in early childhood refer to children's ability to use daily
living skills such as getting themselves dressed, brushing their teeth, combing their
hair and even being able to help themselves to food. As the child enters preschool they
should be learning how to open and close buttons and should be using the bathroom.

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Table 2 below outlines stages from 0 to five years of age. It also describes the observable
developments at various stages in different domains.

This table will help you to identify children’s abilities at different stages. The purpose is to guide
an ECD Practitioner to choose the appropriate learning resources and activities for children at
different developmental stages.
Table 2

Stage Physical and language Emotional Social

Birth Feedings: 5-8 per day Generalized Tension Helpless
to Sleep: 20 hrs per day Asocial
1 month Sensory Capacities: makes basic Fed by mother
distinctions in vision, hearing,
smelling, tasting, touch,
temperature, and perception of pain
2 months Sensory Capacities: colour Distress Smiles at a face
to perception, visual exploration, and Delight Visually fixates at a face,
3 months oral exploration. May be soothed by
Sounds: cries, coos, grunts rocking.
Motor Ability: control of eye
muscles, lifts head when on
stomach.
4 months Sensory Capacities: localizes Enjoys being cuddled Recognises their mother.
to sounds Distinguishes between
6 months Sounds: babbling makes most familiar persons and
vowels and about half of the strangers, no longer
consonants smiles indiscriminately.
Feedings: 3-5 per day Expects feeding,
Motor Ability: control of head and dressing, and bathing.
arm movements, purposive
grasping, rolls over.
7 months Motor Ability: control of trunk and Specific emotional Protests separation from
to hands, sits without support, crawls attachment to mother. mother
9 months about. Enjoys "peek-a-boo"
10 months Motor Ability: control of legs and Affection Responsive to own name.
to feet, stands, creeps, apposition of Fear of strangers Waves bye-bye.
12 months thumb and forefinger. Curiosity, exploration Plays pat-a-cake,
Understands "no-no!"
Language: says one or two words, Gives and takes objects
imitates sounds, and responds to
simple commands.
Feedings: 3 meals, 2 snacks
Sleep: 12 hours, 2 naps
Shows anger
1 years Motor Ability: creeps up stairs, Gets very upset when Obeys limited commands.
to walks (10-20 min), and makes lines separated Repeats a few words.
1 ½ years on paper with crayon. from mother Interested in his mirror
Dependent Behaviour Fear of bath image.
Feeds himself.
1 ½ years Motor Ability: runs, kicks a ball, Temper tantrums Resentment of new baby.
to builds 6 cube tower (2yrs) (1-3yrs) Does opposite of what he
2 years Capable of bowel and bladder is told (18 months).
control.
Language: vocabulary of more than
200 words
Sleep: 12 hours at night, 1-2 hr nap
2 years Motor Ability: jumps off a step, rides Negativistic (2 ½ yrs) Talks, uses "I" "me" "you"
to a tricycle, uses crayons, builds a 9- Violent emotions, anger Copies parents' actions.
3 years 10 cube tower. Differentiates facial Dependent, clinging,
Language: starts to use short expressions of anger, possessive about toys,
sentences. Controls and explores sorrow, and joy. enjoys playing alongside
world with language, stuttering may Sense of humour another child.
appear briefly. (Plays tricks) Negativism (2½ yrs).

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Stage Physical and language Emotional Social

Fear of separation Resists parental
demands.
Gives orders.
Rigid insistence on
sameness of routine.
Inability to make
decisions.
3 years Motor ability: Stands on one leg, Self-sufficient in many Likes to share, uses "we".
to jumps up and down, draws a circle routines of home life. Cooperative play with
4 years and a cross (4 yrs) Affectionate toward other children, nursery
parents. school. Imitates parents.
Pleasure in genital Beginning of identification
manipulation with same-sex parent,
Romantic attachment to practices sex-role
parent of opposite sex activities.
(3 to 5 yrs.) Intense curiosity &
Jealousy of same-sex interest in other children's
parent. bodies.
Imaginary fears of dark, Imaginary friend.
injury, etc. (3 to 5 years)

4 years Motor ability: mature motor control, Responsibility and guilt Prefers to play with other
to skips, broad jumps, dresses Feels pride in children, becomes
5 years themselves, copies a square and a accomplishment competitive prefers sex-
triangle. appropriate activities.
Language: talks clearly, uses adult
speech and sounds, has mastered
basic grammar, relates a story,
knows over 2 000 words
(5 yrs)

1.5 Identify factors that enable the development of children in each domain
In this section we are going to look at the factors that enable the development of children in
each domain by studying some of the relevant theories:

Domains/areas of development
The domains of development are areas that are not static and continue from childhood to
adulthood. The successful completion of each developmental milestone will help the child
reach their full potential. The child’s social, cognitive, communicative and adaptive
development determines future success as much as physical development.

The three-year-old

Gross motor skills

The two most evident characteristics of the three-year-old child are movement and balance:
• Walking: The child can walk, but not yet balance on a straight line.
• Running: Running comes easily, but for the child can stop, he or she must think about
it.
• Climbing stairs: When climbing stairs, the child has to steady him or herself with one
hand or be held by an adult, especially when going downstairs.

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• Riding a tricycle: The child is able to ride a tricycle if he or she has been exposed to
this.
• Jumping with both feet from a standing position: The three-year-old can jump with both
feet from a standing position, but is not able to take all on one foot or jump over an
obstacle.
• Catching and throwing a ball: The child can catch and throw a ball (using both hands).
He or she enjoys kicking the ball, but distance and direction differ a lot.

Fine motor skills

Fine motor skills would depend on what opportunities the child has had to explore. The
following characteristics can be observed and supported:
• Holding a crayon and scribbling: The child holds a crayon in his/her fists and scribbles.
If this skill is practised, then his or her grip will become refined.
• Playing with building blocks and jigsaw puzzle: The children build a tower using five or
six blocks and can try to build a jigsaw puzzle.
• Threading large beads: Threading large beads are useful activities to develop fine
motor muscles.

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The four-year-old

Gross motor skills

Two words that best describe this age group are "energy and action".

• The child prefers running to walking, and often jumps into objects.
• The child finds it easier to climb stairs and he or she likes to jump two or three stairs
at a time.
• The four-year-old can even master a running jump. Climbing ladders, trees and the
jungle gym are part of the child’s new skills, but the child sometimes overestimates his
or her abilities.
• He or she may try throwing the ball with one hand but is still not yet accurate. However,
the child can kick quite accurately, especially if he or she has been exposed to this
activity.

Fine motor skills

Again, fine motor skills are dependent on what opportunities the child has had to practise these
skills. The four-year-old child tends to rush through activities when told to do them, but when
he or she chooses an activity, he or she may spend more time and care to perform the task.
Depending on circumstances, the child may do the following:

• Draw or paint quite detailed picture of homes and families, including animals. Pencil
and crayon grip is improving.
• This is a good time to introduce scissors and the skill of cutting. This is especially for
left-handers. The adult can help by placing a hand over the child’s hand so that they
can feel the "cutting movement".
• The child still enjoys block play, but will often enjoy it just as much to destroy what has
been built. He or she can now show focus on a jigsaw puzzle for a long time and can
try to build more advanced puzzles.

The five-year-old

Gross motor skills

By now most of the gross motor skills of adulthood are developed.
• The five-year-old walks and runs with confidence, has a good sense of balance and is
able to estimate distance and speed.
• The child no longer bumps into the projects and can climb up and down stairs
confidently.
• Most five-year-old children like to run, gallop and jump.
• They are able to concentrate on tasks like catching a beanbag or tennis ball.
• Kicking skills are well developed, and the child may begin to show talent in this area.

Fine motor skills

With enough practice, a five-year-old can be skilled and accurate in manipulating crayons,
scissors, paintbrushes, puzzles and building apparatus:

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• He or she is able to colour in a picture within the lines.

• The child shows energetic skills when he/she copies simple shapes.
• Blocks are standing to work in the left-to-right reading direction.

The six-year-old

Gross motor skills

The six-year-old child’s sense of balance is accurate and developed.
• They can stand on one foot until the count of 10.
• They can walk backwards for about five metres.
• They can jump with both feet together.
Fine motor skills
• They can throw and catch a ball.
• They can kick a ball.
• They can hit a ball with a bat.

Middle childhood
Though children in the middle childhood stage are extremely active, in school they have to
spend a lot of time in quiet activities. They may develop nervous habits such as pencil chewing,
running and general fidgeting. To help children work off nervous energy they need to take
frequent breaks from quiet activities.

Important facts to note:

• Children in the early stage need some stimulation because of their mental and physical
exertion (effort). It is a good thing to schedule relaxing activities after strenuous ones
to create mental stability.
• Fine muscle control is still not completely developed during the early stages of middle
childhood, especially in boys.
• Schedule writing assignments, such as printing letters and short sentences in the
beginning stage.
• Move on to tasks such as writing and art works.
• Creative art projects and learning to play musical instruments are good ways to use
these new skills.
• Children may struggle to focus on fine print or small objects. The shallow shape of the
eye at this stage creates far-sightedness in many children. Do the following if your
schedule allows:
o Break up reading time into short periods to avoid eye fatigue.
o Do not give children of this age reading materials with fine print.
• Although children become more and more co-ordinated, they are often reckless during
this stage. Because accidents are common, you should not allow children to play with
anything that can be dangerous if broken.

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• Bone growth is not yet complete, and the skeleton and ligaments may injure easily.
Children should avoid tiring and strenuous activities to reduce the risk of injury.

1.6 Factors that impact on the development of children in each domain

There are five different developmental domains of children, which all relate to each other. They
are easily referred to as the SPICE of life:
• Social - Refers mostly to the ability to form attachments, play with others, co-operation
and sharing, and being able to create lasting relationships with others.
• Physical - Development of fine (small) and gross (large) motor skills.
• Intellectual - The process of making sense of the world around them.
• Creative - The development of special abilities creating talents. Music, art, writing,
reading, and singing are all ways in which creative development take place.
• Emotional - Development of self-awareness, self-confidence, and coping with feelings
as well as understanding these feelings.
The following diagram shows the developmental domains:

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1.7 Describe how development is shaped by socio-cultural influences

• Socio-cultural learning theories have a lot to say about the influence of the environment that
the child develops in. This is an influence that they will carry into their adulthood and will
form a platform from which they will function for the rest of their lives. The emotional and
social development environment of “growing up” determines how children handle
relationships with others, and help them to better understand their own feelings.

Socio-cultural influences
This concept focuses not on the development stages as such, but rather on the overall effects
that what children learn from their social environments, may have on their development.
• Children basically develop their value system from the environment in which they live.
• If children are raised by caregivers who put a strong emphasis on sharing, helping,
and compassion for others, these children will probably integrate these values.
• If children are raised by caregivers who explain the difference between right and wrong
actions, these children will develop the ability to distinguish between right and wrong.

Socio-economic background
Children’s development may be affected by their background in the following ways:
• Girl children may be treated as less important in some cultures.
• Poverty or social disadvantage may mean that the child does not receive adequate
stimulation, care or suitable models of appropriate behaviour.
• An environment without enough age-appropriate play materials may mean that the
child reaches some milestones later than the norm.
• Special needs require extra attention, both at home and in the class, and they may
cause problems in social relationships.

Cultural practices
• The parents or primary caregivers pass on their beliefs, values and practice to their
children through modelling.
• They also reward their children for what they regard as culturally appropriate
behaviour.
• The primary caregiving relationship is the most powerful way to impact beliefs, values
and lifestyle practices. This happens through the process of identification: the child
takes on the images that are portrayed by the caregiver. Eventually the child identifies
with certain qualities of the caregiver and the environment.

1.8 Describe how development within each domain is linked to and affected by
development in other domains
The domains of development are not motionless and each is inseparably linked to the other.
Development in one domain influences and is influenced by development in other domains.
Development in one domain can limit or facilitate development in others. Knowing these
interrelations can give great insight into a child’s development.

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The case study below demonstrates how children can be influenced by people and
environment around them.

CASE STUDY: ROLE MODELLING

Fikile is four years old. Her mother Nomvula always wears skirts rather than jeans or
trousers because she wants to be seen as valuing Xhosa tradition. Nomvula allows Fikile
to wear jeans and trousers while she is a young child, but expects Fikile to also wear only
skirts when she reaches puberty.

Identification with another person means that you absorb and take on the images and qualities
of that person.
Your role as ECD practitioner is not as powerful as the role of the primary caregiver.
Nevertheless your role is powerful because of the amount of time you spend with the child and
also because the young child is very open to learning.

In conclusion, it is obvious from the discussion of the various theories that all the domains of
development are interdependent. The baby cannot learn to socialise or draw until she is
physically mobile and can grasp a crayon. She cannot learn to speak until her brain has
developed sufficiently (physically and cognitive development) and she has heard others
speaking her home language in her environment, and seen them interacting socially. She
cannot draw creatively or participate in creative and fantasy play until she has a physical
foundation of skills for drawing and playing, combined with an awareness of the constancy
and security of herself unchanged by fantasies and play experiences. She cannot judge an
action as right or wrong until she has developed cognitively and also been a part of social
interaction and understood how right and wrong affects others.
• Physical development of the baby must take place so that all systems (walking, talking,
and ability to feed self and care for self, social interaction) develop to their full extent.
• Cognitive development takes place at the same time as physical development.
• Psychosocial development depends on cognitive (and therefore also on physical)
development.
• Moral maturity depends on social and cognitive development.
• Creative ability depends on physical, social and cognitive development.

Class Activity 1: The development of babies, toddlers and young

children
Please follow the instructions from the facilitator to complete the formative
activity in your Learner Workbook.

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