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ANTENNA THEORY
by Constantine A. Balanis
Chapter 6

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6.1 Introduction

In the previous chapter, the radiation characteristics of single-element antennas were discussed and
analyzed.
Usually the radiation pattern of a single element is relatively wide, and each element provides low values
of directivity (gain).

In many applications it is necessary to design antennas with very directive characteristics (very high
gains)
to meet the demands of long distance communication. Increasing the electrical size of the
antenna

Another way to enlarge the dimensions of the antenna, without necessarily increasing the size of the
individual elements, is to form an assembly of radiating elements in an electrical and geometrical
configuration.
array antenna
In most cases, the elements of an array are identical.
This is not necessary, but it is often convenient, simpler, and more practical.
The individual elements of an array may be of any form (wires, apertures, etc.).

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6.1 Introduction

Figure 2 Flat microstrip array antennas.

Figure 1 Half-wave dipole array antennas.

Figure 3 Turnstile array antennas.

Figure 4 Parabolic array antennas.

Figure 5 Helical array antennas.

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6.1 Introduction

The total field of the array is determined by the vector addition of the fields radiated by the individual
elements.
This assumes that the current in each element is the same as that of the isolated element.

To provide very directive patterns, it is necessary that the fields from the elements of the array interfere
constructively (add) in the desired directions and interfere destructively (cancel each other) in the
remaining space.
In an array of identical elements, there are at least five controls that can be used to shape the overall
pattern of the antenna.

1. the geometrical configuration of the overall array (linear, circular, rectangular,

spherical, etc.)
2. the relative displacement between the elements
3. the excitation amplitude of the individual elements
4. the excitation phase of the individual elements
5. the relative pattern of the individual elements

the influence that each one of the above has on the overall radiation characteristics

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6.2 Two-Element Array

the antenna under investigation is an array of two infinitesimal horizontal dipoles positioned along the z-axis

− j  kr −(  2 )  − j  kr + (  2 ) 
kI 0 l  e  1 e  2 
 (where 𝛽 is the difference in phase excitation
Er = E1 + E2 = aˆ  j  cos 1 + cos  2  between the elements)
4  r1 r2 
 (6-1)

(6-2)

Figure 6.1 Geometry of two-element array positioned along the z-axis.

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6.2 Two-Element Array

the total field of the array is equal to the field of a

kI 0 le − jkr
cos  e (
+ j kd cos +  ) 2
+e (
− j kd cos +  ) 2 
Et = aˆ  j 
single element positioned at the origin multiplied by a
4 r 
factor which is widely referred to as the array factor.
kI 0 le − jkr   1   (6-3)
Et = aˆ  j cos  2 cos  ( kd cos  +  )  
4 r  2 
The array factor is a function of the geometry of the
1 
array and the excitation phase.
AF = 2 cos  ( kd cos  +  )  (6-4) By varying the separation 𝑑 and/or the phase 𝛽
2 
between the elements, the characteristics of the array
factor and of the total field of the array can be controlled.
( AF )n = cos  ( kd cos  +  )
1
(6-4a)
2 

It has been illustrated that the far-zone field of a uniform two-element array of identical elements is equal to the product of
the field of a single element, at a selected reference point (usually the origin), and the array factor of that array.

E(total) = E ( single element at reference point )    array factor  (6-5)

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6.2 Two-Element Array

E(total) = E ( single element at reference point )    array factor  (6-5)

This is referred to as pattern multiplication for arrays of identical elements.

total field = ( element factor )  ( space factor ) (4-59)

Each array has its own array factor. The array factor, in general, is a function of the number of elements,
their geometrical arrangement, their relative magnitudes, their relative phases, and their spacings.
The array factor will be of simpler form if the elements have identical amplitudes, phases, and spacings.

Since the array factor does not depend on the directional characteristics of the radiating elements themselves, it
can be formulated by replacing the actual elements with isotropic (point) sources.
Once the array factor has been derived using the point-source array, the total field of the actual array is obtained by
the use of (6-5).

Each point-source is assumed to have the amplitude, phase, and location of the corresponding element it is
replacing.

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Lab.

6.2 Two-Element Array

In order to synthesize the total pattern of an array, the designer is not only required to select the
proper radiating elements but the geometry (positioning) and excitation of the individual elements.

𝜋 𝜋
※ Ex. Find the nulls of the total field when 𝑑 = 𝜆Τ4 and 𝛽 = 0, 𝛽 = + , 𝛽 = − .
2 2

𝑖. 𝛽 = 0

 
Etn = cos  cos  cos   (6-1-1)
4 

 
Etn = cos  cos  cos   =0 (6-1-2)
4   =n

cos  n = 0   n = 90

    
Figure 6.1 Geometry of two-element array positioned along the z-axis.
cos  cos  n  = 0  cos  n = , −   n = does not exist
4  4 2 2

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6.2 Two-Element Array

(i) nulls of the total field when 𝑑 = 𝜆Τ4 and 𝛽 = 0

The only null occurs at 𝜃 = 90° and is due to the pattern of the individual elements.
The array factor does not contribute any additional nulls because there is not enough separation between
the elements to introduce a phase difference of 180° between the elements, for any observation angle.

Figure 6.3 Element, array factor, and total field patterns of a two-element array of infinitesimal horizontal dipoles
with identical phase excitation 𝛽 = 0°, 𝑑 = 𝜆Τ4 .

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6.2 Two-Element Array

𝜋
※ Ex. Find the nulls of the total field when 𝑑 = 𝜆Τ4 and 𝛽 = + 2 ,

𝜋
𝑖𝑖. 𝛽 = +
2
 
Etn = cos  cos  ( cos  + 1)  (6-1-3)
4 

 
Etn = cos  cos  ( cos  + 1)  =0 (6-1-4)
4   =n

cos  n = 0   n = 90

   
cos  ( cos  n + 1)  = 0  ( cos  n + 1) =   n = 0
4  4 2
Figure 6.1 Geometry of two-element array positioned along the z-axis.
 
 ( cos  n + 1) = −   n = does not exist
4 2

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6.2 Two-Element Array

𝜋
𝑖𝑖. 𝛽 = +
2

The nulls of the array occur at 𝜃 = 90° and 0°.

The null at 0° is introduced by the arrangement of the elements (array factor).

Figure 6.4 Pattern multiplication of element, array factor, and total array patterns of a two-element array of
infinitesimal horizontal dipoles with 𝛽 = 90°, 𝑑 = 𝜆Τ4.

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6.2 Two-Element Array

𝜋
𝑖𝑖. 𝛽 = +
2
The nulls of the array occur at 𝜃 = 90° and 0°.
The null at 0° is introduced by the arrangement of the elements (array factor).

The element in the negative z-axis has an initial phase lag of

90° relative to the other element.

As the wave from that element travels toward the positive

z-axis (𝜃 = 0° direction), it undergoes an additional 90° phase
retardation when it arrives at the other element on the positive
z-axis. Thus there is a total of 180° phase difference between
the waves of the two elements when travel is toward
the positive z-axis (𝜃 = 0°).

The waves of the two elements are in phase when they travel
in the negative z-axis (𝜃 = 180°), as shown in Figure 6.2(b).

Figure 6.2 Phase accumulation for two-element array for null formation toward 𝜃 = 0° & 𝜃 = 180°.

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6.2 Two-Element Array

𝜋
※ Ex. Find the nulls of the total field when 𝑑 = 𝜆Τ4 and 𝛽 = − 2 .

𝜋
𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝛽 = −
2

 
Etn = cos  cos  ( cos  − 1)  (6-1-5)
4 

 
Etn = cos  cos  ( cos  − 1)  =0 (6-1-6)
4   =n

cos  n = 0   n = 90

   
Figure 6.1 Geometry of two-element array positioned along the z-axis. cos  ( cos  n − 1)  = 0  ( cos  n − 1) =   n = does not exist
4  4 2
 
 ( cos  n − 1) = −   n = 180
4 2

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6.2 Two-Element Array

𝜋
𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝛽 = −
2

The nulls of the array occur at 𝜃 = 90° and 180°.

The null at 180° is introduced by the arrangement of the elements (array factor).

Figure 6.4 Pattern multiplication of element, array factor, and total array patterns of a two-element array of
infinitesimal horizontal dipoles with 𝜷 = −𝟗𝟎°, 𝒅 = 𝝀Τ𝟒.

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6.2 Two-Element Array

𝜋
𝑖𝑖𝑖. 𝛽 = −
2
The nulls of the array occur at 𝜃 = 90° and 180°.
The null at 180° is introduced by the arrangement of the elements (array factor).

The element at the positive z-axis has a phase lag of 90°

relative to the other.

The phase difference is 180° when travel is restricted toward

the negative z-axis (𝜃 = 180°).

There is no phase difference when the waves travel toward

the positive z-axis (𝜃 = 0°).

Figure 6.2.1 Phase accumulation for two-element array for null formation toward 𝜃 = 0° & 𝜃 = 180°.

15/21 Antennas & RF Devices Lab.

6.2 Two-Element Array

※ Ex. Consider an array of two identical infinitesimal dipoles.

For a separation 𝑑 and phase excitation difference 𝛽 between the elements.
Find the angles of observation where the nulls of the array occur.

kI 0 le − jkr
cos  e (
+ j kd cos +  ) 2
+e (
− j kd cos +  ) 2 
Et = aˆ  j
4 r  
normalize 1 
kI le − jkr
 1  (6-3) Etn = cos  cos  ( kd cos  +  )  (6-2-1)
Et = aˆ  j 0 cos  2 cos  ( kd cos  +  )   2 
4 r  2 
1 
Etn = cos  cos  ( kd cos  +  )  =0 (6-2-2)
2   =n

cos  n = 0   n = 90

1  1  2n + 1 
cos  ( kd cos  n +  )  = 0  ( kd cos  n +  ) =   
2  2  2 
  
  n = cos −1   −   ( 2n + 1)    ,
 2 d 
n = 0, 1, 2, 3,...
Figure 6.1 Geometry of two-element array positioned along the z-axis.

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N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: UNIFORM AMPLITUDE AND SPACING

Far-field geometry and phasor diagram of N-element array of isotropic sources

positioned along the Z-axis

(6.6)

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(1) (6.7)

(1)

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=1

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The maximum value of (6.10a) or (6.10 b) is equal to N. To normalize the array factors so that the ma
ximum value of each is equal to unity, AF (normalized) will be

(6.10 c)

(6.10 d)

To find the nulls of the array, (6.10 a) or (6.10 b) is set equal to zero.

(6.10c)

(6.10d)

• For n = N, 2N, 3N, . . ., (6.10 c) attains its maximum values because it reduces to a sin(0)/0 form.
• The values of n determine the order of the nulls (first, second, etc.).
• For a zero to exist, the argument of the arccosine cannot exceed unity.
• Thus the number of nulls that can exist will be a function of the element separation d and the phase Excitat
ion difference β.

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The maximum values of (6.10c) occur when

(6.10c)

(6.10d)

Broadside Array

In many applications it is desirable to have the maximum radiation of an array directed normal to the axis of the
array.

The maxima of the single element and of the array factor should both be directed toward 𝜃 = 90°.

Thus to have the maximum of the array factor of a uniform linear array directed
broadside to the axis of the array, it is necessary that all the elements have the
same phase excitation(in addition to the same amplitude excitation).

Figure 6.5 Far-field geometry of N-element array of

isotropic sources positioned along the z-axis.

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Broadside Array

Figure 6.6 3-D amplitude patterns for broadside, and broadside/end-fire arrays (𝑁 = 10).

To avoid any grating lobe, the largest spacing between the

elements should be less than one wavelength (dmax < λ).

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Ordinary End-Fire Array

Instead of having the maximum radiation broadside to the axis of the array, it may be desirable to direct it along the axis
of the array (end-fire).

As a matter of fact, it may be necessary that it radiates toward only one direction (either 𝜃 = 0° or 180° of Figure 6.5).

Figure 6.5 Far-field geometry of N-element array of

isotropic sources positioned along the z-axis.

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Ordinary End-Fire Array

Figure 6.6 3-D amplitude patterns for end-fire arrays toward 𝜃 = 0° and 180° (𝑁 = 10, 𝑑 = 𝜆Τ4).

❑ If the element separation is d = λ/2, end-fire radiation exists simultaneously in both directions (θ0 = 0◦ and θ0 = 180◦).
❑ If the element spacing is a multiple of a wavelength (d = nλ, n = 1, 2, 3, . . .), then in addition to having end-fire radiatio
n in both directions, there also exist maxima in the broadside directions.
❑ To have only one end-fire maximum and to avoid any grating lobes, the maximum spacing between the elements should
be less than dmax < λ/2.

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where L is the overall length

of the array

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Phased (Scanning) Array

In the previous two sections it was shown how to direct the major radiation from an array, by controlling the phase excitation
between the elements, in directions normal (broadside) and along the axis (end fire) of the array.

It is then logical to assume that the maximum radiation can be oriented in any direction to form a scanning array.

By controlling the progressive phase difference between the elements, the maximum radiation can be squinted in any desired
direction to form a scanning array.

Figure 6.11 3-D & 2-D array factor patterns for scanning arrays (𝑁 = 10, 𝛽 = −𝑘𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝜃 = 60°, 𝑑 = 𝜆Τ4).

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N-ELEMENT LINEAR ARRAY: UNIFORM SPACING, NONUNIFORM AMPLITUDE

❑ Three distributions : uniform, binomial, and Tschebyscheff

❑ Uniform amplitude array yields the smallest half-power beamwidth. It is followed, in order, by the D
olph-Tschebyscheff and binomial arrays.
❑ In contrast, binomial arrays usually possess the smallest side lobes followed, in order, by the Dolph-
Tschebyscheff and uniform arrays. As a matter of fact, binomial arrays with element spacing equal o
r less than λ/2 have no side lobes.
❑ It is apparent that the designer must compromise between side lobe level and beamwidth.
❑ For a given side lobe level the Dolph-Tschebyscheff array produces the smallest beamwidth between
the first nulls. Conversely, for a given beamwidth between the first nulls, the Dolph-Tschebyscheff de
sign leads to the smallest possible side lobe level.
❑ Uniform arrays usually possess the largest directivity.

where an’s are the excitation coefficients of the array elements.

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Array Factor

The amplitude excitation of the center element is 2a1.

Array Factor

The next step will be to determine the values of the excitation coefficients (an’s).

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The above represents Pascal’s triangle. If the values of m are used to represent the number of elements of the
array, then the coefficients of the expansion represent the relative amplitudes of the elements. Since the coeff
icients are determined from a binomial series expansion, the array is known as a binomial array.

Referring to (6-61a), (6-61b), and (6-63), the amplitude coefficients for the following arrays are:

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Binomial arrays do not exhibit any minor lobes provided the spacing between the elements is equal or less than
one-half of a wavelength.

approximate closed-form expressions for the half-power beamwidth and maximum directivity for the d = λ/2
spacing only have been derived [9] in terms of the numbers of elements or the length of the array

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PROBLEM # 02

Solution # 02

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