CH 0 Introduction - Stress Analsis

Stress Analysis
Introduction
Any material or structure may fail when it is loaded. The successful
design of a structure require detailed structural and stress analysis in
order to assess whether or not it can safely support the
required loads. To prevent structural failure, a typical design must
consider the following three major aspects:
1 Strength – The structure must be strong enough to carry the applied
loads.
2 Stiffness – The structure must be stiff enough such that only allowable
deformation occurs.
3 Stability – The structure must not collapse through buckling subjected
to the applied compressive loads.
The subject of structural and stress analysis provides analytical,
numerical and experimental methods for determining the strength,
stiffness and stability of load-carrying structural members.
1- Forces and moments
A force is a measure of its tendency to cause a body to move or translate
in the direction of the force. A complete description of a force includes
its magnitude and direction. The magnitude of a force acting on a
structure is usually measured by Newton (N), or kilonewton (kN). In
stress analysis, a force can be categorized as either external or internal.
External forces include, for example, applied surface loads, force of
gravity and support reactions, and the internal forces are the resisting
forces generated within loaded structural elements. Typical examples of
applied external forces include the following:
(a) Point load, where force is applied through a point of a structure

(Figure 1(a))
(b) Distributed load, where force is applied over an area of a structure
(Figure 1(b))
Figure 1
1
The moment of a force is a measure of its tendency to cause a body to
rotate about a specific point or axis. In order to develop a moment about,
for example, a specific axis, a force must act such that the body would
begin to twist or bend about the axis. The magnitude of the moment of
a force acting about a point or axis is directly proportional to the distance
of the force from the point or axis. It is defined as the product of the force
and the lever arm. The lever arm is the perpendicular distance between
the line of action of the force and the point about which the force causes
rotation. A moment is usually measured by Newton-meters (N-m), or
kilonewton-meters (kN-m). Figure 2 shows how a moment about the
beam–column connection is caused by the applied point load F.
Figure 2
2- Types of force and deformation

2.1 Force
On a cross-section of a material subject to external loads, there exist
four different types of internal force (Figure 1.3):
1 normal force, F, which is perpendicular to the cross-section;
2 shear force, V, which is parallel to the cross-section;
3 bending moment, M, which bends the material; and
4 twisting moment (torque), T, which twists the material about its
central axis.
Figure 3
2
2.2 Deformation
Table 1.1 shows the most common types of force and their associated
deformations. In a practical design, the deformation of a member can
be a combination of the basic deformations shown in Table 1.1.
3- Equilibrium system
In static structural and stress analysis, a system in equilibrium implies
that:
• the resultant of all applied forces, including support reactions, must
be zero;
• the resultant of all applied moments, including bending and twisting
moments, must be zero.
The two equilibrium conditions are commonly used to determine support

reactions and internal forces on cross-sections of structural members.
3.1 The method of section

One of the most basic analyses is the investigation of the internal
resistance of a structural member, that is, the development of internal
forces within the member to balance the effect of the externally applied
forces. The method of section is normally used for this purpose. Table
1.2 shows how the method of section works.
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In summary, if a member as a whole is in equilibrium, any part of it must
also be in equilibrium. Thus, the externally applied forces acting on one
side of an arbitrary section must be balanced by the internal forces
developed on the section.
3.2 The method of joint

The analysis or design of a truss requires the calculation of the forces
in each of its members. Taking the entire truss as a free body, the forces
in the members are internal forces. In order to determine the internal
forces in the members jointed at a particular joint, for example, joint A in
Figure 4, the joint can be separated from the truss system by cutting all
the members around it. On the sections of the cuts there exist axial
forces that can be further determined by considering the equilibrium of
the joint under the action of the internal forces and the externally applied
loads at the joint, that is, by resolving the forces in the x and y directions,
respectively, and letting the resultants be zero.
Figure 4
4
4- Stresses
Stress can be defined as the intensity of internal force that represents
internal force per unit area at a point on a cross-section.
Units. Since stress represents a force per unit area, in the International
Standard or SI system, the magnitudes of both normal and shear stress
are specified in the basic units of newtons per square meter (N/m2).
This unit, called a pascal (1 Pa = 1 N/m2) is rather small, and in
engineering work prefixes such as kilo- (103), symbolized by k, mega-
(106), symbolized by M, or giga- (109), symbolized by G, are used to
represent larger, more realistic values of stress, It is better to use the
equivalent: 1 N/mm2 = 1 MN/m2 = 1 MPa.
Stresses are usually different from point to point. There are three
categories of stresses, namely direct (or simple), indirect and
combined stresses.
4.1 Direct (or simple) stresses:

There are two types of stresses, namely normal and shear stresses,
since the stress is caused by the direct action of the applied load.
(a)- Normal stress

Normal stress is a stress perpendicular to a cross-section or cut.
(b)- Shear stress
Shear stress is a stress parallel to a cross-section or cut.
4.2 Indirect stresses:

There are two types of stresses, namely bending and torsional
stresses.
(a)- Bending stress due to bending moment.
(b)- Torsional stress due to twisting moment
4.3 Combined stresses: due to the combination between the

stresses in categories 1 and 2.
5- Allowable Stress Design

To ensure the safety of a structural member or mechanical element, it
is necessary to restrict the applied load to one that is less than the load
the member (or element) can fully support. There are many reasons
for doing this. For example, the intended measurements of a structure
or machine may not be exact, due to errors in fabrication or in the
assembly of its component parts. Unknown vibrations, impact, or
accidental loadings can occur that may not be accounted for in the
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design. Atmospheric corrosion, decay, or weathering tend to cause
materials to deteriorate during service. And finally, some materials,
such as wood, concrete, or fiber-reinforced composites, can show high
variability in mechanical properties.
One method of specifying the allowable load for a member is to use a

number called the factor of safety. The factor of safety (F.S.) is a ratio
of the failure load Ffail to the allowable load Fallow. Here Ffail is found
from experimental testing of the material, and the factor of safety is
selected based on experience so that all the above mentioned
uncertainties are accounted for when the member is used under similar
conditions of loading and geometry. Stated mathematically,

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Stress Analysis

(a) Point load, where force is applied through a point of a structure

2- Types of force and deformation

The two equilibrium conditions are commonly used to determine support

3.1 The method of section

3.2 The method of joint

4.1 Direct (or simple) stresses:

(a)- Normal stress

4.2 Indirect stresses:

4.3 Combined stresses: due to the combination between the

5- Allowable Stress Design

One method of specifying the allowable load for a member is to use a

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