NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

COURSE CODE: EDU321

COURSE TITLE: PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

 COURSE GUIDE

EDU321: PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

Course Developer/Writer Dr. Ayanniyi Alhassan

Course Editor Dr. Ogidan Rotimi

Programme Leader National Open University of Nigeria

Printed 2006

Reviewed 2015 (Dr. B. I. Ajufo)

Reviewed 2022 (Dr. Dorothy Ofoha)

Course Reviewer Dr. Dorothy Ofoha

Faculty of Education
National Open University of Nigeria
Abuja
CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction............................................................................................. 1

What You Wil Learn in this Course........................................................1

Course Aims............................................................................................ 2

Course Objectives............................................................................... ….2

Working through this Course................................................................... 2

The Course Materials............................................................................... 3

Study Units ...............................................................................................3

Presentation Schedule.............................................................................. 4

Assessment............................................................................................... 4

Tutor-Marked Assignment ..................................................................... 4

Final Examination and Grading............................................................... 5

Course Marking Structure...........................................................................5

Course Overview……………………………………………….………..5

How to Get the Best from the Course........................................................6

Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials.............................................................. 8

Summary....................................................................................................9
Course Guide

Introduction

EDU321: Psychology of Learning is a semester, two-credit unit foundation

course. It is a core course for all students in Teacher Education programmes. It is
also suitable as a course of study for anyone who wants to acquire some
knowledge of Psychology of Learning.

THE COURSE
The course is an important component in the programme of study that will enable
you graduate. The course has been designed to consist of three (3) modules of
fourteen (14) units. It carries two (2) credit units.

The course EDU 321 is compulsory for all students undergoing an undergraduate
programme in Education. This is because it has been designed to give you a
deeper understanding on the important aspect of education which is ‘learning’.
Studying the course well, implies that, you have attended to all your self-marked
assignments and tutor-marked assignments, and that you have the confidence to
develop a good seminar paper you will be proud to present to other colleagues.

This course will introduce you to what Psychologists refer to as Learning. Do not
worry if you do not have extensive knowledge of psychology. One of the aims of
EDU 321: Psychology of Learning is to give you a general background to
psychology of learning and to illustrate key areas in which it can be applied in a
practical way during the teaching-learning process in particular and in learning
situations in general. The course of fourteen (14) units, which include definitions
of learning, what is meant by Human Learning, stages of learning process, factors
affecting learning and their corresponding implications for human learning,
learning theories, motivation in learning, retention in learning, transfer of learning
and important factors in human learning that teachers must know. The course
material has been developed to suit not only distance learners in Nigeria by virtue
of the fact that it has practical examples from the local environment but to also suit
distance learners elsewhere given examples and illustrations of universal
dimension. The intention is to make use of local experiences and situations
including international illustrations to support the students while studying and to
ensure that the content remains current.

This Course Guide is a window into the course. It tells you briefly what the course
is about, what course materials you will be using and how you can work your way
through the materials. It suggests some general guidelines for the amount of time
you should spend on each study unit of the course in order to complete it
successfully. It also gives you some guidance on your Self-Assessment Exercises.
There are regular tutorial classes that are linked to the course. You are advised to
attend these sessions at your study centre.

I wish you the best as you explore and internalize this course.

What You Will Learn in this Course

This course, EDU 321, titled Psychology of Learning, has been specifically
designed to refresh your memory and sharpen your understanding of the
Psychology of Learning to the point that you should be able to discuss confidently
on issues concerning human learning, especially learning in educational classroom
environment. In this regard, the course would highlight the importance of
investigations and research in resolving issues and challenges in the study of
Psychology through various theories.

 You will learn about the concept of learning and its attributes.
 You will learn about the study of Psychology of learning and its importance
to the teacher.
 You will be exposed to some ways that theoriesof learning can be applied
in classroom situations to make teaching and learning easy.
 More importantly, you will learn how to ensure permanency in learning,
including retention in learning and understanding how much a student has
been able to retain knowledge, the application of that knowledge to real life
situations and the various motivational strategies the teacher used to sustain
the interest of the students in the classroom which would contribute in
promoting the permanency of learning.

The overall aim of EDU 321: Psychology of Learning is to introduce specific

definitions of the concepts of learning, why you need to study psychology of
learning, major theories of learning, motivation in learning, retention in learning,
transfer of learning, and remembering and forgetting. During this course, you will
learn about schedules of reinforcement, some factors affecting learning, and
important factors in human learning that teachers must know.

Although there is little disagreement among psychologists as to the importance of

learning and pervasiveness of learning in nearly all forms of human activity, there
is a marked difference between the ways they look at learning and the ways the
layman does. You will learn specific definitions of the concept of learning. You
will also learn what psychologists refer to as human learning, theories of human
learning generated from psychological experiments on lower organisms. You will
understand what is meant by schedules of reinforcement, basic ratios of
reinforcement, motivation, and theories of motivation. You will be given sufficient
grounding to understand how interest in human learning can be sustained and
important factors that you must know about human learning, which should provide
you with the necessary basis for further study.

Course Aims

This course aims to give you an understanding of the concept of learning, what is
meant by human learning, theories of learning and their implications in classroom
situations. Schedule of reinforcement and their implications for behaviour
management, some factors affecting learning, and how interest in learning can be
sustained are also targets of this course. These aims will be achieved by:

a. Introducing you to the definitions of the concept of learning;

b. Explaining to you what psychologists mean by human learning;
c. Explaining some factors affecting learning;
d. Describing how psychologists develop theories of learning and their
implications in classroom situations;
e. Enumerate classroom implications of transfer of learning;
f. Outlining basic ratios of reinforcement;
g. Describing how teachers can assist students in training their minds and retaining
knowledge;
h. Outlining important factors which teachers must know.

Course Objectives

To achieve the aims set out above, some carefully stated overall objectives must
be considered. In addition, each study unit also has specific objectives. The study
unit objectives are always included at the beginning of a study unit; you should
read them before you start working through the study unit.

You may want to refer to the objectives during your study of each unit to check on
your progress. You should always look at the study unit objectives after
completing a study unit. In this way, you can be sure that you have done what was
required of you by the study unit.

Set out below are the wider objectives of the course as a whole by meeting these
objectives, you should have achieved the aims of the course.

On successful completion of the course, you should be able to:

a. Define the concept of learning;
b. Explain what is meant by human learning;
c. Discuss the five stages of learning process;
d. Explain factors affecting learning
e. Define learning theories and classify the key learning theories;
f. Discuss Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning;
g. Explain Thorndike’s theory of connectionism and his three laws of learning;
h. Describe Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning;
i. Describe Bandura’s social learning theory
j. Explain Gestalt theory of learning;
k. Discuss the classroom implications of theories of learning;
l. Examine the nature of human motivation, explaining the techniques you can
adopt to motivate students to perform well in learning activities;
m. Discuss the concept of retention in learning, memory, remembering and
forgetting and describe the strategies you will adopt to help your students
retain information.
l. Discuss how transfer of learning occurs.

At the end of this course EDU 321 Psychology of Learning, you will be able to
select and discuss coherently through seminar presentations any topic in the area
of psychology of learning.

Working through the Course

To complete this course you are required to read the study units, read books and
other materials provided by the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN).
Each study unit contains Self-Assessment Exercises (SAEs) and at each point in
the course you are required to submit assignments for assessment purposes. At the
end of the course is a final examination. You will also find listed, all the
components of the course, what you have to do and how you should allocate your
time to each study unit in order to complete the course successfully and on time.

Certainly, there is an end of course final Examination.

You will also find listed all the components of the course, what you have to do and
how you should allocate your time to each study unit in order to complete the
course successfully and on time.

The Course Material

Major components of the course are:

1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. References
4. Presentation Schedule
Study Units
The study units in this course are as follows:

Module 1 Conceptual Clarification

Unit 1 Concept of Learning and Learning Process

Unit 2 Study of Psychology of Learning and its Importance to the Teacher 5
Unit 3 Factors Affecting Learning

Module 2 Theories of Learning and their Educational Implications

Unit 4 Overview of Learning Theories

Unit 5 Pavlov’s Theory of Classical Conditioning
Unit 6 Thorndike’s Theory of Connectionism
Unit 7 Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning
Unit 8 Applications of Operant Conditioning
Unit 9 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Unit 10 Cognitive Fields Theory of Learning

Module 3 Permanency in Learning

Unit 11 Motivation in Learning

Unit 12 Theories of Motivation in Learning
Unit 13 Transfer of Learning
Unit 14 Retention in Learning: Memory, Remembering and Forgetting

Presentation Schedule

The presentation schedule included in your course material gives you the
important dates of this year for the completion of tutor-marked assignments and
for attending tutorial. Also included is the date for the seminar. Remember, you
are required to submit all your assignments by
the due date. You should guard against falling behind in your work.

Assessment

There are three aspects of assessment of the course. First is a set of self-
assessment exercises (SAEs) – the answers to SAEs are being provided for you to
serve as a guide, second is a set of tutor-marked assignments (TMAs) which
includes the presentation of a seminar paper. The third is a written end of semester
examination.
In tackling the assignments, you are expected to be sincere in attempting the
exercises; you are expected to apply the information, knowledge and techniques
gathered during the course. The assignments must be submitted to your tutor
against formal deadline stated in the presentation schedule and the assignment file.
The work you submit to your tutor for assessment will make up 40% of your
course work.

At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final written examination of two
hours’ duration. This examination will make up the remaining 60% (postgraduate)
of your course mark.

Tutor-Marked Assignment

There are tutor-marked assignments in this course. You are encouraged to submit
all assignments. Assignment questions for the study units in this course are stated
within the study units. You will be able to complete your assignments from the
information and materials contained in your reading, study units. However, it is
desirable in all degree level academic programmes to demonstrate that you have
read and researched more widely than the required minimum. Using other
references will give you a broader viewpoint and may provide a deeper
understanding of the subject. You can select the seminar topic you wish to develop
and present. However, it must be an aspect of the psychology of learning. Your
seminar paper is a compulsory assignment.

When you have completed each assignment, send it together with a TMA (tutor-
marked assignment) to your tutor. Make sure that each assignment reaches your
tutor on or before the deadline given in the presentation schedule and assignment
file. If, for any reason, you cannot complete your work on time, contact your tutor
before the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an extension. Extensions
will not be granted after the due date unless in exceptional circumstances.

Final Examination and Grading

The final examination for Psychology of Learning will be of two hours’ duration
and it has a value of 50% of the total course grade. The examination will consist of
questions which reflect the type of self-testing, practice-exercises and tutor
marked assignments you have previously encountered. All areas of the course are
assessed.

Use the time between finishing the last study unit and sitting for the examination
to revise the entire course. You might find it useful to review your self-tests, tutor-
marked assignments and comments on them before the examination. The final
examination covers information from all parts of the course.
Course Marking Structure

The following table lays out how the actual course marking is done.

Assessment 30% (Undergraduate) 40% (Postgraduate)

Final Examination 70% ((Undergraduate) 60%
Total 100% of Course work
Table 1: Course Marking Structure

How to Get the Most from the Course?

In Open and Distance Learning (ODL), the study units replace the University
Lecture. This is one of the great advantages of ODL. You can read and work
through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and at a time and
place that suit you best. Think of it as reading the lecture. In the same way that the
lecturer might set you some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read
your other materials. Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise, your
study units provide exercises for you to do at appropriate points

Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction
to the subject matter of the study unit and how a particular study unit is integrated
with the other study units and the course as a whole. Next is a set of learning
objectives. These objectives let you know what you should be able to do by the
time you have completed the study unit. You should use these objectives to guide
your study. When you have finished the study unit, you must go back and check
whether you have achieved the objectives or not. If you make a habit of doing this,
you will significantly improve your chances of passing the course.

The main body of the study unit guides you through the required reading from
other sources. This will usually be either from a reading section or some other
sources. You will be directed when there is need for it.

Self-Assessment Exercise (SAEs) are interspersed throughout the units. Working

through these SAEs will help you to achieve the objectives of the study units and
prepare you for the assignments and examination.

You should do every SAE as you come to it in the study unit. The answers to these
questions have been provided to serve as a guide. There will also be numerous
examples given in the study units. Work through these when you come to them
too.
The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If you
encounter any problem, telephone your tutor immediately. Remember, that your
tutor’s job is to help you. When you need help, don’t hesitate to call and ask your
tutor to provide it.

1. Read this course guide thoroughly.

2. Organise a study schedule: Refer to the course overview for more details.
You should note that it is expected of you to devote at least 2 hours per
week for studying this course. The number of hours to be devoted for
intensive study stated above is outside other need driven academic activities
like self help, group discussion and instructional facilitation Note the time
you are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments relate to
study units. Important information e.g. details of your tutorials, and the date
of the first day of the semester is available. You need to gather together all
these information in one place, such as in your diary or a wall calendar.
Whatever method you choose to use, you should write in your own dates
for working on each unit.

3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to
stick to it. The major reason why students fail is that they get behind with
their course work. If you get into difficulties with your schedule, please let
your tutor know before it is too late for him to help you.

4. Turn to unit 1, read the introduction and the objectives for the unit.

5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is
given in the table of content at the beginning of each unit. You will almost
always read both the study unit you are working on and one of the materials
for further reading on your desk at the same time.

6. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to
provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work through the unit, you
will be instructed to read sections from other sources. Use the unit to guide
your reading.

7. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing all your assignments
carefully. They have been designed to help you meet the objectives of the
course and, therefore, will help you pass the examination. Submit all
assignments not later than the due date.
8. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved
them. If you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study
materials or consult your tutor.

9. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit’s objectives you can
then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and to
pace your study so that you keep yourself on schedule.

10. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not
wait until you get it back before starting on the next unit. Keep to your
schedule. When the assignment is retuned, pay particular attention to your
tutor’s comments, both on the tutor-marked assignment form and also as
written on the assignment itself. Consult your tutor as soon as possible if
you have any questions or problems.

11. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for
the final examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives
(listed at the beginning of each unit) and the course objectives (listed in the
course guide).

Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials

There are 15 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You will be
notified of the dates, time and location of these tutorials, together with the name
and phone number of your facilitator/tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial
group.

Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments. He will also keep a close
watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter, and provide
assistance to you during the course. You must mail your tutor-marked assignments
to your tutor well before the due date (at least two working days are required).
They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible.

Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion if you

need help. The following might be circumstances in which you would need help.
Contact your tutor:
1) Do not understand any part of the study units or other assigned readings.
2) You have difficulty with the self – assessment exercise
3) Have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor’s
comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment.

You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is your only chance to have a
face to face academic contact with your tutor and to ask questions on problems
encountered in the course you are studying. To gain the maximum benefit from
course materials’ tutorials, prepare a
question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in
discussions actively.

Summary

Upon completing this course, you will have acquired the basic knowledge of
Psychology of Learning, its theories and implications for human learning. You
will be able to answer questions like these ones.

1. What is learning?
2. How would you define human learning?
3. How many theories of learning can you identify?
4. As a teacher in training, why do you need to study psychology of learning?
5. What are schedules of reinforcement?
6. How can we distinguish Skinner’s theory of learning from Pavlov’s?
7. What is motivation?
8. What are the factors affecting learning?
9. What is Gestalt?
10. How can we apply the law of exercise in classroom learning?
11. What is law of effect?
12. How can we explain the weakness(es) of the Gestalt theory of learning?
13. How can we describe observational learning?

Happy Study!!
Course Code EDU321

Course Title Psychology of Learning

Course Developer/Writer . Dr. Ayanniyi Alhassan

Course Editor Dr. Ogidan Rotimi

National Open University of Nigeria

Printed 2006

Reviewed 2015 (Dr. B. I. Ajufo)

Reviewed 2022 (Dr. Dorothy Ofoha)

Course Reviewer Dr. Dorothy Ofoha

Faculty of Education
National Open University of Nigeria
Abuja

1
CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 Conceptual Clarification…………………………………..............2

Unit 1 Concept of Learning and Learning Process ………………………..3

Unit 2 Study of Psychology of Learning and its Importance to the Teacher 8
Unit 3 Factors Affecting Learning ………………………………………..12

Module 2 Theories of Learning and their Educational Implications .........18

Unit 4 Overview of Learning Theories….………………………………..18

Unit 5 Pavlov’s Theory of Classical Conditioning ………………………21
Unit 6 Thorndike’s Theory of Connectionism …………………………..28
Unit 7 Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning ………………………34
Unit 8 Applications of Operant Conditioning ……………………………48
Unit 9 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory………………………………..54
Unit 10 Cognitive Fields Theory of Learning……………………………..60

Module 3 Permanency in Learning……..…………………………………..68

Unit 11 Motivation in Learning……………………………………………69

Unit 12 Theories of Motivation in Learning……………………………….78
Unit 13 Transfer of Learning……………………………………………….89
Unit 14 Retention in Learning: Memory, Remembering and Forgetting…..97

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MODULE 1 CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION

Module Structure
Unit 1 Concept of Learning and Learning Process
Unit 2 Study of Psychology of Learning and its Importance to the Teacher
Unit 3 Factors Affecting Learning

Unit 1 Concept of Learning and Learning Process

Unit Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Leaning Outcomes
1.3 Concept of Learning and Learning Process
1.3.1 Definition of Learning and its Attributes
1.3.2 Five Stages of Learning Process
1.4 Summary
1.5 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

1.1 Introduction

When you hear the word Learning, what comes to your mind? How would you
describe learning? Have you ever thought about what goes on in the process of
learning? How does an individual learn a set of knowledge, skills, habits, interests,
attitudes and similar other things in life? Such questions have always been a
subject of enquiry and investigation before psychologists. This unit will introduce
you to what Psychologists refer to as Learning. Here, we will define and clarify
the concept of learning and discuss some of its attributes. We will also look at the
processes through which learning can take place i.e. how an individual acquires
learning.

1.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 define the concept of learning and discuss some of its attributes
 discuss the five stages of learning process

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 1.3 Concept of Learning and Learning Process

1.3.1 Definition of Learning and its Attributes

An Overview of Learning
Learning is a psychological concept that cuts across psychology and education.
Learning is the most important factor in understanding human behaviour. You are
learning, as you read your course materials, watch videos, and engage in a
discussion. Learning is also involved in many other aspects of life. You learn to
ride a bicycle, drive a car, cook, and to play football. Learning influences
behaviour to such a great extent that it is one of the most important concepts that
psychologists study. In fact, learning occupies a very important place in our lives.
Most of what we do or do not do is influenced by what we learn and how we have
learnt it.

Learning occurs right from the birth of the child and proceeds until he/she dies.
Learning is acquired due to the prior experience one has gained. A child may learn
from their environment consciously or unconsciously, and in the process, their
behaviour is being modified either negatively or positively. However, the essence
of enrolling in the school is to acquire desirable/positive behaviour under the
tutelage of the teacher. learning involves acquiring knoledge and skills through
experience (Lumen Learning, 2020). To this end, learning can be described as a
process by which an individual:

i. acquires a novel idea or experience to a situation;

ii. retains and applies the idea, skills and knowledge in solving the confronting
problems.
iii. modify one’s behaviour by the experience gained in the past and making
the change permanent.

What is Learning?

Learning has been defined in many ways: To a layman learning refers to knowing
something. ‘we learn what we are taught. To some, it is the process of acquiring
knowledge. Psychologists do not agree with the simplistic layman’s view about
learning. We need to have a clear understanding of what psychologists refer to as
learning. From a psychological point of view, learning is defined as a relatively
permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience or practice.
Note the key words in this definition – ‘permanent’ ‘change’ ‘behaviour’
‘experience’.

4
This definition emphasizes four attributes of learning:

1. Learning involves change in behaviour, be it good or bad.

2. The change in behaviour must be relatively permanent. For instance, a

temporary change in behaviour due to fatigue, illness, alcohol, drugs are not
considered learning.

3. Only change in behaviour acquired through experience or practice is

considered learning. Experience may be acquired directly through practice
or observation or indirectly through reading. The child brings changes in
their behavior after gaining experiences from the environment. Let us look
at the term learning from this scenario:

While a child is approaching a burning match stick, he/she gets burnt and
withdraws. The next time when the child faces a burning match stick, they
would waste no time in withdrawing themselves away. The child learns to
avoid not only the burning match stick but also all burning things. When
this happens, we say that the child has learnt that if one touches a flame,
one gets burnt. In this way, we say that the experience gained brings a
change in the behaviour of that child.

4. Finally, learning is universal and continuous. It is not confined to our

schooling only. As a matter of fact, learning is a life-long process. It is not
limited to any age, sex, race or culture.

What is NOT considered learning?

• A change in behaviour due to fatigue, illness, alcohol, drugs are not

considered learning. Why? That is because it is not permanent. For
instance, the change in the behaviour of a drunkard cannot be regarded as
learning since such a change in behaviour is not permanent.

• Some behaviour cannot be described as being learnt because they occur at

the moment of anatomical maturation. This type of learning occurs as one
matures physically. For example, a child does not learn how to walk, eat
or talk but acquires these skills as he/she advances in age. This behaviour is
regarded as “specie-specific behaviour” (Ayeni, 1991).

In other words, learning does not include the changes in behaviour on account of
maturation. However, maturation must take place before learning can take effect.
For instance, when you look at the stages of a child’s development, you can see
that the child first knows how to eat, then knows how to sit, to crawl about, stand,

5
walk, run about, and knows how to speak. The child is now capable of doing some
things which they could not do earlier in life. Would you consider those changes
that occur in the stages of that child’s development (being able to eat, sit, crawl,
stand, walk, run and speak) as learning? No, they are not considered learning
because those changes in the behaviour of the child came about as a result of
maturation.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. From a psychological viewpoint define the concept of learning

2. Mention five changes in behaviour that cannot be regarded as learning

1.3.2 Five Stages of Learning Process

In order for learning to take place in the school, the teacher plays a significant role
in guiding the learner by motivating him towards learning activity through which
he can achieve a purposeful goal. To achieve this, there are defined and clear
processes of learning through which the desired changes will take place. These
include:

1. Sensation – This is the process of receiving, translating and transmitting

message from the environment to the brain. This process normally goes through
bodily senses of sight, hearing, feeling, touching, smelling, tasting etc. These
bodily senses are generally referred to as gateways to knowledge.

2. Perception – This is the process of organizing and interpreting information

received from the outside world. Sensation and perception are closely interrelated.
Sensation causes the individual to turn his head, eyes or body in a particular
direction while perception maintains the length of attention or consideration
focused upon the direction of thing.

3. Association – This is the third stage in learning process. It is the ability of

connecting one’s new experience with his previous experience. Integrating the
new knowledge or skills to previous experience

4. Generalization --. This is the fourth stage in learning which involves the
establishment of principles, theories, inferences, laws, conclusions or rules based
on the knowledge and skills one has acquired.

6
5. Application – This is the final stage in the learning process. It is the process of
using or applying the new knowledge or skills to solve problems in actual life
situation.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

Explain the first stage of learning process

1.4 Summary

This unit has exposed you to the definition of learning and its attributes. You also
learnt the five stages of learning process. Now that we have examined the concept
of learning and identified its attributes, I will expect that you begin to think about
how this knowledge can guide you in helping your learners adjust to the learning
process.

1.5 References /Further Readings/Web Sources

Bugelski, B.R. (1986) the Psychology of Learning New York: Holt.

Dinkmeyer, D. (1985) Child Development: The Emerging Self.

Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice – Hall.

Gagne, R. (1970) the Conditions of Learning New York: Holt, Rinehart &
Winston.

Kingsley, H. L & Garry, R., (1957) The Nature and Condition of learning (2nd
ed.) Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice - Hall.

O’Connor, K. (1993) Learning: An introduction London: Scott, Foreman and

Company.

1.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1

7
1. From a psychological viewpoint learning is defined as a relatively
permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience or
practice.
2. Five changes in behaviour that cannot be regarded as learning include
change in behaviour due to the following factors: fatigue, maturation,
illness, drugs, and alcohol.

Answers to SAEs 2
1. The first stage of learning process is Sensation – This is the process of
receiving, translating and transmitting message from the environment to the
brain. This process normally goes through bodily senses of sight, hearing,
feeling, touching, smelling, tasting etc. These bodily senses are generally
referred to as gateways to knowledge.

Unit 2 Study of Psychology of Learning and its Importance to the Teacher

Unit Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Leaning Outcomes
2.3 Study of Psychology of Learning and its Importance to the Teacher
2.3.1 Concept of Psychology
2.3.2 Relevance of the Study of Psychology of Learning
2.4 Summary
2.5 ` References/Further Readings/Web Sources
2.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

2.1 Introduction

In the previous unit, we focused on clarifying the concepts of learning and some of
its attributes. I believe you can now describe and define the concept of learning
from your own understanding. In this unit you will be exposed to the concept of
psychology and understand why the study the psychology of learning is of
importance to the teacher. Have you ever wondered why people behave the way
they do and why they do the things they do? Psychology as a branch of knowledge
is devoted to the study of behaviour of human beings and animals. To this end, the
relevance of psychology cannot be doubted, more importantly that the well trained
teachers will need it to understand the behaviour of their students in relation to the
learning process.

8
 2.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define the concept of psychology

 discuss the need for the study of psychology of learning

2.3 Study of Psychology of Learning and its Importance to the Teacher

2.3.1 Definition of Psychology

What is psychology? Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour.
It is the study of the mind, how it works, and how it affects behaviour. A human
being usually exhibits moods of joy and anger, have different learning ability and
interact differently. When all these happen, we are eager in finding the
circumstances that are surrounding these actions and make judgment in our own
way. Psychology provides clues to these phenomena in a more scientific way.
Therefore, Oladele (1998) describes psychology as a science subject which seeks
to comprehend, predict and control the behaviour of man and lower animals.
Psychology is premised on logical ways for knowing, explaining, controlling and
improving behaviour. Psychologists attempt to find answers to (a) how human
beings and animals receive stimuli from their environment and their perceptions
about such stimuli (b) how organisms learn and remember experiences (d) how
they differ in their characteristics and (d) cope with various problems in life in
order to understand the complex nature of organism and to contribute to better
standard of living of organisms.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. What do you understand by the term Psychology

2. Why do we need to study psychology?

2.3.2 The Relevance of the Study of Psychology of Learning

The relevance of the study of psychology of learning can never be over-

emphasized. This is because since the main objective of the school as an
institution is to bring about desirable changes in the behaviour of the learner
through the process of learning, it demands therefore that all those who will
9
engage in bringing about these changes should understand the approaches of
learning in order to develop effective teaching strategies and be able to manage
their classrooms competently.

The need for the study of psychology of learning includes the following:

 To understand the theories of learning: There is the need to understand

the theories of learning so that the teacher will be able to apply the
principles of those theories in classroom situations.

 To understand Individual differences: There is the need to understand

the individual differences in learning among learners so that the teaching
methods selected by the teacher can care take care of the individual
differences existing among the learners.

 To master the concept of motivation: There is the need for the teacher to
master the concept of motivation developed by various theorists of learning
in order to understand the needs and motives of the learners at different age
levels and be able to organize those activities which create interest and
motivation in them.

 To understand the process of remembering and forgetting: The teacher

needs to understand the process of remembering and forgetting so that they
can utilize efficient methods to minimize the percentage of forgetfulness.

 To help the learner to transfer skills: With the knowledge gained from
the study of psychology of learning, the teacher can help the learners to
transfer skills and information acquired in classroom to life situations
outside the school.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

As a teacher in training, give three reasons why you need to study psychology of
learning

2.4 Summary

An attempt has also been made to define the concept of psychology. The
importance of psychology of learning to the teacher was also discussed. There is a

10
vital need for the study of psychology of learning most especially by those who
engage in imparting knowledge. This is because the more they understand the
principles of learning, the more efficiently they become in guiding classroom
teaching and learning

2.5 References/Further Readings/ Web Sources

Bugelski, B.R. (1986) the Psychology of Learning New York: Holt.

Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S., and Podell, D.M., (1997). Educational Psychology
Windows on Teaching. Chicago: Brown and Benchmark Publishers.
Dinkmeyer, D. (1985) Child Development: The Emerging Self. Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey: Prentice – Hall.
Gagne, R. (1970) the Conditions of Learning New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Jon Mueller’s, Resources for the Teaching of Social Psychology and the Online
Resources from the Social Science Information Gateway. Downloaded on
20/09/2006.
Hilgard, E.R., Atkinson, R.C., and Atkinson, R.L., (1971). Introduction to
Psychology. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc.
O’Connor, K. (1993) Learning: An introduction London: Scott, Foreman and Company.
Oladele, J.O. (1998). Fundamentals of Psychological Foundations of Education.
Yaba: Johns-Lad Publishers Ltd.Skinner, B.F. (1953). Science of
Behaviour. New York: Macmillan.
Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and Information
Centers. Windsor & Downs Press; Champaign, IL

2.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1
1. Psychology is the scientific study of human behavior. Psychology is a
science subject which seeks to comprehend, predict and control
the behaviour of man and lower animals.

2. We need to study psychology for us to understand why humans behave the

way they do and to find the circumstances that are surrounding their actions
and make judgment in our own way. Again, we need to study psychology
to find answers to (a) how human beings and animals receive stimuli from
their environment and their perceptions about such stimuli (b) how
organisms learn and remember experiences (d) how they differ in their
characteristics and (d) cope with various problems in life in order to

11
 understand the complex nature of organism and to contribute to better
standard of living of organisms.

Answers to SAEs 2
1. Three reasons why the study of psychology of learning is of importance to
the teacher
 To understand the theories of learning: There is the need to understand the
theories of learning so that the teacher will be able to apply the principles of
those theories in classroom situations.
 To understand Individual differences: There is the need to understand the
individual differences in learning among learners so that the teaching
methods selected by the teacher can care take care of the individual
differences existing among the learners.
 To master the concept of motivation: There is the need for the teacher to
master the concept of motivation developed by various theorists of learning
in order to understand the needs and motives of the learners at different age
levels and be able to organize those activities which create interest and
motivation in them.

Unit 3 Factors Affecting Learning

Unit Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Learning Outcomes
3.3 Identification and Classification of Major Factors Affecting Learning
3.3.1 Factors Resident in the Learner (Personal Factors)
3.3.2 Factors Resident in the Teacher
3.3.3 Factors Resident in the Environment
3.4 Summary
3.5 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
3.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

3.1 Introduction

In the previous unit, we discussed the concept of psychology and the relevance of
psychology of learning to the teacher. In this unit we shall focus our attention on
Factors affecting learning. Have you ever wondered on why some learners excel at
school, while others struggle? Well, it may interest you to know that in the
learning environment, there are three variables that affect the efficiency of

12
learning, namely; the learner, the teacher and the environment. You are going to
learn how each of these variables can affect the way a learner learns.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 discuss the factors resident in the learner that can affect learning
 explain in what ways the factors resident in the teacher can affect the way a
learner learns
 discuss the environmental factors that can affect the learner

3.3 Identification and Classification of Major Factors Affecting

Learning

3.3.1 Factors Resident in the Learner (Personal Factors)

Certain factors are innate or personal to the learner that are specifically unique to
him/ her. These factors include intelligence, physical health, personality patterns,
attitudes, maturation, and motivation, which affect the way students learn. Let's
take a closer look at these factors.

Intellectual ability:
Whatever genetic traits that the learner has inherited at conception become very
crucial in the rate of learning of the child. Research studies revealed that
intelligence is positively related to learning ability of the children, hence
intellectual ability affects learning. Pupils with low intelligence often encounter
serious difficulty in mastering schoolwork. Some students can readily understand
abstract concepts, while others need extra effort to grasp the meaning of concepts.
Everyone has different intellectual strengths and weaknesses.

Physical health:
Under this group are included such factors as visual and physical defects and ill
health. It is generally recognized that ill health retards physical and motor
development and ultimately interferes with learning. The health of the learner will
likely affect his ability to learn and his power to concentrate. Children suffering
from visual, auditory, and other physical defects are seriously handicapped in
developing skills such as reading and spelling.

Personality patterns and attitudes:

13
The learner’s self-worth and personality have been found to affect learning. We
have many likes and dislikes and beliefs and opinions which predispose us to
behave in certain ways. Our attitudes may be positive, negative or neutral. For
instance, if we are inclined towards reading books, we will have a positive attitude
towards books. Thus the positive or negative predisposition within a person has
important motivational components. When students have a positive attitude
towards the school, they will like school and are likely to endeavour to do well in
school.

Maturation for readiness to learn:

Learning is directly dependent on maturation. i.e. maturation determines the
readiness for learning. No learning can take place unless the individual is matured
enough to learn. The child will not learn if he/she is not prepared and matured
mentally to start learning. Readiness is an important condition for learning. It has
been observed that some parents like to push their children to school even when
such children are not yet matured to start school. Parents should wait for the child
to be mentally ready before the child is allowed to start school.

Motivation:
Motivation also affects learning. Motivation refers to the drive to action.
Motivation is at the heart of learning process. It generates the will in an individual
to do something. A learner’s motivation and will power to learn is a great deciding
factor of his/her success in learning. It is presumed that if an individual has will to
learn, then automatically he/she will find ways for effective learning. When
teaching a concept, always consider how the material is relevant to your students'
lives, because when individuals see the reason for learning, their motivation
increases, which would ultimately affect the way the learning process of students.

Learning factors:
Factors owing to lack of mastery of what has been taught, faulty methods of study,
and learning style may affect the learning process of any child.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

Discuss how the physical health of a child can affect his/her learning process?

3.3.2 Factors Resident in the Teacher

Teacher’s behaviour and personality:

14
The teacher’s personality is an important element in the success and failure of the
learner. The teacher’s personality is composite of his physical appearance, his
mental capacity, his emotional behaviour and his attitudes. If the teacher is one
that uses the cane frequently or shouts angrily at pupils, the efficiency of learning
will be negatively affected. If the teacher shows a preference towards certain
students or uses derogatory and humiliating language, that can also affect the
learning process of the child. Teachers must therefore recognize that in all the
activities in the classroom they are directly affecting the behavior of learners.

Instructional Factors:
The teacher’s method of teaching and mastery of subject matter are instructional
factors that affect learning in school. If the teacher proceeds too rapidly and does
not constantly check up on the extent to which the pupil is mastering what is being
taught, the pupil accumulates a number of deficiencies that interfere with
successful progress.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

Explain how the teacher’s personality can affect the way a learner learn

3.3.3 Factors Resident in the Environment

One of the factors that affect the efficiency of learning is the environment in which
learning takes place. The environment includes the learner’s home, school and the
entire society.

Physical environment (home/school):

Certain unpleasant events in the home or school which are stored in the memory of
the child throughout life could affect the child’s learning process. An unhealthy
home environment adversely affects the learning of the students. Dilapidated
school buildings and schools without adequate equipment and instructional
materials may affect the learning of the child in life. Whether at home or in school,
the learning conditions must be favourable and adequate if teaching is to produce
the desired results.

Socio-economic background:
The impact of mother, father, other children, uncles and aunties on the learning of
the child is enormous. Socio-economic background refers to the level of education
of the parents, income, where they reside etc. Students come from various
backgrounds. Some are poor while others come from affluent households.

15
Students from affluent households will most likely have more educational support
and resources to help them through school.

Society/cultural background:
An individual’s learning is mostly affected by his/her cultural background and the
opportunities provided for informal and formal education. The socio-cultural
environment within which the child lives has a significant impact on his/her
learning. For instance, a child who from comes a society where education is not
valued may not be favourably disposed toward learning. In fact, all learning occurs
with special reference to the cultural context of an individual.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

Briefly explain how parental socio-economic status of a child can affect

his/her learning.

3.4 Summary

Student learning is a multi-faceted system, which can be affected by many factors.

In this unit you have become acquainted with some of the factors affecting
learning. A thorough knowledge and understanding of these factors is very
essential for the teachers and parents in providing and guiding learning among the
children. If you are cognizant of these factors, then you will know what you can
do to help your students succeed in class. Getting to know your students as
individuals will help you to learn which factors might affect their learning.

3.5 References/Further Readings/Web Sources

Amao-Kehinde, A.O. (2000), Human Development and Learning, Lagos, Obaroh

& Ogbinaka Publishers Limited.

16
Sulaiman F. R. & Onabamiro, A. A (2009). Psychology, Child Development(A
Basic Text in Psychological Foundation of Education), Ijebu-ode, Alamsek Press
Ltd.

3.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1
1. How the physical health of a child can affect his/her learning process
It is generally recognized that ill health retards physical and motor development
and ultimately interferes with learning. The health of the learner will likely affect
his ability to learn and his power to concentrate. Children suffering from visual,
auditory, and other physical defects are seriously handicapped in developing skills
such as reading and spelling.

Answers to SAEs 2
2. How the teacher’s personality can affect the learning efficiency of her
student
The teacher’s personality is an important element in the success and failure of the
learner. The teacher’s personality is composite of his physical appearance, his
mental capacity, his emotional behaviour and his attitudes. If the teacher is one
that uses the cane frequently or shouts angrily at pupils, the efficiency of learning
will be negatively affected. If the teacher shows a preference towards certain
students or uses derogatory and humiliating language, that can also affect the
learning process of the child. Teachers must therefore recognize that in all the
activities in the classroom they are directly affecting the behavior of learners.

Answers to SAEs 3
1. Briefly explain how parental socio-economic status of a child can affect
his/her learning.
Socio-economic background refers to the level of education of the parents,
income, where they reside etc. Students come from various backgrounds. Some
are poor while others come from affluent households. Students from affluent
households will most likely have more educational support and resources to help
them through school; while children from poor background may not have such an
opportunity.

Seminar Topic
Each student is expected to present seminar paper on this topic:

“The teacher’s personality is an important element in the success and failure of the

17
learner”. Discuss”

MODULE 2 THEORIES OF LEARNING AND THEIR EDUCATIONAL

IMPLICATIONS

In the units of the previous Module, we focused on clarifying the concepts of

psychology, learning and the importance of psychology of learning to the teacher.
In Module 2, we will turn our attention to Theories of Learning and their
Educational Implications. First, we shall have a brief overview of theories of
learning and then take a closer look at some of the key theories of learning and
discuss how the principles of the theories can be applied to classroom practices.

Module Structure
Unit 4 Overview of Learning Theories
Unit 5 Pavlov’s Theory of Classical Conditioning
Unit 6 Thorndike’s Theory of Connectionism
Unit 7 Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning
Unit 8 Operant Conditioning in Everyday Life
Unit 9 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Unit 10 Cognitive Fields Theory of Learning

Unit 4 Overview of Learning Theories

Unit Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Leaning Outcomes
4.3 Overview of Learning Theories
4.3.1 What are Learning Theories?
4.3.2 Classification of Learning Theories
4.4 Summary
4.5 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
4.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

4.1 Introduction

In the previous unit, we focused on clarifying the concepts of learning and

psychology. In this unit, we shall have a brief overview of theories of learning and
the classification of these theories into two major camps of learning theories. As

18
you already know that people learn differently, and that’s exactly where learning
theories come into play. These theories explain how the learning process happens,
and understanding them will help you deliver knowledge to students in a very
effective way

4.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 define learning theories
 classify the two major camps of learning theories and outline their basic
assumptions

4.3

4.2.1 What are Learning Theories?

A theory is a set of generalized statements supported by experimental evidence. A

learning theory is an attempt to describe how people learn, thereby helping us to
understand the inherently complex process of learning (Sivakumar, 2017).
Psychologists have tried to explain how people learn and why they learn. They
have conducted many experiments and on the basis of these experiments they have
developed several principles and theories about how people learn. In a nutshell,
Learning theories are different sets of principles that explain how people learn.
Why are learning theories important?

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

What do you understand by Learning theories?

4.3.2 Classification of Learning Theories

Several theories have evolved about how people learn. In the broad sense, the
theories of learning may be classified into two major groups - Behaviourist
theories and Cognitive field theories.

Behaviourist theories of learning focus only on external observable behaviours to

explain how learning takes place. Behaviourists defined learning simply as an
observable change in behaviour. They regard learning as the connection between
19
stimulus and response (S-R), which is why they are also commonly referred to as
stimulus-response (S-R) theories. They believe that all behaviours are learnt
through interaction with the environment. The main proponents of these theories
include Pavlov (1927), Thorndike (1928), Skinner (1968), and of course, Bandura.

Cognitive-field theory of learning pay more attention to what goes on in the

learner's mind and focus on mental processes rather than observable behaviours.
They emphasize the importance of perception in learning/insight learning

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1. What are the two major camps of learning theories?

2. Outline their basic assumptions about learning

4.4 Summary

In this unit, we have looked at definition of learning theory and identified the two
major camps of theories of learning with their basic assumptions.

4.5 References /Further Readings/Web Sources

Ayeni, O. (1991). Psychology of Human Learning for Teachers. Ilesa: College of

Education.
Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S., Podell, D.M., (1997). Educational Psychology
Windows on Teaching. Chicago: Brown and Benchmark Publishers.
Eggen, P., and Kauchak, D. (2001). Educational Psychology: Windows on
Classrooms. Columbus: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Lumen Learning (2020). Introduction to Psychology. Retrieved
from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/.
Oladele, J. O. (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology. Yaba: Johns-Lad
Publishers Ltd.
Onyehalu, A.S (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education. Awka: Meks-
Unique (Nig.) Publishers.
Sivakumar, P. (2017). Theories of Learning and its educational implications.
Teacher Education Support Services.
https://tntess.blogspot.com/2017/02/theories-of-learning-and-its.html

20
Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and Information
Centers. Windsor & Downs Press; Champaign, IL

4.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1
1. A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people learn and why they
learn. Psychologists have conducted many experiments and on the basis of
these experiments they have developed several principles and theories
about how people learn. Hence, Learning theories are different sets of
principles that explain how people learn

Answers to SAEs 2
1. The two major camps of the theories of learning are Behaviourist theories
and Cognitive field theories.
2. Basic assumptions about Behaviourist theories:
 Behaviourist learning theories focus only on external observable
behaviours to explain how learning takes place. Behaviourists
defined learning as an observable change in behaviour. They
interpret learning in terms of association between stimulus and
response, which is why they are also commonly referred to as
stimulus-response (S-R) theories. They believe that learning occurs
through interaction with the environment.
Basic assumptions about Cognitive-field theory
 Cognitive-field theory of learning pay more attention to what goes
on in the learner's mind and focus on mental processes rather than
observable behaviours. They emphasize the importance of
perception in learning/insight learning

Unit 5 Pavlov’s Theory of Classical Conditioning

Unit Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Learning Outcomes
5.3 Behaviourist Theories of Learning and their Classroom Implications (1)
5.3.1 Pavlov’s Theory of Classical Conditioning
5.3.2 Classroom Implications of Classical Conditioning Theory
5.4 Summary
5.5 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
5.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

21
 5.1 Introduction

Theories are the foundations for most of the discoveries in psychology. Several
learning theories have since been developed to explain how the learners respond to
particular stimuli under certain influences. In the previous unit, you learnt that the
learning theories are classified into two major groups – the behaviourist theories,
with Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner and Bandura as the main proponents; and the
cognitive field theories. We said the behaviourist theories of learning focus only
on external observable behaviours to explain how learning takes place and that the
cognitive-field theory pays more attention to what goes on in the learner's mind
and focus on mental processes rather than observable behaviours. In this unit and
in the units that follow you will be exposed to some of the key theories within the
two camps of learning theories and how the principles of the theories can be
applied to classroom practices. We will begin our discussion with those of
behaviourist theories, starting with Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning.

5.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 explain the basic principles of classical conditioning theory
 discuss the classroom implications of classical conditioning theory

5.3 Behaviourist Learning Theories and their Classroom Implications

(1)

5.3.1 Pavlov’s Theory of Classical Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936), was a renowned Russian Psychologist. He propounded

the theory of classical conditioning in learning. Classical conditioning theory
explains how an organism’s behaviour becomes paired with some stimuli/factors
in the environment. This theory, sometimes referred to as “stimulus-substitution”,
represents a condition where through contiguity and repetition in a presentation of
a stimulus, a learner generalizes an existing stimulus-response connection to some
new stimuli.

How classical conditioning works

22
In order to understand how classical conditioning works, it is important to become
familiar with the basic principles of the process. In classical conditioning a person
or animal learns to associate a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) that naturally produces an unconditioned response (UCR). As a result of
this association, the previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the same response
and thus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) capable of eliciting a conditioned
response (CR) by itself. There are three basic phases of this process. Let’s
consider Pavlov’s experiment.

In Pavlov’s experiment, the dog salivated each time food was presented to the dog.
The food in this situation is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that
elicits a reflexive response in an organism. The dog’s salivation is an
unconditioned response (UCR): a natural reaction to a given stimulus. This kind
of reaction or response was referred to as unlearnt/reflex action. Pavlov believed
that the food (UCS) would naturally produce salivation (UCR) in dogs. This is the
first stage in the process of classical conditioning.

In stage 2, a sound of the bell was presented to the dog and it did not salivate. The
sound of bell is a neutral stimulus (NS), which is a stimulus that does not naturally
elicit a response. When Pavlov paired the sound of the bell with the food
repeatedly, the dog would produce salivation. This is what he called the
conditioning stage.

At Stage 3, after sometime Pavlov then withdrew the food and presented the sound
of the bell alone (CR). the dog salivated to the sound of bell alone. Wow! the
sound of the bell began to elicit salivation from the dog. Thus, the sound of the
bell which was previously a neutral stimulus became a conditioned stimulus (CS)
capable of eliciting the conditioned response by itself. At this stage learning has
occurred. The dog learned to salivate at the sound of the bell. This kind of learning
could be referred to as Learning by association.

As you can see, there are three basic steps/phases of this process. Let’s summarize
the steps as follows:

Steps in the Process of Classical Conditioning:

 When food (UCS) is placed in a dog’s mouth, salivation takes place (UCR):
food is UCS, and the salivation UCR. (unlearnt/reflex action)

 Next, Pavlov paired the sound of the bell and food to the dog and the dog
salivated CS + UCS = UCR.

23
 After some time, Pavlov then withdrew the food and presented the sound of
the bell alone (CS). The dog salivated which is the conditioned/learnt
response (CR).

 After sometime, when the sound of bell was no longer accompanied with
the food, the tendency of the dog to salivate gradually diminishes until it
finally stopped (Extinction Stage).
 To make the dog recover from extinction, it must be presented with food
(UCS) again.

Thus, the experiment is summarized below with these graphic illustrations:

Figure 1: Graphic illustrations of the three stages in classical conditioning

Stage 1 UCS (food)

(Original reflex action)

UCR (salivation)

Stage 2 UCS (food)+ CS (sound of bell)

(Conditioning training

UCR

Stage 3 CS (sound of bell)

(Conditioning/learnt
response)

CR

From the above illustrations the following revelations were made:

1. That when UCS alone was presented to the dog, the dog only produced
UCR. i.e. the behaviour of the organism was a reflex or natural one.

2. By the time the UCS was associated with CS (bell), the dog started to
condition itself to the sound of bell.

24
3. When CS alone was presented to the dog, it had already conditioned its
response to the sound of the bell, hence, conditioned response was emitted.

4. When bell was no longer accompanied with the food, the tendency of the
dog to salivate gradually diminishes until it finally stopped (Extinction
Stage).

5. To make the dog recover from extinction, it must be presented with UCS
again.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1) Briefly describe the three steps in the process of classical conditioning

2) What is the meaning of Extinction stage in classical conditioning?
3) Fill in the missing words:
In the classical conditioning experiment, the unconditioned stimulus is __,
the conditioned stimulus is the ___, the unconditioned response is the___,
and the conditioned response is the ____.

5.3.2 Classroom Implications of Pavlov’s Theory

1. Classical conditioning primarily influences emotional behaviour. Things

that make us happy, sad, angry etc. become associated with neutral stimuli
that gain our attention. For example, if a teacher beats any child excessively
then that child will begin to fear that teacher even after hearing his name
only. On the contrary, if a teacher exhibits love and affection for students,
in return, the students will show full regard for that teacher.

2. Many of our fears and phobias may be traced back to some kind of
conditioning. For instance, a student will feel a great deal of fear or anxiety
after being punished excessively. And when he experiences the fear, he gets
associated with other things in the situation. Thus, the student’s fear gets
tied up with taking tests, with certain teachers and in extreme cases, with
school itself. In other words, punishment will discourage such students
from attending the school

3. Classical conditioning has been used to remove the fear response in a child
who learnt to associate painful experiences with school. Teachers are able
to apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive classroom
environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear.

25
4. Most of the emotional responses can be learned through classical
conditioning. A negative or positive response comes through the stimulus
being paired with. For example, providing the necessary school material for
primary school pupils will develop good feelings about school and learning
in them.

5. The principles of classical conditioning can be used in various areas of

teaching-learning in the classroom. A child learns through conditioning.

6. Principles of classical conditioning are very helpful in developing good

habits in children cleanliness, punctuality and respect for others. Bad habits
can be eliminated through conditioning. Classical conditioning can be used
for developing a favourable attitude to subjects, teachers and above all the
school.

7. Some school subjects are learnt more adequately through the process of
conditioning, e.g. reading, writing, spelling, and mathematics
(multiplication tables) are learnt more effectively through the process of
conditioning.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

Describe two classroom implications of classical conditioning theory

5.4 Summary

We have seen that classical conditioning is a process in which an organism learns

to respond in a particular way to a stimulus that previously did not bring about that
response This shows that behaviour of an organism can be manipulated using
some environmental factors. In classical conditioning a person or animal learns to
associate a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally
produces an unconditioned response (UCR). As a result of this association, the
previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit the same response and thus becomes a
conditioned stimulus (CS) capable of eliciting a conditioned response (CR) by
itself. The key relevance of the theory to learning is that it emphasizes learning by
association. It is believed that you have greatly benefited from Pavlov’s classical
conditioning theory. You should be familiar with this theory and apply it to
teaching-learning activities where applicable.

26
 5.5 References /Further Readings/Web Sources

Ayeni, O. (1991). Psychology of Human Learning for Teachers. Ilesa: College of

Education.
Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S., Podell, D.M., (1997). Educational Psychology
Windows on Teaching. Chicago: Brown and Benchmark Publishers.
Dennis Child (2004) Psychology and the Teacher (7th Ed) New York, Midas
Printing International Ltd.
Eggen, P., and Kauchak, D. (2001). Educational Psychology: Windows on
Classrooms. Columbus: Merrill Prentice Hall.
Elliot, S.N, Kratochwill T.R, Cook J.L & Travers, J.F (2000), Educational
Psychology (3rd Ed) USA, McGraw Hill.
Lumen Learning (2020). Introduction to Psychology. Retrieved
from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/.
Oladele, J. O. (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology. Yaba: Johns-Lad
Publishers Ltd.
Oladele, J.O. (2005) Fundamentals of Educational Psychology (4th Ed), Lagos,
John-Lad Publishers Ltd.
Onyehalu, A.S (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education. Awka: Meks-
Unique (Nig.) Publishers.
Sivakumar, P. (2017). Theories of Learning and its educational implications.
Teacher Education Support Services.
https://tntess.blogspot.com/2017/02/theories-of-learning-and-its.html
Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and Information
Centers. Windsor & Downs Press; Champaign, IL

5.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1
1. The three steps involved in the process of classical conditioning:
 Step 1 - Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (food) produces
an unconditioned response (salivation), and a neutral stimulus (bell)
does not produce a response.
 Step 2 - During conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (food) is
presented repeatedly just after the presentation of the neutral stimulus
(sound of the bell).
 Step 3 - After conditioning, the neutral stimulus alone produces a
conditioned response (salivation), thus becoming a conditioned
stimulus.

27
 2. Extinction is the decrease in the conditioned response when the
unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned
stimulus.
3. In the classical conditioning experiment, the unconditioned stimulus is
food, the conditioned stimulus is the sound of bell, the unconditioned
response is the salivation, and the conditioned response is the salivation.

Answers to SAEs 2
Two classroom implications of classical conditioning theory:
 Some school subjects are learnt more adequately through the process of
conditioning, e.g. reading, writing, spelling, and mathematics
(multiplication tables) are learnt more effectively through the process of
conditioning.
 Classical conditioning can be used to remove the fear response in students
who learnt to associate painful experiences with school. Teachers are able
to apply classical conditioning in the class by creating a positive classroom
environment to help students overcome anxiety or fear.

Unit 6 Thorndike’s Theory of Connectionism

Unit Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Learning Outcomes
6.3 Behaviourist Theories of Learning and their Classroom Implications (2)
6.3.1 Thorndike’s Theory of Connectionism
6.3.2 Thorndike’s Laws of Learning
6.3.3 Classroom Implications of Thorndike’s Theory
6.4 Summary
6.5 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
6.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

6.1 Introduction

In the previous unit we focused on Pavlov’s theory of classical conditioning. In

this unit, you will learn about Thorndike’s theory of connectionism, who is also a
behaviourist. Here, we will look at the principles of the theory and learn about the
three laws of learning propounded by Thorndike and also discuss the classroom
implications of his theory. He reveals that the foundation of learning is the
association between sense impressions and impulses to action.

28
 6.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 describe the basic tenets of Thorndike’s theory of connectionism

 describe Thorndike’s Laws of learning
 enumerate classroom implications of Thorndike’s theory

6.3 Behaviourist Theories of Learning and their Classroom

Implications (2)

6.3.1 Thorndike’s Theory of Connectionism

Edward Thorndike was an American psychologist. Who lived between 1874 and
1949. Thorndike titled his theory “Connectionism”. He derived this theory by
using cats, puzzle box and food. According to Thorndike, the fundamental of
learning is the association between stimuli and responses. These associations
become strengthened, or weakened by the nature and frequency of the stimuli-
responses pairings. This means that an organism will repeat the behaviour if it
obtains a pleasant or satisfying stimulus after first demonstrating it. He therefore
postulated that learning is a product of the relationship between stimulus and
response. This connection between stimulus and response is called a stimulus-
response bond, or an S-R bond. The stronger the S-R bond, the better a person has
learned the lesson. Thorndike described this type of theory as learning by “trial
and error”.

To establish his claim, he conducted an experiment in which a hungry cat was

placed in a cage, with food outside the cage. The logic was that the cat has to
escape before it could get the food. There was a release mechanism inside the cage
which the cat would operate before it could get outside. At first, the cat made a
series of effort trying to escape to get food. Eventually, it succeeded in operating
the mechanism, which allowed it to escape and obtain food. On subsequent
attempts, the random movement was reduced, and the cat concentrated much on
the direction of the release mechanism until it was able to escape again. The time
of escape decreased until the cat eventually operated the release mechanism as
soon as it found itself in the cage. In this ‘trial and error’ fashion, the cat hit on the
release mechanism to get the food.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

29
Describe the basic tenets of Thorndike’s theory of connectionism?

6.3.2 Thorndike’s Laws of Learning

Thorndike propounded three laws of learning on the basis of his theory. These are
the law of readiness, the law of exercise and the law of effect.

1. The Law of Readiness states that a particular state of affairs will prove to
be satisfying to the extent that the subject is ready for it. E.g. food is a
satisfier only when the animal is hungry i.e. a child will learn best only
when he/she is ready to learn. The child will not learn if he/she is not
prepared and matured mentally to start learning. Schools cannot force
students to learn if they are not biologically and psychologically prepared.
Basic needs of students must be satisfied before they are ready to learn.
Students who are exhausted or in ill health cannot learn. They can learn
only when they are ready. They can learn only when they are ready. The
law is indicative of the learner's state to participate in the learning process.
According to Thorndike, readiness is preparation for action. Readiness is an
important condition for learning.

Educational Implications
Teachers should prepare the minds of the students to be ready to accept the
knowledge, skills and aptitudes. For this, he should provide opportunities
for those experiences in which students can spontaneously participate.
‘Simple to Complex’ is the important maxim. The teacher should assess the
readiness of the learner before presenting content by identifying the
knowledge the learner already has, his skills, his abilities, his motives, his
experiences and make this the starting point.

2. Law of Exercise: This law states "Any response to a situation will, other
things being equal, be more strongly connected with the situation in
proportion to the number of times it has been connected with that situation
and to the average vigour and duration of the connection." That is,
repetition strengthens S-R bonds. According to this law, the more
something is repeated, the longer it will be retained. Thorndike explained
that repetition promotes learned associations (stimulus and response).
Constant practice is necessary if an action is to be strengthened. Lack of
practice may weaken an event.

30
 The Law of Exercise has two parts: (a) the law of use and (b) the law of
disuse.

 Law of use- the more often an association between stimulus and

response (S-R) is made the stronger the connection will be. i.e. the
more you do something, the better you are good at it. That is, 'practice
makes perfect'.
 Law of disuse- the longer an association between stimulus and response
(S-R) is unused the weaker it becomes. When a connection between
stimulus and response is not made over a period of time, the strength of
that connection is weakened. i.e. the lack of practice brings about
forgetting.

Educational implications
More and more opportunities should be provided to the students to use and
repeat the experiences they get in the classroom.

3. Law of Effect: This law states that if a stimulus results in a positive

outcome, it strengthens the S-R bond, while if it results in a negative
outcome, the S-R bond is weakened. That is, behaviours that are followed
by positive responses are likely to be repeated and those that are followed
by negative responses, not repeated. This law states that learning occurs
only when responses are followed by reward and satisfaction. On the other
hand, if frustration or punishment is experienced by the learner, the
connection between stimulus and response becomes weakened. Think about
Mary who gets good grades when she studies. Every time she gets a good
grade after studying, the S-R bond is strengthened, and the student learns
even more that studying results in getting a good grade. On the other hand,
if Mary gets a bad grade after not studying, the S-R bond between not
studying and good grades is weakened. The student learns that not studying
does not result in good grades.

Educational Implications
A pleasing environment should be created in the classroom. Experiences
provided to the students should be satisfying and meaningful. They should
be organised in the order of increasing difficulty. Material should be
provided in a number of interesting ways including the use of instructional
aids.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1) What is the relevance of Law of Effect on student’s learning?

31
2) Which of the laws of learning can be said to reflect the adage ‘practice
makes perfect’?

6.3.3 Classroom implications of Thorndike’s Theory

1. The teacher should know that the students learn better when their needs and
interests are considered, hence the teacher should ensure that the learning
activities revolve around the students.

2. Readiness is a prerequisite for learning; the teacher is therefore advised to

consider the mental or cognitive capability of the learners when planning
the curriculum or instructional contents.

3. The teacher should recognize the fact that the students will like to repeat the
actions for which they received positive regards. Hence, the teacher should
always use various motivational strategies to sustain the interest of the
students in the classroom.

4. The teacher should always present his/her materials in a logical and more
coherent way. This is the major way of arresting and sustaining the interest
of the learners in educational activities.

5. The teacher should consider the use of punishment as a last option in

reducing the undesirable behaviour in his /her classroom. This is because
the punishment cannot actually address the problem it rather hardens the
students and makes them to be more violent in the classroom and it also
creates behaviour problems.

6. The teacher should recognize the importance of practice in the learning

process. Learning may not occur unless practice is reinforced. This means
that the teacher should engage their students in assignment or homework, if
a meaningful learning must be achieved.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

List four contributions of Thorndike’s Theory to classroom situations

6.4 Summary

32
The basis of Thorndike’s theory is that learning is strengthened when
accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and weakened when associated
with an unpleasant feeling. The theory stresses readiness, exercises (repetition)
and effect as the conditions for learning. Every learning experience should contain
elements that leave the student with some good feelings. A student’s chance of
success is definitely increased if the learning experience is a pleasant one. It is
believed that you must have understood the tenets of the theory and the
importance of readiness, exercise, and effect on the learning process.

6.5 References /Further Readings/Web Sources

Ayeni, O. (1991). Psychology of Human Learning for Teachers. Ilesa: College of

Education.
Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S., Podell, D.M. (1997). Educational Psychology:
Windows on Teaching. Chicago: Brown and Benchmark Publishers.
Elliot, S.N., Dratochiwill, T.R., Cook, J.L & Travers, J.F. (2000) Educational
Psychology (3rd Ed) USA, McGraw Hill.
Hull, C.L. (1943). Principles of Behaviour. New York: Appleton-Century, Crofts.
Mangal, S.K (1998) General Psychology, New Delhi, Sterling Publishers Private
Limited.
McLeod, S. A. (2018). Skinner - operant conditioning. Simply psychology:
Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
Mmaduakonam, A (1998) Behaviourial Learning Theories, Awka, Erudition
Publishers.
Oladele, J.O. (2005), Fundamentals of Educational Psychology (4th Ed) Lagos,
John-lad Publishers Ltd.
Onyehalu, A.S (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education. Awka: Meks-
Unique (Nig.) Publishers.
Thorndike, E. (1913). Educational Psychology: The Psychology of Learning. New
York: Teachers College Press.
Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and Information
Centers. Windsor & Downs Press; Champaign, IL

6.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1
1. Thorndike believed that all learning is explained by connections that are
formed between stimuli and responses. This connection between stimulus
and response is called a stimulus-response bond, or an S-R bond. The

33
 stronger the S-R bond, the better a person has learned the lesson. In
Thorndike’s view, learning is the process of forming associations or bonds.
Learning is achieved when an individual is able to form associations
between a particular stimulus and a response.

Answers to SAEs 2
1. According to the law of effect, all learning involves the formation of S-R
connections and connections are strengthened or weakened according to
their consequences. Responses to a situation that are followed by
satisfaction are strengthened; responses followed by discomfort are
weakened. Thus, learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant
or satisfying feeling, and weakened when associated with an unpleasant
feeling. The learner needs to have success in order to have more success in
the future. It is important for the instructor to create situations designed to
promote success. That is, behaviours that are followed by positive
responses are likely to be repeated and those that are followed by negative
responses, not repeated.
2. The law that reflects the adage ‘practice makes perfect’ is the Law of
Exercise with specific reference to the Law of use

Answers to SAEs 3
Four contributions of Thorndike’s Theory to classroom situations:

List out any four of the classroom implications described under sub-section 8.3.3.

Unit 7 Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning

Unit Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Learning Outcomes
7.3 Behaviourist Theories of Learning and their Classroom Implications (3)
7.3.1 Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning
7.3.2 Reinforcement versus Punishment
7.3.3 Schedules of Reinforcement
7.3.4 Classroom Implications of Operant Conditioning Theory
7.4 Summary
7.5 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
7.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

34
 7.1 Introduction

In the previous unit you learned about Thorndike’s theory of connectionism. In

this unit, you are going to learn Operant conditioning theory of B.F. Skinner, who
is also a behaviourist. Here, you will get to learn basic principles of the theory,
different forms of reinforcement and punishment, schedules of reinforcement and,
of course, also discuss the classroom implications of the theory.

7.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 describe the basic principles of operant conditioning theory
 discuss the different forms of reinforcement and punishment
 explain the schedules of reinforcement
 discuss the classroom implications of operant conditioning theory

7.3 Behaviourist Theories of Learning and their Classroom

Implications (3)

7.3.1 Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning (or instrumental conditioning) is a type of learning in which

an individual's behaviour is modified by its consequences.

Operant conditioning theory of learning was formulated by B.F. Skinner who was
an American Psychologist. His theory came based on the lapses discovered in the
classical conditioning theory. Skinner believed that classical conditioning
explained only how behaviour that has already been acquired can occur in the
presence of a new stimulus (Lumen Learning, 2020). Skinner, however, believed
that most learning consists of acquiring new behaviour. He believed that behaviour
is an outcome of response that follows the action. The learner will possibly repeat
the action of a particular behaviour if it is followed/ rewarded with a pleasant
consequence.

Skinner explained two types of responses in his theory. One can be elicited only
by a known stimulus which he called as respondent or reflexive behaviour. For
example, stepping on a sharp object or touching a hot metal will automatically
make someone to produce reflex response. The second type is the response that an

35
individual emits following his/her own decision, which he called as operant
behaviour. Operant behaviours are under conscious control. Operant behaviour
emits voluntary response. Skinner attaches greater importance to operant
behaviour which is primarily concerned with response rather than stimuli. It is
based on the fact that behaviour operates upon the environment and which are in
turn, controlled by their environmental consequences i.e. their future probability of
occurrence is either increased or decreased by the events that follow their
emission. Operant conditioning believes that behavioural responses become
connected to environmental stimuli largely as a result of what happens after the
response occurs.

Skinner developed his operant conditioning theory as an expansion of Thorndike’s

Law of Effect. Skinner revealed in his theory that learning is a function of change
in overt behavior. Changes in behaviour, according to skinner, are the result of an
individual’s response to events (Stimuli) that occur in the environment. Our
behaviour is either strengthened or weakened by the immediate presence of a
reward or punishment. That is, any response followed by reward is strengthened;
any response followed by pain is weakened. Therefore, learning is a function of
the result of the response.

To establish his claims, Skinner conducted an experiment. Skinner constructed a

box with a small lever inside it. He placed a hungry rat in the box. In the box, the
rat moved around tirelessly and each time the lever is pressed, a pellet of food
dropped out. The rat becomes persistent in pressing the lever so that the food
could fall. The food that comes down for the rat reinforces its action. In contrast, if
the food is not accompanied with the pressing of lever, the number of presses
would fall gradually to the lowest point

In this type of theory, it is the result or consequence of a behaviour that makes that
behaviour more likely to be repeated. If the result of behaviour is gratifying, one is
likely to respond the same way the next time one encounters that stimulus. In the
above experiment, the pressing of lever becomes instrumental as the organism is
instrumental in securing its own reward.

Skinner’s theory is built on the concepts of reinforcement and punishment. We

shall take a look at the two concepts in more detail.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

Discuss the main features of operant conditioning theory

36
7.3.2 Reinforcement versus Punishment

Reinforcement

Skinner in this theory identified the two types of reinforcers, they are positive and
negative reinforcers. He believed that you can control human behaviour by the use
of reinforcers. The stimulus that occurs after a response is called a reinforcer.

 Example: A teacher gives a pleasant or complimentary remark to a student

for scoring a good mark in an assignment. The pleasant remark the student
receives is a positive reinforcer to reinforce the behaviour of scoring a good
mark. By this action, it is likely that such a student will want to continue
doing his/her assignment promptly.

There are two types of reinforcement: positive reinforcement and negative

reinforcement. Positive reinforcement involves adding something pleasant to the
person after the desired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior more likely to
happen in the future. Simply put, positive reinforcement involves adding
something positive in order to increase a behavior. Positive reinforcement includes
a wide variety of methods such as praise, thumps up, nods of approval, smiles,
hugs, handshakes, and social recognition.

Positive reinforcement can be:

 verbal for example saying “good” “well-done” “fantastic” to a child,

commending students for completing their work.
 non-verbal for example smiling or nodding at a student after a correct
response; applauding the child, thumps up, or patting a child on the back.
 material rewards for example giving a child a book, pencil, crayon, etc.

In negative reinforcement, an undesirable stimulus is avoided or removed to

increase the desired behaviour.

 Example: A company has a policy that if an employee completes their

assigned work by Friday, they can have Saturday off.

Working Saturday is the negative reinforcer, the employee's productivity will be

increased as they avoid experiencing the negative reinforcer.

 Example: A parent removed restrictions from a child when she follows the
rules.

37
Something unpleasant (a set of restrictions) is removed to encourage the child’s
good behavior (following the rules).

 Example: A lecturer tells students that if they have perfect attendance all
semester, then they do not have to take the final comprehensive exam.

By removing an unpleasant stimulus (the final test), students will try to attend
class regularly.

 Example: removing furniture in a room so a baby can have space to learn

how to crawl.

Both positive and negative reinforcements serve to increase a desired behaviour.

In fact, if appropriately used negative reinforcement can play the role of reward

It is important to note that positive and negative do not mean good and bad.
Instead, positive means you are adding something, and negative means you are
taking something away.

Punishment

Like reinforcement, punishment also comes in two forms: positive punishment and
negative punishment. Positive and negative punishment serves to decrease a
behavior.

In positive punishment, you add an undesirable stimulus to decrease or stop a

behavior. That is, positive punishment gives something learners do not want. One
common example of positive punishment is spanking/beating.

 Example: Spanking a student to get the student to stop texting in class.

In this case, an unpleasant stimulus (spanking) is added in order to decrease the

undesirable behavior (texting in class).

However, this notion has been revised on the assumption that positive punishment
(or the more familiar term of corporal punishment) does not decrease a behaviour.
You will get to know why? Keep reading!!

In negative punishment, you remove a pleasant stimulus to decrease/stop the

undesirable behavior. That is, negative punishment takes away something learners
want. Negative punishment might include taking away recess, taking away time to
play, taking away a favourite activity, or removing the teacher’s positive attention.
Here, you identify what the child likes and deprive him or her of that ‘thing’.
38
 Example: Taking away a child's electronics privileges for one week if she
misbehaves.
 Example: If your student loves a particular activity (such as playing
football in recess/break time), taking it away in response to poor grades or
bad behaviour may encourage such student to do better.

Here, the teacher might decide to have the student miss his time in recess for one
week to make him lose the privilege of playing football. Taking away his favourite
activity (playing football) may encourage such student to behave well in the
future. This technique has been shown to be more effective than using corporal
punishment. No amount of beating, slapping, verbal abuse, and shaming can
modify a bad behaviour. Another example of negative punishment is:

 Example: When a child misbehaves, a parent can take away the child’s
favorite toy for one week.

A pleasant stimulus (the toy) is removed in order to decrease/stop the child’s

misbehavior. Here, you identify what the child likes and deprive them of that
‘thing’. You should return the toy when the child starts behaving well, thereby
reinforcing the changed behaviour.

 You and your brother are fighting over the PS4. Your parents take it away
for two weeks.

A pleasant stimulus (the PS4) is removed to decrease/stop the unwanted behavior

(fighting).

Now let’s combine these four terms: positive reinforcement, negative

reinforcement, positive punishment, and negative punishment as shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Positive and Negative Reinforcement and Punishment

Reinforcement Punishment
Positive Something (pleasant) is Something (unpleasant) is
added to increase the added to decrease the
likelihood of a desired likelihood of an undesired
behaviour. behaviour
Negative Something (unpleasant) is Something (pleasant) is
removed to increase the removed to decrease the
likelihood of a desired likelihood of an undesired
behaviour behaviour.
Source: Lumen Learning (2020)

39
Remember, we mentioned that in positive punishment /corporal punishment, you
add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a bad behavior; e.g., beating a child for
misbehaving in the class. It has been found that instead of decreasing a behaviour,
corporal punishment yields unpredictable consequences. In other words, there are
many problems associated with the use of corporal punishment. Let’s dwell more
on this.

Corporal punishment

Corporal punishment of children is a common practice in many Nigerian

classrooms. It is also widely used in most homes. Some researchers have identified
various forms of corporal punishment used in Nigerian schools which include:
- Beating
- Slapping
- Knocking child’s head with the knuckle
- Asking students to kneel down on hard surfaces
- Threatening to beat but did not
- Yelling
- Verbal abuse
- Ridicule
- Name calling, and
- Other forms of punitive practices

According to education experts, corporal punishment has been shown not to result
in the desired outcome of improved behavior and even sometimes results in
escalation of unwanted behaviours (Merrette & Merrette, 2013). A study by
Rahimi and Karkami (2015) found that in classes where teachers managed
disruptive behaviors by using punitive strategies, students had problems in
learning as punitive strategies lowered students’ motivation.

It has been observed that the only positive outcome of corporal punishment is that
it leads to immediate compliance, although temporary; and that punished behavior
is never eliminated, it is suppressed for a short period of time, meaning that the
bad behavior may return when punishment is no longer present. For this reason,
Skinner (1972) argued that corporal punishment is a very bad technique for
controlling behaviour. He advocated for the frequent use of positive
reinforcement. He believed that positive reinforcement was more effective than
corporal punishment when trying to change and establish behaviours.

Given the above scenario, it is therefore important to be aware of some of the

drawbacks in using corporal punishment on children. Numerous research studies
including Gershoff (2017) and Opeyemi, (2017) have shown that corporal
punishment is an ineffective method of discipline and has major harmful

40
consequences on children and students. The following are some of the negative
effects of corporal punishment:
 Corporal punishment may cause children to become more aggressive and
prone to antisocial behavior and delinquency. They learn to use physical
violence to bully and control people.
 Corporal punishment may lead to lying. Children learn to tell lies instead of
admitting their mistakes in order to avoid punishment.
 Corporal punishment creates hostility and damages the relationship
between the punisher and the child.
 Corporal punishment reinforces the punisher, not the punished.
 Corporal punishment hardens the child instead of correcting them. May
increase the behaviour it seeks to eliminate. Punishment suppresses the bad
behaviour only for it to find expression in other problem behaviours.
 Corporal punishment does not guide the child towards the desired
behaviour.
 Corporal punishment causes fear, anxiety, withdrawal and timidity.
Children who are punished by teachers may come to fear the teacher and try
to avoid school.
 Corporal punishment has a negative impact on children’s cognitive
development, it interferes with learning. Punishing a child because he or
she performed poorly in a test or exam is totally wrong; you are destrying
the child’s cognitive development.
 Corporal punishment causes physical injury
 Corporal punishment can cause emotional as well as mental health
problems.

Because of these problems, corporal punishment should be avoided, while positive

reinforcement should be emphasized.

You may find yourself asking “Does giving up corporal punishment

mean giving up discipline”? The answer is capital ‘NO’. There are quite a number
of behaviour modification techniques that teachers can use to discipline students
without using corporal punishment. We will cover this in more detail in Module 3
Unit 4, where you will learn about techniques for managing student behaviour,
which are found to be safer, non-violent and more effective than corporal
punishment.

Meanwhile, let’s continue with our discussion on Skinner by looking at the

concept of reinforcement schedules.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

41
1) Can you identify the negative reinforcers in each of these examples?
 You decide to clean up your mess in the kitchen to avoid getting into a fight
with your roommate.
 You leave the house early to avoid getting stuck in traffic and being late for
work.
2) Fill in the missing word with the options provided.
 ----------is when you take away a pleasant stimulus to stop a behavior.
positive reinforcement (b) negative reinforcement (c) positive punishment (d)
negative punishment
3) Discuss any three negative effects of corporal punishment on students

7.3.3 Schedules of Reinforcement

Remember, Skinner’s theory focuses on a system of reinforcement. Also,

remember that the best way to teach or modify a behavior is to use positive
reinforcement. Skinner came up with the idea of reinforcement schedule.
Reinforcement schedule is simply a rule that specifies when and how often a
desired behaviour will be reinforced. It is an arrangement to determine when to
reinforce a desired behavior, in terms of the time or number of responses.

A reinforcement schedule can be divided into two broad categories: continuous

schedules and partial schedules (also called intermittent schedules). In a
continuous schedule every desired behavior is reinforced, whereas partial
schedules only reinforce the desired behavior occasionally. Both types of
schedules are explained below:

A. Continuous reinforcement: In this reinforcement technique, every correct

response or behaviour is rewarded/reinforced. For example, a student may
be rewarded for every correct answer he gives to the questions asked by
their teacher. This reinforcement schedule is the quickest way to teach
someone a behavior, and it is especially effective in training a new
behavior.

B. Partial/Intermittent reinforcement: In this type of reinforcement, the

person does not get reinforced every time they perform the desired
behavior.

There are four types of partial reinforcement schedules:

42
i. Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule: It is an arrangement of providing
reinforcement after a set (fixed) number of responses has occurred. For
example, a student may be rewarded for every 5 mathematical problems
solved.

ii. Fixed interval reinforcement schedule: This is when a behaviour is

rewarded/reinforced at a set amount of time. For example, you praise your
students after every 5 minutes.

iii. Variable ratio reinforcement schedule: It is an arrangement of providing

reinforcement after a varying number of responses has been made. Here,
the number of responses needed to gain the reinforcement is not consistent.
The individual does not know when they are going to be rewarded and
consequently they remain motivated throughout the learning process in the
wait for reinforcement. For example, a student may be rewarded after 3, 5,
10 and 15 mathematical problems solved.

iv. Variable interval reinforcement schedule: This is a kind of schedule in

which reinforcement is provided at a varying amount of time from the
previous reinforcement. i.e. behavior is rewarded after a varying periods of
time have passed, which are unpredictable. In this case, reinforcement is
irregular. For example, when the school principal has to visit classes
unexpectedly to check those teachers that are doing their work in order to
reward them. Here, there is no scheduled time for the visits, therefore the
teachers’ productivity will be increased as they do not know when the
principal will show up to rewar them.
.
It is to be noted that different types of reinforcing schedules generate different
results. Among the four partial schedules, variable ratio and variable interval have
been recognized as the most powerful schedule. They are the most unpredictable
of the four types. All students operate on different schedules of reinforcement. A
high achieving student will be more likely to work effectively for a longer period
of time between reinforcements. In contrast, the student who has had little success
in the past may need reinforcement more often to keep going.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

Categorize the four schedules of reinforcement into schedules that deal with
passage of time and those associated with number of responses

7.3.4 Educational Implications of Skinner’s theory

43
1. Reinforcement is an essential factor if the students must perform well in a
given task. To this end, the teacher should not neglect the use of positive
reinforcement. This reinforcement will stimulate the efforts of the students
in the classroom.

2. Teacher should reinforce positive behaviours through variety of incentives

such as verbal praise, a smile, social recognition, a pat on the back, prize or
by giving marks.

3. For the desirable behaviour in the learner to be demonstrated and repeated,

it must be immediately reinforced. The time lag between reinforcing the
demonstrated behaviour should not be too long.

4. Provide negative consequences for unacceptable behaviours. Use

appropriate techniques to punish bad behaviour. Do not use corporal
punishment or humiliation to correct bad behaviour, it will backfire.

5. If a student engages in a disruptive behaviour, the teacher should not

reinforce such behaviour with corporal punishment. Corporal punishment
can inhibit learning. There are positive approaches for correcting unwanted
behaviours.

6. The whole atmosphere of our school is dominated by fear and unpleasant

experiences because of the frequent use of corporal punishment. The school
can use the principles of operant conditioning to eliminate the element of
fear from school atmosphere by using positive reinforcement more often.

7. Use an appropriate reinforcement schedule. Teachers must be alert to their

students because all students operate on different schedules of
reinforcement. A student who has achieved success for longer period of
time will be more likely to work effectively for a longer period of time
between rewards. In contrast, the student who has had little success in the
past may need reinforcement more often to keep going (Basmah, 2004). In
other words, highly motivated students are usually actively and
spontaneously involved in activities and find the process of learning
enjoyable without expecting any external rewards (Skinner & Belmont,
1993). On the other hand, students who exhibit low levels of motivation to
learn will often depend on the rewards to encourage them to participate in
activities they may not find enjoyable (Yount, 2001).

44
8. Provide clear informative feedback on student work. Feedback is most
effective when it involves both praise (positive reinforcement) for correct
answers and corrective information for wrong answers (Yount, 2001).

Self-Assessment Exercises 4

What are the contributions of Skinner’s theory to educational process?

7.4 Summary

This unit has discussed the basic principles of operant conditioning theory.
Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning revealed that behaviours are strengthened
or weakened based on the consequences of that behavior. Reinforcement plays a
vital role in the operant conditioning process. The relevance of reinforcement to
students learning was also discussed in this unit. We discussed the many problems
associated with the use of corporal punishment and advocated for the use of
positive reinforcement. The schedules of reinforcement were also discussed.
Reinforcement may be either continuous or partial. Partial reinforcement
schedules are determined by whether the reinforcement is presented on the basis of
the time that elapses between reinforcement (interval) or on the basis of the
number of responses that the organism engages in (ratio), and by whether the
reinforcement occurs on a regular (fixed) or unpredictable (variable) schedule
(Stangor, 2012). . Also, the implications of the theory to educational settings were
discussed.

7.5 References /Further Readings/Web Sources

Alao, K.O. (2009) Advanced Psychology of Learning (EDU 722), Lagos, National
Open University of Nigeria.
Ayeni, O. (1991). Psychology of Human Learning for Teachers. Ilesa: College of
Education.
Basmah, A. (2004). The implications of Skinner’s theory for education
https://studylib.net/doc/7502927/the-implications-of-skinner-s-theory-for-
education
Burns, R. (1995). The Adult Learner at Work. Sydney. Business and Professional
Publishing Ltd.

45
Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S., Podell, D.M. (1997). Educational Psychology:
Windows on Teaching. Chicago: Brown and Benchmark Publishers.
Elliot, S.N., Kratochwill T.R., Cook J.L & Travers J.F. (2000) Educational
Psychology (3rd Ed), USA, McGraw Hill.
Gershoff, E. T. (2017). School corporal punishment in global perspective:
prevalence, outcomes, and efforts at intervention. Psychology, Health &
Medicine, 22, 224-239
Iversen, I.H. (1992). Skinner’s Early Research: From Reflexology to Operant
Conditioning. American Psychologist, 47,1318-1328.
Lumen Learning (2020). Introduction to Psychology. Retrieved
from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/.
McLeod, S. A. (2018). Skinner - operant conditioning. Simply psychology:
Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
Mmaduakonam, A (1998), Behavioural Learning Theories, Awka, Erudition
Publishers.
Oladele, J. O. (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology. Yaba: Johns-Lad
Publishers Ltd.
Oladele, J.O. (2005), Fundamentals of Educational Psychology (4th ed) Lagos,
John-lad Publishers Ltd.
Onyehalu, A.S (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education. Awka: Meks-
Unique (Nig.) Publishers.
Opeyemi, O. (2017). Corporal punishment: Perceptions and adoption in Nigerian
secondary schools. Education Research Journal 7(8), 200-208.
Santrock, J.W. (2008), Educational Psychology, (3rd ed) Boston, McGraw Hill.
Sivakumar, P. (2017). Theories of Learning and its educational implications.
Teacher Education Support Services.
https://tntess.blogspot.com/2017/02/theories-of-learning-and-its.html
Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and Information
Centers. Windsor & Downs Press; Champaign, IL
Stangor, D. (2012). Beginning psychology.
Zhou, M., & Brown, D. (2017). Educational Learning Theories: 2nd Edition.
Education Open Textbooks. 1.
https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/education-textbooks/1

7.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1
1. Skinner developed the operant conditioning theory. The basic premise of
the theory was that behaviors are strengthened or weakened based on the
consequences of that behaviour i.e. any response followed by reward is
strengthened; any response followed by pain is weakened. That is, their

46
 future probability of occurrence is either increased or decreased by the
immediate presence of a reward or punishment. Through operant
conditioning, an individual makes an association between a particular
behavior and a consequence.

Answers to SAEs 2
1. A fight with your roommate and being late for work are the negative
reinforcers that were avoided by performing a specific behavior.
2. Negative reinforcement is when you take away a pleasant stimulus to stop
a behavior.
3. Three negative effects of corporal punishment on students:
 Corporal punishment may lead to lying. Children learn to tell lies
instead of admitting their mistakes in order to avoid punishment.
 Corporal punishment creates hostility and damages the relationship
between the punisher and the child.
 Corporal punishment causes fear, anxiety, withdrawal and timidity.
Children who are punished by teachers may come to fear the teacher
and try to avoid school.

Answers to SAEs 3
Schedules of reinforcement that deal with the passage of time are fixed interval
reinforcement schedule and variable interval reinforcement schedule. Those that
are associated with the number of responses are fixed ratio reinforcement schedule
and variable ratio reinforcement schedule

Answers to SAEs 4
See sub-section 7.3.4 for the answers

Seminar Topics
Each student is expected to present seminar paper on one of the following topics:

1. Identify two shortcomings in our educational system which Skinners theory

can help to correct.
2. How is Skinner’s theory relevant to teaching/learning activities?
3. How would you apply operant conditioning in trying to teach or encourage
a child to do her homework

Unit 8 Applications of Operant Conditioning

47
Unit Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Learning Outcomes
8.3 Applications of Operant Conditioning in Everyday Life
8.3.1 Aspects of Human Behaviour that Operant Conditioning Affects
8.3.2 Distinction Between Classical Conditioning and Operant
Conditioning
8.3.3 Key Terms and Concepts in Classical Conditioning and Operant
Conditioning
8.4 Summary
8.5 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
8.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

8.1 Introduction

In the previous unit, we discussed Skinner’s theory of operant conditioning and

the theory’s to classroom practices. Now you will learn aspects of human
behaviour that operant conditioning affects and the applications of operant
conditioning in everyday life.

8.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 describe aspects of human behaviour that operant conditioning affects
 distinguish between classical conditioning and operant conditioning
 explain key terms and concepts in classical conditioning and operant
conditioning

8.3 Applications of Operant Conditioning in Everyday Life

8.3.1 Aspects of Human Behaviour that Operant Conditioning Affects

 Operant conditioning affects many aspects of human behaviour. We smile,

help others, and go to work every morning because we are reinforced for
these behaviours.

 Operant conditioning can be responsible for the development of abnormal

behaviours but can also be systematically used in very positive ways.
48
  Let us consider instances of how operant conditioning is used to (1)
modification of abnormal behaviour, (2) modify a variety of behaviours, (3)
enhance the educational process, and (4) develop new drugs.

(1) Learned Helplessness and Depression

 Martin Seligman has shown how one form of abnormal behaviour,
depression, can be acquired through operant processes.

 He delivered electric shock to two dogs simultaneously. The Group A dog

could turn off the shock by pressing a button and thus had some control
over the situation. The Group B dog received the same shocks as the Group
A dog but had no control, it was helpless. Both groups were then moved to
a shuttle box.

 Each dog was placed in one compartment, where a signal was followed by
shock. Group A dogs soon learned to jump the barrier when the signal
sounded in order to avoid the shock, but Group B dogs did not. This was so
because the Group B dogs had previously learned that they had no control
over the shock thus did not try to make the avoidance response. Seligman
called this phenomenon learned helplessness.

 Lacking operant control over the environment can produce a state of

helplessness in humans.

(2) Modifying Human Behaviour

 The application of Skinnerian principles in an effort to alter human
behaviour is called behaviour modification.

 Operant techniques can be helpful in correcting problem behaviour in

children.

 A problem behaviour is behaviour that digresses from what the majority

approves of, or a variation of a normal behaviour.

 Examples of proble behaviours include disobedience, stealing, fighting,

truancy, rioting, drug addiction, destructive tendency, aggressiveness,
restlessness, cheating.

In one study, frustrated parents whose children watched an average of 21 hours of

TV per week agreed to a Skinnerian behavioural programme. The child received
20 tokens per week; each token could be turned over to mummy or daddy in

49
exchange for 30 minutes of TV viewing time. If the children watched no more
than the 10 allotted hours, they received a gold token that could be exchanged for
some special reinforcer, like a trip to an amusement park or a party for friends.
The children cut their TV viewing time to 10 hours and kept it there over a period
of 8 months after they stopped receiving the token.

(3) Enhance the educational process

 The application of Skinnerian techniques has been in improving education
in the form of programmed instruction, developed by Skinner in 1954.

 Programmed instruction is a device for learning that allows a child to type

the answers on a keyboard. The machine reinforced correct responses by
moving on to the next problem. Such reinforcement is immediate and
accurate to a degree that can never be achieved by a teacher working with
many children at once. It is important for you to note that current computer
based instructional systems are the modern products of Skinner’s genius.

(4) Modification of abnormal behaviour

 Skinnerian approaches have also been applied to the modification of
abnormal behaviour. Hospitalized mental patients suffering from such
serious disorders as schizophrenia (mental disorder that affects how a
person thinks, feels, and behaves) typically have few of the social skills
needed to obtain reinforcement in the world outside the institution.

 Behavioural programmes called token economies teach them social skills

through operant techniques. Specific behaviours (for example, keeping a
neat room and going to meals on time) are identified. Appropriate
reinforcers (for example, candy, movie attendance, and TV privileges) are
determined. When patients perform the desired behaviours, they receive
tokens, such as poker chips, that can later be exchanged for the reinforcers
they want.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

 Explain the concept of “learned helplessness” in humans.

 Briefly describe the application of operant conditioning in the modification
of abnormal behaviour

8.3.2 Differences Between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

50
 Classical conditioning Operant conditioning
 The organism is passive. It The organism is active. The behaviour is
must wait for something to initiated on its own without any stimulus
happen before it can respond
 Much emphasis is placed on Much emphasis is placed on the response.
the stimulus causing the It is response-oriented.
response. It is stimulus-oriented
 Reinforcement comes first Reinforcement comes after appropriate
response is made
 It involves the pairing of There is no pairing
unconditioned stimulus (food)
and conditioned stimulus (bell)
 The association is between a The association is between the emitted
stimulus and elicited response behaviour and the reinforcement upon
which the behaviour is contingent
 The essence of learning is The essence of learning is behaviour
stimulus substitution modification

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

In your own words, list three differences between classical conditioning and
operant conditioning

8.3.3 Key Terms and Concepts in Classical Conditioning and Operant

Conditioning

Discrimination - The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli. In other

words, it is the process by which we learn not to respond to similar stimuli in the
same way

Extinction - The disappearance of a response due to the removal of the reinforcer

that maintained the response. In other words, it is a process by which conditioned
responses are lost.

Generalization - Responding in the same way to two different stimuli

Neutral stimulus (NS) - a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response

Conditional Stimulus (CS) – A stimulus that acquired the ability to produce the
response because it was paired with the unconditioned stimulus or the once neutral
stimulus that became a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting the conditioned
response by itself.
51
Conditioned response (CR) - Response that is similar to unconditioned response
but is produced by the conditioned stimulus or the learned response to the
previously neutral stimulus

Unconditioned response (UCR) - Unlearned or inborn reaction to the

unconditioned stimulus or a natural reaction to a given stimulus

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) – A stimulus that can produce response without

any learning or a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism

Classical conditioning - Type of learning in which neutral (conditioned) stimulus

gradually gains the ability to elicit a response because of its pairing with a natural
(unconditioned) stimulus.

Operant conditioning - Form of learning in which the consequences of behaviour

lead to changes in the probability that the behaviour will occur

Spontaneous recovery - The reappearance of an apparently extinguished

conditioned response (CR) after an interval when conditioned stimulus is
presented again.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

1. Define the following terms and concepts:

(i) Neutral stimulus
(ii) Extinction
(iii) Generalization
(iv) Conditioned Stimulus

8.4 Summary

In this study unit, you have learnt the application of operant conditioning theory of
learning in everyday life. You should also have learned about learned helplessness
and depression. In addition, you have learnt the differences between classical
conditioning and operant conditioning.

52
 8.5 References /Further Readings/Web Sources

Elliot, S.N., Kratochwill T.R., Cook J.L & Travers J.F. (2000) Educational
Psychology (3rd Ed), USA, McGraw Hill.
Mmaduakonam, A (1998), Behavioural Learning Theories, Awka, Erudition
Publishers.
Oladele, J.O. (2005), Fundamentals of Educational Psychology (4th ed) Lagos,
John-lad Publishers Ltd.
Santrock, J.W. (2008), Educational Psychology, (3rd ed) Boston, McGraw Hill
Sulaiman F.R. & Onabamiro A.A. (2000) Psychology for Child Development and
Human Learning, Ijebu-Ode, Alamsek Press Ltd.

8.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1
1. The concept of “learned helplessness” in humans:
 Learned helplessness occurs in humans when they have been continuously
subjected to a negative situation, and feel they have no operant control over
their situation. Eventually, they will stop trying to avoid the pain of that
situation and begin to behave in a helpless manner. This inaction can lead
people to overlook opportunities for change.
 Such learned helplessness can be a major factor in depression.
For example, the secretary who is repeatedly overruled by her boss when
she tries to be more efficient or by her family when she tries to improve
home life may eventually come to feel helpless more generally.

2. The application of operant conditioning in the modification of abnormal

behaviour:
Skinnerian approaches have been applied to the modification of abnormal
behaviour. Hospitalized mental patients suffering from such serious disorders
as schizophrenia (mental disorder that affects how a person thinks, feels, and
behaves) typically have few of the social skills needed to obtain
reinforcement in the world outside the institution.

Answers to SAEs 2
Three differences between classical conditioning and operant conditioning
See the answer on sub-section 8.3.2

Answers to SAEs 3

53
Definition of terms and concepts:
i. Neutral stimulus – It is a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response
ii. Extinction - The disappearance of a response due to the removal of the
reinforcer that maintained the response. In other words, it is a process by
which conditioned responses are lost.
iii. Generalization - Responding in the same way to two different stimuli
iv. Conditioned Stimulus - A stimulus that acquired the ability to produce the
response because it was paired with the unconditioned stimulus or the once
neutral stimulus that became a conditioned stimulus capable of eliciting the
conditioned response by itself.

Unit 9 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

Unit Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Learning Outcomes
9.2 Behaviourist Theories of Learning and their Classroom Implications (4)
9.3.1 Overview of Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
9.3.2 Four Basic Processes in Observational Learning
9.3.3 Classroom Implications of Social Learning Theory
9.4 Summary
9.5 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
9.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

9.1 Introduction

In the previous unit you studied Thorndike’s theory of connectionism. In this unit,
we are going to discuss Bandura’s social learning theory, which is also categorized
under behaviourist theories. Imagine this scenario. Joy is 16 years old. Joy’s
parents both drink alcohol every night. They tell Joy that drinking is bad and she
shouldn’t do it. Joy goes to a party where beer is being served. What do you think
Joy will do? In this lesson, you will learn about the principles of Social learning
theory and the importance of the social context, and how children learn through
observation and imitation of models in their environment.

9.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 describe the basic principles of social learning theory

54
 explain the four basic processes involved in observational learning
 describe the role of reinforcement in social learning theory
 discuss the classroom implications of the social learning theory

9.3 Behaviourist Theories of Learning and their Classroom

Implications (4)

9.3.1 Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura

Bandura is noted as one of the exponents of social learning theory. He is quite

different from other behavioural theorists who look at learning as a direct result of
conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment. Social learning theory explains
human behaviour in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between
individuals and their environments, in which our behaviour, personal factors and
the social environmental all mutually influence each other. This notion means that
just as an individual's behavior is influenced by the environment, the environment
is also influenced by the individual's behavior. The theory suggests that people
learn from one another through observation, imitation, and modeling; and that is
why it is also commonly referred to as observational learning. This means that we
learn by observing the behaviour of others. Social learning theory draws heavily
on the concept of role modeling. Individuals that are observed are known as
models.

Children learn through observation and imitation. They can observe people around
them behaving in various ways and imitate their actions, this is identified in
Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment. In our society, children are surrounded by many
models, such as parents, teachers, characters on the television, their friends and
people they see in the street. Children pay attention to these models and imitate
their behaviours. Through observational learning, Bandura has shown that children
learn many things both good and bad simply by watching other’s behaviour. Once
children observe a behaviour they can store it in their memory and display the
imitated behaviour at a later time.

Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of

aggression among children, particularly children’s modeling of adults’ aggressive
behaviours. The theory suggests that children learn to exhibit aggressive behaviors
because they observe others acting aggressively and can see how these behaviors
are reinforced over time (Bandura, 1978). Through observation, children learn
new behaviours that they have observed from their parents and other models. For
instance, psychological evidence shows that parental use of corporal punishment

55
in child training often relates to the learning of aggressive behaviour in children
(Ofoha, 2015).

The Bobo doll experiment

Bandura carried out an experiment (Bobo doll experiment) to see if aggressive

behaviours can be acquired by observation and imitation. In that experiment, he
showed young children a short film in which an adult model was beating up the
Bobo doll. Another group of children did not watch the film. After the film, the
children were taken to a room containing some toys, including a Bobo doll. The
children who watched the film tended to reproduce the model’s aggressive
behaviour toward the doll. The group of children who did not watch the film did
not display aggressive behaviour toward the toy. Through this experiment,
Bandura demonstrated that children could learn aggression by watching the
actions of an adult model. It also shows that children can be influenced by
watching violent films, movies or television programmes.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1. Briefly describe the basic principles of social learning theory

2. Fill in the missing words
 The person who performs a behavior that serves as an example is called
a ________
 In the Bobo doll experiment, when the children who watched the
aggressive model were placed in a room with the doll and other toys,
they ________

9.3.2 Four Basic Processes in Observational Learning

It has been noted that individuals do not automatically observe the behavior of a
model and imitate it. Bandura described four basic processes or steps which must
be followed for the behavior to be imitated. These steps include attention,
retention, reproduction, and motivation.

1. Attention: For a behavior to be imitated, you must be focused on what the

model is doing—you have to pay attention. Attention is therefore extremely
important in whether a behavior influences others imitating it.

2. Retention: This is the ability to store in the memory information received

from the environment. You must be able to retain, or remember, what you

56
 observed. If you are to later use what you have learned, you must store it in
memory.

3. Reproduction: This is the ability to perform the behavior that the model
has just demonstrated. You must be able to perform the behavior that you
observed and committed to memory.

4. Motivation: You must have motivation. You will reproduce the observed
behaviour only if you are motivated to do so. You need to want to copy the
behavior, and whether or not you are motivated depends on what happened
to the model. If you saw that the model was reinforced for her behavior,
you will be more motivated to copy her. This is known as vicarious
reinforcement. On the other hand, if you observed the model being
punished, you would be less motivated to copy her. This is called vicarious
punishment.

The Role of Reinforcement in Bandura’s theory

It is important for you to note that observational learning can take place without
reinforcement. Reinforcement which is so essential in classical and operant
conditioning theories as well as in Thorndike’s theory is totally unnecessary in an
observational learning. That is to say, in social learning theory, reinforcement is
not a prerequisite for a learning to occur. Learning occurs by simply observing a
model. However, reinforcement increases the chance that that what has been learnt
will definitely be performed. This theory is therefore rested on the fact that an
action or behaviour can be performed if the model is pleasantly rewarded. It is also
believed that there is probability that an observer might drop a behaviour if he
finds out that the model has received a negative reinforcement for practicing such
a behaviour.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1. List the basic processes involved in observational learning in the correct

order
2. What is the role of reinforcement in social learning theory?

9.3.3 Classroom Implications of Social Learning Theory

1) The teacher is a model for students in his/her classroom, and he/she has a
profound effect on students’ attitudes, beliefs and behaviour. In this case,

57
 the teacher should display socially acceptable behaviour since they are role
models to students.

2) The teacher should always make sure that he/she does not condone any
irrational behaviour from his/her students. Any offending student should be
appropriately dealt with, so as to serve as a deterrent to other members of
the classroom.

3) The teacher should not forget to give complimentary remarks such as “well
done”, excellent”, “good boy/girl,” “keep it up”, as a way of encouraging
other students to imitate a good behaviour.

4) Teacher/parents should discourage their students/children from watching

violent films or keeping friends of doubtful characters.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

Discuss three classroom implications of social learning theory

9.4 Summary

This unit has explained the meaning of social learning theory and factors that must
be present for observational learning to take place. It also considered the
educational implications of the theory. We further learned that, to imitate an
observed behaviour, we must first pay attention to it, then remember what we
observed, then be able to reproduce the action, and have sufficient motivation to
do so. Observation plays a very powerful role in learning, and it can play a critical
role in determining how and what children learn.

9.5 References /Further Readings/Web Sources

Ayeni, O. (1991). Psychology of Human Learning for Teachers. Ilesa: College of

Education.
Bandura, A. (1965). Influence of model’s reinforcement contingencies on the
acquisition of initiative response. Journal of Personality & Social
Psychology, 1 (6), 589 - 595.
Bandura, A. (1992). Self-efficacy in changing societies Cambridge, Eng.:
Cambridge University Press.

58
Bandura, A. (1978). Social Learning Theory. New York: General Learning Press
Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social
Cognitive Theory. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall
Baron, R. (1974). Threatened retaliation from the victim as an inhibitor of physical
aggression. In: Journal of Experimental Research in Personality, 7, 103 - 15.
Geen, S. & Stonner, T. (1973). Social Motivation. Annual Review of Psychology,
42, 377 - 399.
Johnson, B. (1986). Observational Learning in Gallus gallus domesticus with and
without a specific model. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society. 24 (3), 237 -
239.
Lumen Learning (2020). Introduction to Psychology. Retrieved
from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/.
McLeod, S. A. (2016). Bandura - social learning theory. Simply psychology:
https://www.simplypsychology.org/bandura.html
Mannings, S. & Taylor, D. (1985). Effects of viewed violence and aggression:
Stimulation and catharsis. In: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
31, 180 – 8.
Ofoha, D. (2015). Relation between parental disciplinary practices and youth
violent behaviour: Implications for parenting education. Nigerian
Psychological Research, 3, 294-306.
Ross, T. & Ross, M. (1963). The classroom, and observational learning. In: Child
Development pp. 387 - 399. New York. Wiley.

9.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1
1. The social learning theory suggests that people learn from one another
through observation, imitation, and modeling; and it is also commonly
referred to as observational learning. This means that people learn by
observing the behaviour of others. For social learning theory to take place,
there must be an observer (learners), the model, learners’ attention and
proximity. The process of learning is influenced by the extent of
identification and imitation by the learners.
2. The missing words:
 The person who performs a behavior that serves as an example is called
a model
 In the Bobo doll experiment, when the children who watched the
aggressive model were placed in a room with the doll and other toys,
they tended to reproduce the model’s aggressive behaviour toward the
doll

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Answers to SAEs 2
1. The correct order of the basic processes in observational learning are:
Attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation
2. The role of reinforcement in social learning theory:
In social learning theory, reinforcement is not a prerequisite for a learning
to occur but it increases the chance that that what has been learnt will
definitely be performed. Also, there is probability that an observer might
drop a behaviour if he finds out that the model has received a negative
reinforcement for practicing such a behaviour.

Answers to SAEs 3
Three classroom implications of social learning theory:
 The teacher is a model for students in his/her classroom, and he/she has a
profound effect on students’ attitudes, beliefs and behaviour. In this case,
the teacher should be a good model.
 The teacher should not forget to give complimentary remarks such as “well
done”, excellent”, “good boy/girl,” “keep it up”, as a way of encouraging
other students to imitate a good behaviour.
 Teachers/parents should discourage their students/children from watching
violent films or keeping friends of doubtful characters.

Seminar Topics
Each student is expected to present seminar paper on one of the following topics:

1. Joy is 16 years old. Joy’s parents both drink alcohol every night. They tell
Joy that drinking is bad and she shouldn’t do it. Joy goes to a party where
beer is being served. What do you think Joy will do? Why?
2. Explain how you will apply social learning principles to the classroom
situations
3. From your understanding of our discussion, what type of movies and
television programmes would you recommend for children and adolescents
in your community or neighbourhood?

Unit 10 Cognitive-Field Theories of Learning and their Classroom

Implications

Unit Structure
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Learning Outcomes

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10.3 Cognitive Field Theories of Learning and their Classroom Implications
10.3.1 Underlying Principles of Cognitive-field theories of learning
10.3.2 Learning by Insight and Features of Insightful Learning
10.3.3 Classroom Implications of Cognitive Field Theory of Learning
10.4 Summary
10.5 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
10.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

10.1 Introduction

In the previous unit, we discussed Bandura’s Social Learning Theory. With that
we have completed all four of the behaviourist theories of learning. Now we are
turning our attention to the second group of learning theories known as Cognitive-
field theory of learning. Recall that we said Cognitive field theories pay more
attention to what goes on in the learner's mind and focus on mental processes
rather than observable behaviours. The theory emphasizes insight learning. In this
lesson, we are going to be looking at the principles of this theory, the main ideas
of insight learning and the classroom implications of the theory. Here also, you
will learn how learning takes place through the application of insight.

10.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you will be able to:

 describe the underlying principles of cognitive field theory of learning
 explain insight learning and its main features
 explain Gestalt Laws of Perception
 differentiate between Behaviourist and Cognitive field theories of learning.
 discuss the classroom implication of cognitive field theory of learning

10.3 Cognitive-Field Theory of Learning and their Classroom Implications

10.3.1 Cognitive-Field Theory of Learning

Cognitive Field theory or Gestalt theory was formulated by a group of German

Psychologists, notable among them were Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and
Wolfgang Kohler, all of who belong to Gestalt school of psychology. Gestalt
psychologists emphasize the importance of wholes over parts and believe that the
whole of anything is greater than the sum of its parts. According to Gestalt theory,
perception of a situation as a ‘whole’ gives better understanding than the sum of
its parts. This theory is in contrast with the behaviourist (S-R) learning which
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places emphasis on the formation of S-R connections. Gestalt is a German word
which means pattern, shape, form or configuration, we learn by seeing new
patterns and by organizing them into a meaningful whole in the total situation.
Therefore, the theory lays emphasis on cognitive structure and on perception of
the total field by the individual. This could be illustrated with a car, if the whole is
dismantled, though the components are there, it’s not a car. They believe that parts
are configured or organized to make complete or meaningful experiences or
impressions. This theory rejected the views that consider the learning process in an
isolated form rather than in a total or holistic form. The Gestalt theory/ cognitive
field theories focus on insight and perceptual processes. The Gestalt theory of
learning is also named as Learning by Insight.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

Describe the underlying principles of cognitive fields (Gestalt) theory of learning

10.3.2 Learning by Insight

The Gestalt psychologists believe that learning occurs by insight. For instance,
when we are faced with a problem, we try to get some clues in the ways we should
proceed to solve the problem; we think through it by having a complete picture of
the problem in mind, without making any progress. Then all of a sudden, there
will be a flash of understanding in which we arrive at a solution to our problem.
This sudden understanding of the components of a problem that makes the
solution apparent is known as Insight learning. The joyful remark is known as the
“aha” phenomenon, that is, the flash of understanding which comes to us when we
suddenly realize what the answer to our difficulties is. We have all experienced the
sensation of the ‘aha’ moment at one time or another. Can you recall any one of
such experiences? Insight occurs when the individual sees in a flash the solution to
his problem.

In a problematic situation, the learner tries to solve the problem and this attempt
involves the understanding of the components of a problem. As already noted, the
sudden occurrence at arrival to the solution of the problem is known as Insight
learning. Insight is also expressed as the “Aha” moment, that is, the flash of
understanding which comes to us when we hit suddenly upon the solution to a
problem. The Gestalts define learning as occurring through gaining of insight by
understanding the relationships of various parts of a problem. They therefore
placed more credence on insightful learning rather than trial and error like that of
Thorndike or mechanical conditioning as performed by Pavlov in his classical
conditioning theory. In other words, learning comes as a result of mental activity.

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This theory is of the opinion that parts are configured or organized to make
complete or meaningful experiences or impressions. The emphasis here is on the
importance of experience, meaning, problem solving and the development of
insights (Burns 1995). It is believed that meaningful learning can only take place
through a sequence of problem-solving approach.

It may be said that insightful theory of learning concerns itself with higher
thinking skills. Complex problems would require higher learning and solutions are
reached only by application of insight. All new ideas and concepts, inventions and
discoveries are the result of insightful learning. Learning by conditioning is
common to all animals and human beings and useful for early education. But
learning by insight is suitable only for intelligent creatures both human and
animals and useful for higher learning.

Insightful learning is hinged on the fact that animals undergo a series of problem-
solving approach following a sequence of principles and previous experience
before arriving at a solution. In this theory, the cognitive or mental processes
of the animals are regarded as the yardstick in the development of
insightful learning. Learning by insight requires full comprehension of the
situation as a whole.

Kohler’s Experiment

To show the importance of learning by insight, Gestalt Psychologists performed

several experiments using chimpanzees as subjects. In one of the experiments, a
chimpanzee called Sultan was put in a cage. In the cage was a stool and banana,
hung on the top of the cage. Initially, several unsuccessful attempts were made
by Sultan to get the banana. Suddenly, sultan decided to pull out the stool
and climbed it to get the banana from where it was hung. This type of
learning is called insightful, because it involves problem-solving approach.

Another experiment was performed whereby Sultan was put in the cage with a
banana and a stick lying outside the cage. It made a few attempts with its hands to
get the banana but could not. Then it noticed a stick lying outside the cage.
Picking up the stick, it successfully reached out and pulled in the banana.

The last experiment performed by Kohler on this insightful learning, was an

extension of the second experiment. In this case, the chimpanzee (Sultan) was put
in the cage, and a bunch of banana was placed at some distance outside the
cage. This time, two sticks were provided, which could be fitted together to reach
the banana. The hungry Sultan first attempted with its hands to get the banana.
Then he took one of the sticks and tried to pull the banana nearer, then tried with
other stick, but failed to reach it. By this effort, the chimpanzee became tired and

63
left the attempts to reach banana and started playing with the sticks. While playing
so, one of the sticks got fitted into the other and the stick became lengthier.
Immediately an idea came to Sultan, it pulled the banana with this long stick. This
‘sudden flash of idea’ to reach the banana with a longer stick was called as
‘Insight’, by Kohler. All these experiments indicated that learning cannot take
place in a segregated way but in a complete form.

The main features of insightful learning

Insight depends upon the following factors:

i) Arrangement of the problem situation: Learning through insight depends
upon the arrangement of the problem situation. Insight will come easily if
the essentials for solution are arranged so that relationships can be
perceived.

ii) Learning situation: The nature of the situation is very important for insight
learning. With insight, the organism tends to perceive a pattern or
organization that helps in learning.

iii) From whole to parts: The organism reacts to the whole situation not to
component parts

iv) Sudden awareness: The solution comes all of a sudden i.e. insight is
sudden.

v) Intelligence: Basic intelligence of the learner is an important factor in

insightful learning. Insight is related with higher form of learning.
Therefore, complex problems can be tackled through insight. It involves
many higher order processes such as thinking, reasoning, intellinge

vi) Past experience: Insightful learning draws on past experience; past

experiences assist in the insight of the problems. Learning gained in one
situation helps the learner to react insightfully in other identical situations
The experiences and perceptions of learners have a significant impact on
the way that they learn.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1. What is insight learning?

2. Explain three main features of insight learning

64
10.3.3 Classroom Implications of Gestalt Theory

1. Complex problems require higher learning and solutions are reached only
by application of insight. Teaching and learning of some subjects such as
physics, chemistry and mathematics as well as other science subjects
demand higher mental exercises.

2. The whole is greater than its parts. On this, the teacher should present the
subject matter as a whole to facilitate insight learning. Learners must be
assisted to see the learning material as a whole and not as disjointed pieces.
For instance, while teaching the topic ‘Parts of a plant, the plant should be
presented before the students and thereafter the parts should be taken up.
Doing so would enable learners to develop understanding about the subject
matter.

3. Insight is related with higher form of learning and the foundation stone of
insight learning is intelligence. Therefore, the teacher should make use of
problem-solving approach for better learning by encouraging their students
to discover the relationship of the elements that make up a problem in order
that the learner will be able to solve problems by insight.

4. Learners should discover concepts, meanings and relationships on their

own. Therefore, the teacher can foster the use of discovery learning, which
will make students become active participants in their own learning.
Knowledge that is self-discovered is more significant to the learner and is
remembered better.

5. As insight depends upon the previous experience of the learner, the teacher
should be able to relate the previous experience of the learner to the new
learning. By so doing, students will be able to learn better.

6. The teacher should organize the learning situations in a manner that makes
insight possible so that significant relations emerge and understanding of
the material results, i.e. the learning experiences should be so arranged that
the learner discovers the relationship between the elements of the
problematic situation. Clues should be provided to facilitate the application
of insight e.g. the two sticks for Sultan.

7. Age influences insight learning. Insight, like other learning, depends upon
the capacity/experience/age of the learner. Older children, for example, can
learn things more easily than younger children.

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 10.4 Summary

In this unit, you have learnt the cognitive field theories of learning (Gestalt theory)
and how insight learning takes place. You have also learnt about the gestalt laws
of perception. Gestalt theory is very important in learning. It advocates that
learners learn best when they are provided with the opportunity to explore or find
the solutions to the problems being discussed. The teachers are advised to make
constant use of this theory in their teaching/learning activities.

10.5 References /Further Readings/Web Sources

Alhassan, A.B. (2000). Understanding Educational Psychology Zaria, Nigeria:

Tamaza Publishing Company Ltd.
Ayeni, O. (1991). Psychology of Human Learning for Teachers. College of
Education.
Becker, E. (1993). Growing up rugged: Fritz Perls and Gestalt therapy. In: Gestalt
Journal, 16 (2), 27 - 44.
Chauhan, S. S. (1978). Advanced educational psychology. Vikas Publishing
House, New Delhi.
Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S., Podell, D.M., (1997). Educational
Psychology: Windows on Teaching. Chicago: Brown and
Benchmark Publishers.
Gautam, S. (n.d.). http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning-
theory/gestalt-theory-of-learning-with-objections-psychology/13473
Kimble, G. & Garmezy, M. (1968). Conditioning and Learning New York:
Appleton.
Lumen Learning (2020). Introduction to Psychology. Retrieved
from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/.
Merrett, A., & Merrette, L. (2013). The use of reward systems to improve
behavior and attainment in schools. British Psychological Association.
http://gallery.mailchimp.com/190e1a2340b0ac27df93d7332/files/Vivo_rewa
rds_and_behaviour_literature_review_V3_4_.pdf
Mukherjee, M. (1978). Educational Psychology Calcutta, India: K. P. Bask Pub.
Coy.

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 Oladele, J. O. (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology. Yaba: Johns-Lad
Publishers Ltd.
Onyehalu, A.S (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education. Awka: Meks-
Unique (Nig.) Publishers
Owoyele, J. W. (2014). Psychological Foundations of Education, Human
Development & Learning, Ijebu – Ode, Top best Books.
Perls, F.S. (1967). Group vs. individual therapy. ETC: A Review of General
Semantics, 34, 306 - 312.
Perls, F.S. (1969). Gestalt therapy verbatim. Highland, NY: Gestalt Journal.
Polster, E. & Poster, M. (1993). Frederick Perls: Legacy and invitation. Gestalt
Journal, 16 (2), 23 - 25.
Rothenberg, A. (1979), the emerging goddess Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Sperling, A. (1979). Psychology Made Simple London: Heinemann
Sivakumar, P. (2017). Theories of Learning and its educational implications.
Teacher Education Support Services.
https://tntess.blogspot.com/2017/02/theories-of-learning-and-its.html
Rahimi, M., & Karkami, F. H. (2015). The role of teachers’ classroom discipline
in their teaching effectiveness and students’ language learning motivation
and achievement: A path method. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching
Research, 3 (1), 57-82.
Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and Information
Centers. Windsor & Downs Press; Champaign, IL

10.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1
The underlying principles of cognitive field theory (Gestalt theory) of learning:
Cognitive Field theory or Gestalt theory emphasizes the importance of wholes
over parts and that the whole of anything is greater than the sum of its parts.
According to the theory, perception of a situation as a ‘whole’ gives better
understanding than the sum of its parts. The theory lays emphasis on cognitive
structure and on perception of the total field by the individual. The Gestalt
psychologists believe that learning occurs by insight. The Gestalt theory of
learning is also named as Learning by Insight.

Answers to SAEs 2
1. What is insight learning? Any one of the following definitions:
Insight learning is the flash of understanding which comes to us when we
suddenly realize what the answer to our difficulties is.
Or

67
 Insight learning is the sudden understanding of the components of a
problem that makes the solution apparent.
Or
The flash of understanding which comes to us when we hit suddenly upon
the solution to a problem. The joyful remark is known as the “aha”
phenomenon.
2. Four features of insight learning: (these are four out of the ones listed under
sub-section 10.3.2)
i) According to Gestalt theory, learning occurs by insight. Learning through
insight depends upon the arrangement of the problem situation. Insight will
come easily if the essentials for solution are arranged so that relationships
can be perceived.
ii) Insight learning draws on past experience. Past experiences assist in the
insight of the problems. Learning gained in one situation helps the learner
to react insightfully in other identical situations. Gestalt psychology
proposes education to be an integration of affective and cognitive domains
of learning.
iii) Basic intelligence of the learner is an important factor in insightful learning.
Insight is related with higher form of learning. Therefore, complex
problems can be tackled through insight.
iv) The insightful solution comes all of a sudden i.e. insight is sudden

Answers to SAEs 3
The implications of Gestalt theory on learning:
Choose any three of the classroom implications of the theory provided under sub-
section 10.3.3

Seminar Topic
Each student is expected to present seminar paper on one of the following topics:

Explain the importance of insightful learning in education

MODULE 3 PERMANENCY IN LEARNING

Having completed our discussion on theories of Learning and their educational

implication in the units of the previous module, we are now turning our attention
on different areas of psychology. The Module 3 discusses the relevance of
permanency in learning. It has been noted that the essence of education is to
provide meaningful learning experiences that will foster a permanent change in
students’ behaviour. How much a student has been able to retain knowledge, the

68
application of that knowledge to real life situations and the various motivational
strategies the teacher used to sustain the interest of the students in the classroom
would contribute in promoting the permanency of learning. The topics under this
module are organized into four study units as follows:

Module Structure
Unit 11 Motivation in Learning
Unit 12 Theories of Motivation in Learning
Unit 13 Retention in Learning: Memory, Remembering and Forgetting
Unit 14 Transfer of Learning

Unit 11 Motivation in Learning

Unit Structure
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Learning Outcomes
11.3 Motivation in Learning and its Implication in Classroom Situations
11.3.1 What is Motivation?
11.3.2 Types of Motivation
11.3.3 Bruner’s Model of Motivated behaviour
11.4 Summary
11.5 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
11.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

11.1 Introduction

In this unit we are looking at the topic of Motivation in Learning. What is it that
motivates your behaviour? What motivated you to enroll in NOUN for a
postgraduate degree programme? There are many different reasons why people
behave the way they. No doubt, motivation drives many behaviours and it is
important to understand the importance of motivation in a classroom environment.
This unit therefore provides the learners the opportunity to understand the concept
of motivation and how it is influenced, and how the teacher can foster motivation
in their students.

11.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define the concept of motivation
 distinguish between the two types of motivation

69
 explain Bruner’s model of motivated behaviour

11.3 Motivation in Learning

11.3.1 What is Motivation?

Motivation can be defined as an inspiration that propels someone into an action. It

is an internal state or condition that activates and gives direction to our thoughts,
feelings, and actions (Lahey, 1995). In the opinion of Oladele (1998), motivation
is a process by which the learner’s internal energies are directed toward various
goal objects in his/her environment. These energies or arousals push an individual
in achieving his goals. It can also be defined as the eagerness and willingness to do
something. It is the reason why an individual would want to do something. An
individual may be highly motivated to perform well in a task and completely
unmotivated in another. Motivation describes the wants or needs that direct
behavior toward a goal (Lumen Learning, 2020). This means that when people are
motivated, they will work tirelessly to achieve their aspirations. In a classroom
situation, motivation drives learners in reaching learning goals.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

What is motivation?

11.3.2 Types of Motivation

There are two types of motivation namely, intrinsic motivation (arising from
internal factors) and extrinsic motivation (arising from external factors). Hence,
motivation to engage in a given behavior can come from internal and/or external
factors. The desire for food or water arises from within us (intrinsic), while the
yearning to obtain recognition or approval is influenced by conditions in our
environment (extrinsic). Let’s look at the two types of motivations in more detail.

1. Intrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that arises

from within the individual. We are motivated intrinsically when we do
something because we experience internal compelling force to do it or
because of the sense of personal satisfaction that it brings. It is an internal
force or motive within the individual which propels him/her into emitting
certain behaviour. Intrinsic motivation is something within the person that
energizes behavior e.g. interest, curiosity, personal challenge, and

70
 improvement. An example of an intrinsically motivated student is one who
reads simply because he sees value in reading. It is the act of doing
something without any obvious external rewards. You do it because it's
enjoyable and interesting, rather than because of an outside incentive or
pressure to do it. A student who is intrinsically motivated may carry out a
task because of the enjoyment he/she derives from such a task. In another
way, a dog that sees a bone and runs for it did that because of the
satisfaction it derives from eating bone. This type of behaviour does not
require any prior learning. Sighting the bone charges the behaviour of the
dog and propels it to act.

Here, you are motivated to perform a task for reasons such as interest,
enjoyment, pleasure and satisfaction

2. Extrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic motivation refers to motivation that arises

from sources outside the individual. It is the incentive/reinforcer that drives
an individual’s behaviour towards a goal. Extrinsic motivation is something
outside the person that energizes behavior e.g. money, fame, power. A
student that is extrinsically motivated will execute an action in order to
obtain some reward or avoid some sanctions. For example, a student who
reads hard for the examination did so because of the desire to obtain better
grade. The case also goes for a runner who wants to win a prize, he/she will
need constant practice than a person who wants to run for the fun of it.
Extrinsic rewards should be used with caution because they have the
potential for decreasing existing intrinsic motivation. For example, extrinsic
incentive may spur a student to actively participate in the task for which the
student has no interest, but may undermine intrinsic motivation in him/her
(Deci et al, 1985). Therefore, students’ motivation automatically has to do
with the students’ desire to participate in the learning process. It also
concerns the reasons or goals that underlie their involvement or non-
involvement in academic activities.

Here, you are motivated to perform a task for reasons such as to gain a
reward or avoid a punishment

Think about why you are currently in NOUN. Are you here because you enjoy
learning and want to pursue an education to make yourself a more well-rounded
individual? If so, then you are intrinsically motivated. However, if you are here
because you want to get a college degree to make yourself more marketable for a
high-paying career or to satisfy the demands of your parents or spouse, then your
motivation is more extrinsic in nature.

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Extrinsic rewards should be used with caution because they have the potential for
decreasing existing intrinsic motivation that students might have. For example,
extrinsic incentive may spur a student to actively participate in the task for which
the student has no interest, but may undermine intrinsic motivation in him/her.
First and foremost, students’ motivation automatically has to do with the students’
desire to participate in the learning process.

Intrinsically motivated learning vs. Extrinsically motivated learning

Both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation have been shown to play a significant role
in learning. However, research has shown that intrinsically motivated learning is
more effective and leads to the most positive outcomes among students. Others
have suggested that extrinsic motivators help students feel more competent in the
classroom, which in turn enhances their intrinsic motivation (Oudeyer & Kaplan,
2007). Whatever the case may be, it is important for teachers to put an emphasis on
intrinsic motivation so as to keep students interested in their own learning goals.
Therefore, finding ways to develop intrinsic motivation in students should be an
important part of every teacher's instructional practices. The teacher can promote
intrinsic motivation in students using the following strategies:
 By arousing a sense of curiosity in students and presenting their learning
materials in a more meaningful way in order to facilitate students’ active
engagement and motivation.
 By creating a positive learning environment in the classroom and
developing meaningful and respectful relationships with their students.
 Students are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation to learn when
they feel a sense of belonging and respect in the classroom.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1) Differentiate between the two types of motivation you know

2) Indicate the motivation type in these sentences
 I will study for this exam because I really enjoy the content and
reading makes me feel relaxed.
 I will study for this exam because if I don’t I will receive a fail grade
3) How would you promote intrinsic motivation in students?

11.3.3 Bruner’s Model of Motivated Behaviour

Relevant to the theory of intrinsic motivation is Bruner’s (1966) model explaining

motivated behaviour. Bruner believes that our intrinsic motivation to learn consists

72
of three main underlying driving forces. These are: curiosity drive, the drive to
achiever competence, and the drive for reciprocity. According to him, these three
drives are the intrinsic motivators for learning, which may make a child willing to
learn. Now, let’s discuss these innate drives in more detail:

i. Curiosity Drive: Bruner believes that children come into the world
equipped with a natural curiosity to learn and a will to know. According to
Bruner, the curiosity drive was basic to learning and as such had to be
fulfilled if proper intellectual development was to occur. He feels that
curiosity drive is of biological relevance, that is, curiosity is necessary to
the survival of the species. Bruner suggests that young children are too
often curious, that they are unable to stick with anyone activity. Their
curiosity leads them to turn from one activity to another in rapid succession,
and it must therefore be channeled into a more powerful intellectual pursuit.
Since children are driven by a natural curiosity that makes them want to
learn, the teacher can nurture the child’s curiosity in the following ways:
 By asking questions or posing problem that are relevant to their
needs and by providing them with opportunities to explore.
 By using explanations, demonstrations and pictures to help students
understand concepts.
 By using a variety of materials and providing a variety of learning
experiences. Mechanical learning and rote learning will kill curiosity
and the desire to understand.
 By creating a learning environment free from fear, punishment,
harsh discipline, and intimidation - a learning environment that
allows children to feel safe, respected, and valued; so they can learn.

ii. Drive to Achieve Competence: Bruner was convinced that all children
have an innate desire to achieve competence. Children become interested in
what they are good at, and it is virtually impossible to motivate them to
engage in activities in which they have no degree of competence. This drive
can be aroused as follows:
 Plan and prepare appropriate materials for instruction according to
the difficulty that matches learners' level. The satisfaction learners
get when they solve a problem or finish a task is a kind of self-
rewarding and this will enhance their drive to achieve competence.

iii. Drive for Reciprocity: The drive for reciprocity is of the idea that children
have a desire to work cooperatively with others to share their new learning
and to work with others to discover information (Kaufhold, 2002). Children
have the desire to be an indispensable part of the learning community.
Bruner believes that society itself developed as a result of this basic
motivation. This drive can be aroused as follows:
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  By creating a collaborative problem-solving environment where
students become active participants in their own learning.
Corporative learning gives students the opportunity to learn from
their peers. Teachers should use group projects and collaborative
activities to encourage teamwork in the classroom.

In conclusion, we have seen that Bruner's model has direct implications for
teaching practices. If the learning is planned in a way that enables the student to
achieve one or more of the three motives above, it will help the student feel an
inner motivation to learn (Bruner 1966). Clearly, it is worth paying attention to
motivational drives when creating learning activities. The teacher’s responsibility
is to ensure that these natural motivators are not impaired by irrelevant and dry
presentations, frustrating expectations and unwholesome competition among
students (Yount, 2001).

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

Using Bruner’s model of motivated behaviour, explain three ways by which

school pupils can be motivated to learn.

11.4 Summary

In this unit, you have learnt the concept of motivation, types of motivation and
how the teacher can nurture the motivational drives in students. You can now see
that motivation is a very important factor in the learning process. The fundamental
aim of motivation is to stimulate and to facilitate learning activity. Brunner
believes intrinsic motivation comes from the students’ own curiosity, their drive to
achieve competence and the desire to work cooperatively with others (reciprocity).
These are rewarding in themselves and thus self-sustaining. If our students are
motivated, they learn better and retain more of what they learned. Learning is an
active process that needs to be motivated and guided toward desirable ends; hence
this unit has prepared the teachers for the various strategies they can employ to
keep the students motivated. If our students are motivated, they learn better and
retain more of what they learned.

11.5 References /Further Readings/Web Sources

74
Ayeni, O. (1991). Psychology of Human Learning for Teachers. Ilesa: College of
Education.
Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in
Human Behaviour. New York: Plenum.
Crowl, T.K., Kaminsky, S., Podell, D.M. (1997). Educational Psychology
Windows on Teaching. Chicago: Brown and Benchmark Publishers.
Kaufhold, J. A. (2002). The psychology of learning and the art of teaching.
Writers Club Press, NY
Lahey, B.B. (1995). Psychology: An Introduction, Madison, WI: Brown and
Benchmark.
Maslow, A.H. (1970). Motivation and Personality, New York: Harper and Row.
Murray, H.A. (1938). Explorations in Personality: A Clinical and Experimental
Study of Fifty Men of College Age. New: Oxford University Press.
Oladele, J. O. (1998). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology. Yaba: Johns-Lad
Publishers Ltd.
Onyehalu, A.S (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education. Awka: Meks-
Unique (Nig.) Publishers.
Oudeyer, P. Y,, & Kaplan, F. (2007). What is Intrinsic Motivation? A Typology of
Computational Approaches. Front Neurorobot, 1(6).
doi:10.3389/neuro.12.006.2007
Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and Information
Centers. Windsor & Downs Press; Champaign, IL
Sivakumar, P. (2017). Theories of Learning and its educational implications.
Teacher Education Support Services.
https://tntess.blogspot.com/2017/02/theories-of-learning-and-its.html

Yount, W. (2001). Learning theory for Christian Teachers, Pp100-110, Anthony, M. J.

(2001) (Ed.) Introducing Christian Education: Foundation for the Twenty-First
Century. Baker Academy. USA.

11.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1
1. What is motivation?
Motivation can be defined as an inspiration that propels someone into an
action. It is an internal state or condition that activates and gives direction
to our thoughts, feelings, and actions. Motivation is a process by which the
learner’s internal energies are directed toward various goal objects in
his/her environment. These energies or arousals push an individual in
achieving his goals. It can also be defined as the eagerness and willingness

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 to do something. It is the reason why an individual would want to do
something.

Answers to SAEs 2
1. The distinction between the two types of motivation:
Intrinsic Motivation
 Intrinsic Motivation is something within the person that energizes behavior
i.e. intrinsic motivation comes from within.
 When you are intrinsically motivated, you engage in an activity because
you enjoy it and get personal satisfaction from doing it.
 An example of intrinsic motivation is a student carrying out a task because
of the enjoyment/pleasure/interest/satisfaction he or she derives from such a
task.
Extrinsic motivation
 Extrinsic motivation is something outside the person that energizes
behaviour i.e. extrinsic motivation refers to motivation that arises from
sources outside the individual.
 When you are extrinsically motivated, you do something in order to gain an
external reward e.g. money, fame, power/better grade or to avoid a
punishment.
 An example of extrinsic motivation is a student reading hard for the
examination because of the desire to obtain better grade, or a student who is
studying hard so that their parents will not punish them for poor grades.
2. Indicate the motivation type in these sentences
 I will study for this exam because I really enjoy the content and
reading makes me feel relaxed - Intrinsic motivation
 I will study for this exam because if I don’t I will receive a fail grade -
Extrinsic motivation
3. I can promote intrinsic motivation in students by arousing a sense of
curiosity in students and presenting their learning materials in a more
meaningful way in order to facilitate students’ active engagement and
motivation. Students are more likely to experience intrinsic motivation to
learn when they feel a sense of belonging and respect in the classroom. By
creating a positive learning environment in the classroom and developing
meaningful and respectful relationships with their students.

Answers to SAEs 2
Using Bruner’s model of motivated behaviour, three ways by which school pupils
can be motivated to learn by arousing the three motivational drives which are
curiosity drive, the drive to achiever competence, and the drive for reciprocity.

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a. Curiosity Drive: Bruner believes that children come into the world
equipped with a natural curiosity to learn and a will to know. According to
Bruner, the curiosity drive was basic to learning and as such had to be
fulfilled if proper intellectual development was to occur. Bruner suggests
that young children are too often curious, that they are unable to stick with
anyone activity. Their curiosity leads them to turn from one activity to
another in rapid succession, and it must therefore be channeled into a more
powerful intellectual pursuit. The teacher can nurture the child’s curiosity
in the following ways:
 By asking questions or posing problem that are relevant to their
needs and by providing them with opportunities to explore.
 By using explanations, demonstrations and pictures to help students
understand concepts.
 By using a variety of materials and providing a variety of learning
experiences. Mechanical learning and rote learning will kill curiosity
and the desire to understand.
 By creating a learning environment free from fear, punishment,
harsh discipline, and intimidation - a learning environment that
allows children to feel safe, respected, and valued; so they can learn.

b. Drive to Achieve Competence: Bruner was convinced that all children

have an innate desire to achieve competence. Children become interested in
what they are good at, and it is virtually impossible to motivate them to
engage in activities in which they have no degree of competence. This drive
can be aroused as follows:
 Plan and prepare appropriate materials for instruction according to
the difficulty that matches learners' level. The satisfaction learners
get when they solve a problem or finish a task is a kind of self-
rewarding and this will enhance their drive to achieve competence.

a. Drive for Reciprocity: The drive for reciprocity is of the idea that children
have a need to work with others cooperatively to share their new learning
and to work with others to discover information (Kaufhold, 2002). Children
have the desire to be an indispensable part of the learning community. This
drive can be aroused as follows:
 By creating a collaborative problem-solving environment where
students become active participants in their own learning.
Corporative learning gives students the opportunity to learn from
their peers. Teachers should use group projects and collaborative
activities to encourage teamwork in the classroom.
.

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Unit 12 Motivation Theories on Learning

Unit Structure
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Learning Outcomes
12.3 Motivation Theories in Learning
12.3.1 Theories of Motivation
12.3.2 Classroom Implications of Theories of Motivation
12.4 Summary
12.5 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
12.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

12.1 Introduction

In the previous unit we discussed the topic of motivation in learning. In this unit
we shall discuss major theories of motivation in learning and describe how
teachers can apply these theories to their day-to-day classroom teaching and
learning activities.

12.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 discuss major theories that describe motivation in learning
 discuss classroom implications of motivational theories and some strategies
that can be used to help motivate learners

12.3 Theories of Motivation on Learning

12.3.1 Theories of Motivation?

Several theories on motivation have been developed by different psychologists to

explain what drives humans to think and behave the way they do. Notable among
the theories are as the following:

a) Instinct theory of motivation

b) Drive theory of motivation
c) Arousal theory of motivation
d) McClelland's human motivation theory

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e) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

The first three set of theories (a, b & c) focuses on the innateness of motivation.
These theories emphasize instinctual or biological needs and drives that influence
our behaviour. The last two theories of motivation (d & e) are need-based and
describe motivated behaviour as individual efforts to meet needs. To them, in
order to understand human behaviour and how an individual could be motivated,
one must first understand their needs.

(a) Instinct Theory of Motivation

This theory suggests that human behaviour is driven by instincts which aid
survival. According to the instinct theory of motivation, all organisms are born
with innate biological tendencies that help them survive. This theory suggests that
instincts drive all behaviors. Instincts are natural urges or innate tendencies. They
are therefore unlearned, inherited behaviours. Instinct is considered to be a
purposive, inherited, goal-seeking tendency. Some behaviours are driven by
instincts E.g., infants have an inborn rooting reflex that helps them seek out a
nipple and obtain nourishment. This behavior occurs naturally and automatically.
They do not need to be learned in order to be displayed. They are inherited
behaviours. The instinct theory suggests that motivation is primarily biologically
based. We engage in certain behaviors because they aid in survival.

In this theory, for every type of human behaviour manifestation, there was an
underlying instinct and an accompanying emotion.

Mc Dougall listed various instincts and their corresponding emotions. Let us give
examples:

Instincts Emotions
Fight Fear
Food seeking Gusto
Curiosity Wonder
Pugnacity Anger
Affiliation Affection
Acquisition Feeling of ownership
Laughter Amusement
Appeal Distress

Self-assertion Positive self-

Self-abasement feelin
Reproduction Negative self-feeling
Gregariousness Lust
Repulsion Companionship

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 Disgust

(a) Drive Theory of motivation

According to the drive theory of motivation, deviations from homeostasis create

physiological needs. These needs result in psychological drive states that direct
behavior to meet the need and, ultimately, bring the system back to homeostasis.
Homeostasis is the tendency to maintain a balance, or optimal level, within a
biological system.

The theory is based on the idea that the body actively works to maintain a certain
state of balance or equilibrium. For example, your body regulates its temperature
in order to ensure that you don't become too hot or too cold. According to the
drive theory of motivation, people are motivated to take certain actions in order to
reduce the internal tension that is caused by unmet needs. When a physiological
need is aroused, a state of tension/drive is created (e.g., hunger) that motivates an
organism to satisfy the need (looking for food). For example, when a person is
hungry or thirsty, he or she feels tension and is motivated to reduce this state of
discomfort by eating or drinking. Drive theories typically hypothesize that a set of
physiological survival drives motivate behaviour.

(b) Arousal Theory of Motivation

The arousal theory of motivation suggests that people are driven to perform
actions in order to maintain an optimum level of arousal. That is to say behaviour
is motivated by arousal levels. According to the theory, each person has a unique
arousal level that is right for them. When our arousal levels drop below these
personalized optimal levels, we seek some sort of activities to elevate them. When
we become overly aroused, we seek soothing activities that help calm and relax us.
If we become bored, we head in search of more invigorating activities that will
energize and arouse us. It's all about striking the right balance, but that balance is
unique to each individual.

For example, if our levels drop too low we might engage in certain activities like
going out to a nightclub with friends. If these levels become too elevated and we
become overstimulated, we might be motivated to select a relaxing activity such as
going for a walk or taking a nap. One of the key assumptions of the arousal theory
is that we are motivated to pursue actions that help us maintain an ideal balance.

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The person with low arousal needs might be motivated to pursue simple activities
such as crocheting or watching a movie in order to maintain their arousal levels.
The individual with high arousal needs, on the other hand, might be motivated to
seek risky or thrilling activities such as motorcycle racing or skydiving in order to
maintain his or her ideal levels.

So what is the optimal level of arousal? What level leads to the best performance?
Research shows that moderate arousal is generally best; when arousal is very high
or very low, performance tends to suffer. Think of your arousal level regarding
taking an exam for this class. If your level is very low, such as boredom and
apathy, your performance will likely suffer. Similarly, a very high level, such as
extreme anxiety, can be paralyzing and hinder performance. Consider the example
of a softball team facing a tournament. They are favored to win their first game by
a large margin, so they go into the game with a lower level of arousal and get
beaten by a less skilled team.

In the classroom, when the lesson is too easy, the children will get bored and
restless, and when the lesson is too difficult, they will feel frustrated and
disinterested. The optimal level of difficulty, therefore, should be half way
between the extremes of ease and difficulty for all the children to exhibit their
maximum tendency to achieve success in their learning undertaking.

(c) McClelland's Human Motivation Theory/ McClelland's Acquired

Needs Theory

According to this theory, individuals acquire three types of needs as a result of

their life experiences. These needs are the need for achievement, the need for
affiliation, and the need for power. One motivator is dominant, and can describe
what mostly drives the individual towards reaching their goals. These motivators
are not inherent; we develop them through our culture and life experiences. People
will have different characteristics depending on their dominant motivator. For
instance, individuals who have high need for achievement like to solve problems
and achieve goals. They are said to have a strong need to be successful. They Like
to receive regular feedback on their progress and achievements and often like to
work alone.

Consider the cases of two young business executives, Tata and Sapa. Tata arrives
at work promptly at 8.00 a.m. and seldom leaves before 4.00 p.m., always taking a
loaded briefcase home with him. He works at least one day each weekend, always
arrives at meetings on time, and often completes assigned work early. Sapa works
the minimum hours from 9 to 4 and takes long lunches. He is often late for

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meetings and frequently requests extensions to complete assignments. David
McClelland might suggest that the principal difference between these two people
is in their levels of achievement motivation or need for achievement. A uniquely
human drive, achievement motivation is a striving to overcome challenges,
improve oneself, attain excellence, and accomplish more than others.

Individuals who have a high need for affiliation want to be liked and accepted by
others. They prefer to interact with others and be with friends. They want to
belong to the group and they will conform to the group’s behaviour and wishes.
They favour collaboration over competition.

Those with a high need for power want to control and influence others, like to win
arguments, they enjoy competition and winning, and they attach great value to
status and recognition.

McClelland's theory can help you to identify the dominant motivators of students
in your classroom. You can then use this information to influence how you set
goals, provide feedback, and motivate and reward students.

(e) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Abraham Maslow was a foremost Psychologist who explained motivation through

the satisfaction of needs arranged in a hierarchical order. The basis of his theory is
that human beings are motivated by unsatisfied needs. Maslow argues that humans
have seven levels of needs that can be arranged in a hierarchy from the lowest
(physiological needs) to the highest (self-actualization needs). According to
Maslow, these needs can create internal pressures that can motivate a person's
behavior. He sees man as a wanting being who is motivated by the needs he wants
to satisfy. He proposed that motivation is the result of a person's attempt at
fulfilling these needs, and that need satisfaction is the most important sole factor
underlying motivation. Maslow further explained that man is perpetually in needs
and that the resources to satisfy those needs are limited. In view of this, humans
place their wants on the scale of preference, and that they select the most pressing
needs. After these needs have been satisfied, they become less important and no
longer serve as motivators, paving way for the next on the hierarchy.

It is important to note that this 7-level hierarchy of needs constitute the expanded
hierarchy from the original 5-level of needs.

The hierarchy of needs is often portrayed in the shape of a pyramid with the
largest and lowest levels at the bottom (see Figure 3). These needs according to
Maslow are:

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1. Physiological Needs
2. Security and Safety Needs
3. Love and Belongingness Needs
4. Self-esteem Needs
5. Cognitive needs
6. Aesthetic Needs
7. Self-Actualization Needs

Figure 8: Maslow’s 7-Stage Hierarchy of Needs.

Source: expertprogrammanagement.com

Let us now explain in more detail the seven Maslow’s hierarchy of needs:

1. Physiological Needs: These are the biological or survival needs of man.

They are the most basic needs, that is, the needs for water, air, food, and
sleep. Maslow considered physiological needs the most important of all the
needs. Until these needs are fulfilled or satisfied, you will not be able to go

83
 to the next level. When you are very hungry, for example, all your behavior
may be motivated by the need to find food. Once you eat, the search for
food ceases, and the need for food no longer motivates you. They become
less important and one moves to the next on the hierarchy which is the
desire for security and safety.

Educational implication: The teacher must realize that effective learning

is possible only when the physiological needs of pupils have been met; for
example, a tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus on
learning. Teachers can aid students in the satisfaction of this need by
helping them feel safe in the classroom and by not using coercion to control
behaviour.

2. Safety and Security Needs: Once physiological needs are satisfied, people
tend to become concerned about safety and security needs. It includes the
need to have safe, secure and conducive life. At this stage the individual
will be motivated to direct their behavior toward obtaining shelter and
protection in order to satisfy this need. Today in Nigeria, both child and
adult safety needs are often threatened by societal violence, communal
violence, and armed robbery incidence.

Educational implication: Students need to feel emotionally and physically

safe and accepted within the classroom to progress and reach their full
potential.

3. Love and Belongingness Needs (Social Needs): This involves the

aspiration of man to establish a cordial relationship with others. Once the
safety needs have been met, social needs for love and belongingness
become important. This can include the need to bond with other human
beings, the need to love and be loved and to have a sense of belonging. At
this level of need, people will like to extend their hands of fellowship or
comradeship to their friends, mates, co-workers or neighbours. They
equally will expect that such gestures be reciprocated by others. If these
needs are not met, the person will start feeling isolated, lonely and
depressed.

Educational implication: A typical classroom consists of learners from

different cultural, religious and socioeconomic backgrounds. Teachers can
aid students in the satisfaction of this need by ensuring acceptance for all
students in the classroom and by building a classroom environment where
positive interactions are the norm and that no one experiences social
rejection.

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4. Self-Esteem Needs: These are the things we desire in order that our ego
will be boosted. Once love and belonging needs have been satisfied, esteem
needs become more important. Self-esteem needs refer to the desire to be
respected by one’s peers, to feel important, and to be appreciated. People
will often look for ways to enjoy considerable influence from others and
gain recognition, and they may seek validation and praise from others in
order to fulfill these needs. The ability of someone to fulfill this need makes
them feel superior and self-confident. Inability to fulfill this needs makes a
person feel dejected or inferior.

Educational implication: Students must be shown that they are valued and
respected in the classroom and the teacher should create a supportive
environment. Students with a low self-esteem will not progress
academically at an optimum rate until their self-esteem is strengthened.

5. Cognitive Needs: The needs for knowledge and understanding, for

curiosity, exploration. If you are driven by these needs, you may spend
most of your time watching documentaries, reading books, researching into
things and doing course works that is not required from school -just for the
sake of having more knowledge.

6. Aesthetic Needs: The aesthetic needs are the needs in which one finally
comes to a deep understanding of the world and the purpose of life and feel
a part of the cosmos. These needs include the desire of people to pursue or
admire beautiful things; e.g. the desire for beautiful and expensive cars,
houses, materials, gorgeous and expensive dresses and beautiful
surroundings.

7. Self-Actualization Needs: This is the highest level of the hierarchy and

refer to the realization of a person’s potential, the desire to accomplish
everything that one can. If the previous needs are sufficiently met, a person
now has the opportunity to become self-actualized. At this point the person
is said to have reached the peak of his potentials. A person who reaches this
stage strives for growth and self-improvement. Maslow believed that a
person’s position on the hierarchy is likely to rise with age, but estimated
that less than 1 percent of the population ever achieve self-actualization.

In general terms, the physiological needs, safety needs, love/belonginess needs

and self-esteem needs (i.e. Nos. 1-4) are referred to as Deficiency needs - needs
that must be satisfied for survival. The needs at the very top i.e. cognitive needs,
aesthetic needs and self-actualization needs (Nos 5-7) are referred to as Growth
needs - needs that enhance the person’s psychological functioning (see Figure 3).

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Self-Assessment Exercises 1

1) Mention three theories of motivation that focus on the biological needs and drives
that influence our behaviour
2) In relation to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, write short notes on the
following:
i. Physiological Needs
ii. Safety Needs
iii. Aesthetic Needs

12.3.2 Classroom Implications of Theory of Motivation i.e. Strategies that can

be used in the Classroom to help Motivate Students

1. It is important for the teacher to know the basic needs of his/her students
and cater for these according to level of their importance. For example, the
teacher needs to think first of students’ food, rest or health before thinking
of teaching them. A tired and hungry student will find it difficult to focus
on learning.

2. Students need to feel emotionally and physically safe and accepted within
the classroom to progress and reach their full potential

3. When the teacher praises his/her students for doing well in their study or
assignment, they will be spurred to sustain that effort. This would boost the
self-confidence of the student.

4. A classroom which is well decorated or adorned with beautiful charts and

learning materials will be student-friendly. The students’ minds will always
be attracted to the activities in a beautifully adorned classroom.

5. In the classroom, students must be shown that they are valued and
respected, and the teacher should create a supportive environment. When
their views are recognized or respected, this would boost their confidence.
Students with a low self-esteem will not progress academically at an
optimum rate until their self-esteem is strengthened.

6. From the beginning of the lesson, the teacher should endeavour to make
his/her students know possible outcome of the lesson. It is when the
students know what they are likely to achieve from the lesson that they
want to be involved and feel belonged.

86
7. Feedback is necessary if the interest of the students must be sustained in the
classroom. So the teacher should always strive to let them know how they
are performing in the teaching-learning activities as this will boost their
self-esteem needs.

8. The teacher should also provide/plan for extra-curricular activities for

his/her students. When the teacher does this, the students will have
opportunity of establishing a genuine interaction among them. Besides,
they will be able to showcase their hidden talents.

9. When dealing with the students in the classroom, the teacher should take
into consideration, the developmental changes and differences in the
students before deciding on the particular motivation pattern to be
employed.

10. The teacher should know how to motivate their students to learn. They
should be versatile with various strategies that can enhance active
participation of the students in the teaching-learning activities.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

Discuss three strategies that teachers can use to motivate their students to learn

12.4 Summary

In this unit, you have learnt major theories of motivation, and how you can apply
these theories to your day-to-day classroom teaching/learning activities Learning
is an active process that needs to be motivated and guided toward desirable ends;
hence this unit has prepared the teachers for the various strategies they can employ
to keep the students motivated to learn and participate meaningfully in classroom.

12.5 References /Further Readings/Web Sources

Alhassan, A.B. (2000). Understanding Educational Psychology Zaria, Nigeria:

Tamaza Publishing Company.
Atkinson, J.(1964). An Introduction to Motivation Princeton, New Jersey: Van
Mostrand.

87
Boldyrev, A.A. (1993). Functional activity of Nasupt, ksupt - pump in normal and
pathological tissues. In: Molecular and Chemical Neuropathology 19(1 - 2),
83 - 94.
Cannon, W. (1932). An explanation of hunger Cambridge. MA: The University
Press.
Deci, E.L. and Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in
Human Behaviour. New York: Plenum.
Hadley, J.L. (1992). The instincts revisited. In: Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 12 (3), 396
- 418.
Maslow, A. (1943). A theory of human motivation. In: Psychological Review, 50,
370 - 96.
Maslow, A.H. (1970). Motivation and Personality, New York: Harper and Row.
Oladele J.O.(2005) Fundamentals of Educational Psychology, Fifth Edition,
Lagos. Johns – Lad Publishers Ltd.
Onyehalu, A.S (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education. Awka: Meks-
Unique (Nig.) Publishers
Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and Information
Centers. Windsor & Downs Press; Champaign, IL
Sivakumar, P. (2017). Theories of Learning and its educational implications.
Teacher Education Support Services. https://tntess.blogspot.com/2017/02/theories-
of-learning-and-its.html

12.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1
1. Three theories of motivation that focus on the biological needs and drives
that influence our behaviour include the instinct theory of motivation, drive
theory of motivation, and arousal theory of motivation.
2. Short notes:
i. Physiological needs are the biological or survival needs of man. They are
the most basic needs, such as the need for water, air, food, and sleep. Until
these needs are fulfilled or satisfied, you will not be able to go to the next
level of the hierarchy.
ii. Safety needs are the needs for shelter, employment, health, and safe
environment. Once this need is triggered, one will be motivated to direct
their behavior toward obtaining shelter and protection in order to satisfy
this need. Human beings require safety and protection from danger or
external aggressors.
iii. Aesthetic needs are the needs that make people to pursue or admire
beautiful things. For instance, the desire for beautiful and expensive cars,

88
 houses, materials, gorgeous and expensive dresses and beautiful
surroundings.

Answers to SAEs 2
1. Strategies that teachers can use to motivate students to learn.
Mention any three strategies out of those listed under sub-section 12.3.2

Seminar Topic
Each student is expected to present seminar paper on one of the following topics:

1. Which motivation theory have you found to be most useful in explaining

why people behave in a certain way? Why?
2. Sometimes, our motivations are often a mix of both intrinsic and extrinsic
factors; is this true? Discuss.

Unit 13 Retention in Learning: Memory, Remembering and Forgetting

Unit Structure
13.1 Introduction
13.2` Learning Outcomes
13.2 Retention in Learning: Memory, Remembering and Forgetting
13.3.1 What is Memory?
13.3.2 Types of Memory
13.3.3 Strategies for Enhancing Memory in Students
13.3.4 Remembering and Forgetting
13.3.5 How a Teacher can Promote Retention in the Classroom
13.4 Summary
13.5 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
13.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

13.1 Introduction

In the previous unit we discussed the motivational theories and based on this
theories we learnt the strategies that can be used to help motivate students. In this
unit we are covering the topic of Retention in Learning: Memory, Remembering
and Forgetting, which is another important area of psychology. If you learn a body
of knowledge in the past and fail to remember it, it means you have forgotten.
What do you think is responsible for this? In this unit, you are going to learn
reasons why learners sometimes forget what we have taught them and also discuss

89
how we can help learners remember what they have learnt. Here, you will learn
the concepts of memory, types of memory and the mechanisms operating in them,
strategies for enhancing memory and how a teacher can promote retention in the
classroom.

13.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 define memory
 discuss types of memory
 discuss different strategies of enhancing memory in students
 explain the causes of forgetting
 explain how a teacher can promote retention in the classroom.

13.3 Retention in Learning: Memory, Remembering and Forgetting

13.3.1 What is Memory?

Retention is the ability to store in the memory information received from the
environment.

Memory is the evidence that meaningful learning has taken place. It is the ability
of someone to recall what has been previously learnt. It is the ability to acquire
and retain information and recall it when needed. Without good memory, one will
not be able to retain previous learning. Memory is fundamental for remembering
and forgetting. It is the life wire on which the study of remembering and forgetting
rests.

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

Define the term ‘memory’

13.3.2 Types of Memory

Memory has been categorized into various kinds but here we shall be considering
only two major types of memory and the mechanisms that operate in them. They
are short-term memory and long-term memory.
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a) Short-Term Memory (STM)

Human beings have limited attention and typically can only attend to just one
input channel at a time; and when this piece of input (information) is received, it is
placed in the short-term memory (STM), which is the working memory
where an individual does his/her thinking (Crowl, Kaminsky and Podell,
1997). Crowl and his associates explain that when a piece of information is
acquired it must be properly processed, otherwise, such information dies off,
and thus it becomes increasingly difficult for an individual to remember or recall
such an idea. This therefore implies that a piece of information must be learnt
repeatedly, and must not be too large at a time; otherwise, the STM may throw
away some parts of the information.

Short-term memory is limited in both the length and the amount of information it
can hold. It stores information temporarily for 20 seconds, and unless the receiver
of the information acts on it, the information is forgotten. Similarly, the storage
capacity of STM can hold is limited. It can only hold a small amount of
information at a time (9 items). Any item above this capacity is thrown away.
Therefore, for pieces of information to be stored in the STM at one time or the
other, it must not be too large.

The retention of information in the short-term memory can be disturbed by other

events that take place shortly after the learned materials. For instance, name of a
person you just met remains in STM only momentarily. Unless a conscious effort
is made to pay proper attention to the name, it is quickly lost. To help make sure
information is kept in short-term memory, you can use memory-enhancing
strategies (Lumen Learning, 2020).

One way to keep information in short-term memory is to use what we call

maintenance rehearsal. Rehearsal is a process by which we exercise the repeat of a
piece of information so that such information does not elope from STM after the
20 seconds capacity of the STM. Rehearsal is also defined as the conscious
repetition of information to be remembered (Craik & Watkins, cited in Lumen
Learning, 2020). Think about how you learned your multiplication tables as a
child. You may recall that 3 x 3 = 9, 3 x 4 = 12, and 3 x 8 = 24. Memorizing these
facts is rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal is the process of repeating information
mentally or out loud with the goal of keeping it in memory. We engage in
maintenance rehearsal to keep a something that we want to remember (e.g., a
person’s name, e-mail address, or phone number) in mind long enough to write it
down, use it, or potentially transfer it to long-term memory. One example of
maintenance rehearsal would be repeating a phone number mentally, or aloud until
the number is entered into the phone to make the call. The number is held in short

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term memory long enough to make the call, but never transferred to long term
memory. An hour, or even five minutes after the call, the phone number will no
longer be remembered (Wikipedia.org). So, maintenance rehearsal is just
temporarily maintaining the piece of information in the short-term memory.

All the while, we have been discussing about short-term memory and how we can
keep information in short-term memory. Now, let’s consider the nature of long-
term memory.

(b) Long-Term Memory (LTM)

It is an aspect of memory that can hold information over a long period of time.
Unlike short-term memory, the storage capacity of long-term memory is large and
has no limits. Example is remembering our identifying data like our name, father’s
name, date of birth, date of marriage, and remembering the materials for our
various courses.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1) Compare and contrast short term memory and long term memory in terms
of the length and the amount of information they can hold

13.3.3 Strategies for Enhancing Memory in Students

Some of the methods by which information is stored in long term memory are:

a. Elaborative rehearsal: It involves repetition of information and linking it

with information already stored in the long term memory in order to retain
the newly learned information, so that it can be retrieved for use when
needed. In elaborative rehearsal, effort is made to pass on a piece of
information from short term memory into long-term memory by relating
new information to prior knowledge. Each person has his or her unique way
of elaborating on information; the important thing is to try to develop
unique and meaningful associations among the material (Stangor, 2012).
Material is better remembered if it is processed more fully.

b. Sentence creation: This is otherwise called verbal elaboration. It is a

process by which a sentence is made with a learned concept as a
component. For example, when a child is taught the alphabets, the teacher
often associates the letters with an object as “B” for Ball, “E” for Elephant.
The sentences that could be made are “B” for Ball”, “kick the ball”, “E” for

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 Elephant, an elephant is big. When this is repeatedly done, the child easily
recalls the concept being passed.

c. Creation of mental picture: When a concept is associated with an object

as shown above, the child will recall quickly. E.g. letter B as in Ball.
Whenever the child comes across letter B, she/he can also visualize a ball.

d. Use of mnemonic devices: A mnemonic is any learning technique that aids

information retention or retrieval in the human memory. Here a learner
could use acronyms i.e. first letter of each of the points being mastered, or
an arrangement that makes the points meaningful to pronounce. Thus when
the individual wants to recall, it will be very easy to retrieve it from
memory. A typical example is the arrangement of the characteristics of
living things as MR NIGER-D i.e. M=Movement, R=Respiration,
N=Nutrition, I=Irritability G=Growth, E= Excretion, and R=Reproduction,
D=Death.

e. Meaningfulness and organization of subject matter. One of the ways to

improve retention is the method of making the subject matter meaningful.
Meaningful material is easy to retain because it is better learned.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

Explain two ways in which a teacher can enhance the long term memory in
students.

13.3.4 Remembering and Forgetting

It is clear that two things happen to what we learnt; we either remember it or

forget it.

Remembering is the ability to recall stored ideas or materials in the brain to the
mind.

Forgetting means failure to retain what has been acquired or learnt. If an

individual fails to remember what he/she has learnt in the past, it means the
individual has forgotten. Forgetting therefore means the failure at any time to
recall an experience, when attempting to do so. Forgetting is the opposite side of
remembering.

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Causes of Forgetting

There are many reasons why and how people forget what they have learnt. This
is better understood with the aid of some theories of forgetting.

1. Trace Decay Theory: This explanation of forgetting assumes that

memories follow a certain pathway or trace in the brain. Trace decay theory
states that forgetting occurs as a result of the automatic decay or fading of
the trace of memory. After a relatively longer period of time, a piece of
acquired information dies off the memory and an individual finds it
difficult to remember it again. Examples of this are the experiences
acquired in the earlier part of one’s life; and as the body systems grow, in
addition to several experiences acquired, the earlier learned facts tend to go
into extinction.

2. Interference Theory: This theory maintains that one may fail to remember
a piece of information because other pieces of information are blocking or
interfering with it. There are two ways in which interference can cause
forgetting:

(a) Retroactive Inhibition: It occurs when you forget a previously learnt task
due to the learning of a new task. When a person has just acquired a piece
of information, the tendency is that the earlier acquired information
becomes increasingly difficult to be remembered or even get lost. For
example, when a person relocates to a new area of the city, there is the
tendency for him to forget addresses of his earlier location in the city.

(b) Proactive Inhibition: This is typically the opposite of the retroactive

inhibition. Here the old learning retained in the memory works forward to
interfere with the retention of something currently learnt. In the above
example, the inability of the individual to remember the present address but
remembering the previous address is as a result of interference of the first
experience.

1. Cue-dependence: This is the failure to recall information due to missing

cues that were present at the time the information was encoded. Sometimes
we want to recall a piece of information but we cannot due to non-
availability of appropriate cues that were present at the time the information
was encoded. In other words, when cues that were present at the time of
learning are not available at the time of recall, retention suffers. Therefore,
in order to remember a learned idea, an individual needs some cues that
will aid it. For instance, you might want to try to study for an exam in a

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 situation that is similar to the one in which you are going to take the exam.
Without this, the possibility for a piece of information to go into extinction
is there.

Self-Assessment Exercises 4

1. What is Remembering?
2. What is Forgetting?
3. Discuss three reasons why students forget what they have learnt

13.3.5 How a Teacher can Promote Retention in the Classroom

In order for learners to benefit from school activities, and to also apply classroom
learning into future use, they have to have good memory of classroom activities
and learned subject-matter. It is therefore the role of the teacher to assist the
learners, train them in various rehearsal skills. Among such activities are:
1. Always associate a current learning with practical examples.
2. Use concrete objects to demonstrate objects learned in the classroom
3. Teach the use of mnemonic devices, in order to aid recall.
4. Field trips and excursion: seeing things practically and drawing personal
conclusion and discovery enhance retention and information gathered tend to
remain permanent.

Self-Assessment Exercises 5

Explain how a teacher can promote retention in the classroom

13.4 Summary

In this unit you have learnt the concept of memory and types of memory, why
people usually forget what they have learnt in the past and how they can remember
or recall earlier learning. The unit will therefore assist the learners and teachers
alike on how to improve the status of their memory and void forgetting.

13.5 References /Further Readings/Web Sources

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Adesemowo, P.O, Sotonade, O.A.T & Okubanjo, A.O.(1998). The Psychology of
Meaningful Learning, Lagos, Elegant Publishing Co. Ltd.
Eggen, P., and Kauchak, D.(2001). Educational Psychology: Windows on
Classrooms. New Jersey: Merrill Prentice-Hall.
Lumen Learning (2020). Introduction to Psychology. Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/waymaker-psychology/.
Oladele J.O. (2005). Fundamentals of Educational Psychology, Fifth Edition,
Lagos Johns – Lad Publishers Ltd.
Owoyele , J.W. (2014). Psychology Foundations of Education, Human
Development & Learning, Ijebu – Ode, Top best Books.
Mmaduakonam, A (1998), Behavioural Learning Theories, Awka, Erudition
Publishers.
Onyehalu, A.S (1988). Psychological Foundations of Education. Awka: Meks-
Unique (Nig.) Publishers
Wikipedia. Memory rehearsal https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory_rehearsal

13.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1
Memory is the ability of someone to recall what has been previously learnt. It is
the ability to acquire and retain information and recall it when needed. Without
good memory, one will not be able to retain previous learning.

Answers to SAEs 2
1) Comparing short term memory and long term memory in terms of the
length and amount of information they can hold.
Short term memory
 Short-term memory stores information temporarily for 20 seconds,
and unless the receiver of the information acts on it, the information
is forgotten.
 Similarly, the storage capacity of short term memory is limited. It
can only hold a small amount of information at a time (9 items). Any
item above this capacity is thrown away.
Long term memory
 Long-term memory (LTM) can hold information over a long period
of time
 The storage capacity of LTM is large and has no limits. Example is
remembering the materials for our various courses.

Answers to SAEs 3

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Two ways in which a teacher can enhance the long term memory in students:
Choose any two of the methods described under sub-section 12.3.3

Answers to SAEs 4
1. Remembering is the ability to recall stored ideas or materials in the brain to
the mind.
2. Forgetting means failure to retain what has been acquired or learnt.
3. Three reasons why students forget what they have learnt
Choose any three of the reasons described under sub-section 12.3.4

Answers to SAEs 5
A teacher can promote retention in the classroom through the following ways:
 By associating a current learning with practical examples.
 By using concrete objects to demonstrate objects learned in the classroom
 By teaching the use of mnemonic devices.
 By encouraging the use of field trips and excursion

Seminar Topic
Each student is expected to present seminar paper on one of the following topics:

Why did your students forget what you taught them last week?

Unit 14 Transfer of Learning

Unit Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Learning Outcomes
14.3 Transfer of Learning
14.3.1 What is Transfer of Learning?
14.3.2 Types of Transfer of Learning
14.3.3 Theories of Transfer of Learning
14.3.4 How to Foster Positive Transfer of Learning among Learners
14.4 Summary
14.5 References/Further Readings/Web Sources
14.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

14.1 Introduction

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The previous unit took you through the topic of Retention in learning: Memory,
Remembering and Forgetting; and the various strategies to use in fostering
retention among learners. In this unit we are focusing on the subject of Transfer of
Learning. The ability of the individual to apply the previous experiences, skills
and information they have learnt to a new situation or context is what we call
transfer of learning. Except students are able to transfer prior skills and knowledge
on new ones, the continuity of learning will be difficult. This unit will explain how
old learning can be transferred to a new one. You will know what the classroom
teacher needs to do in order to facilitate positive transfer of learning among their
students.

14.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this study, you will be able to:

 define transfer of learning
 differentiate between the different types of transfer of learning
 explain how transfer of learning occurs from the lens of major theories of
transfer of learning
 discuss ways in which a teacher can foster positive transfer of learning
among learners

14.3 Transfer of Learning

14.3.1 What is Transfer of Learning?

The essence of learning is that a previously learnt fact should be linked with a
present experience. This is because human being must be dynamic and that the
prior experience will make them to develop the new skills and knowledge. The
influence the past experience has on the succeeding experience is called transfer of
learning. Cormier and Hagman, (1987) define transfer of learning as the
application of skills and knowledge learned in one context being applied in
another context. Oladele (1998) defines transfer of learning as the effect of prior
learning on the present. In other words, when experiences which have been
acquired in one learning situation can be used to solve problems in a new
situation, we can say transfer of learning has taken place.

In the school, the teachers teach different subjects in order that the experience
gained in those subjects could be transferred into another. Charham (1987) affirms
that human and animal learning is normally affected by the past experience, and
that the various subjects are included in the school curriculum because of their
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utility and wide application to real life situations. For instance, the teacher who
has taught his/her students some skills in Mathematics would believe that such
skills be transferred to related subjects like Physics or Accounting. If the students
fail to apply these skills in their subsequent learning, it means that the students
have not been successful in transferring the learning.

The above example gives us clues into the different types of transfer of learning
that we have. These are explained under sub-section 13.3.2:

Self-Assessment Exercises 1

What is transfer of learning?

14.3.2 Types of Transfer of Learning

There are three types of transfer of learning namely:

(a) Positive Transfer

(b) Negative Transfer
(c) Zero Transfer

(a) Positive Transfer: This is a situation whereby previous learning aids in the
understanding of a new learning. Aside from aiding the learners in their
subsequent learning, it also helps the learners to learn better and effectively
the new task. Positive transfer is one of the most important goals of
teachers as every teacher thrives to ensure than students learn to apply what
they have learned to new situations, in and out of school. For instance,
driving a car could facilitate learning to drive a bus. Skills in playing violin
could facilitate learning to play piano. Another example of positive transfer
of learning is that a student who has learnt about anatomical parts of human
being in a Biology lesson, should be able to do well when he/she is asked to
name anatomical parts of a goat during Agriculture lesson.

Positive transfer is one of the most important goals of teachers as every

teacher thrives to ensure that students learn to apply what they have learned
to new situations, in and out of school.

(b) Negative Transfer: Negative transfer occurs when something we've

learned previously hinders or interferes with present learning that is similar
to the first. In other words, the understanding of past skills inhibits the

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 mastering of new ones. For instance, a child that has learnt to pronounce
BUT correctly now finds it difficult to pronounce PUT correctly. Right
hand drive vehicles hindering the learning of left hand drive.

(c) Zero Transfer: Zero transfer occurs when previous learning has no effect
on new learning. It means that previous skills or knowledge have no effect
on learning new skills or knowledge. For instance, learning how to cook
has no effect on learning how to sing or drive.

Self-Assessment Exercises 2

1. Write short notes on:

i. Positive Transfer
ii. Negative Transfer
iii. Zero Transfer

14.3.3 Theories of Transfer of Learning

These are theories that attempt to explain how transfer of learning occurs

a. Theory of Mental Faculties: This theory was propounded by the Greek

Philosophers, notable among them was Aristotle. The basic tenet of the
theory is that human mind is sub-divided into different powers of faculties
like memory, judgment, reasoning or thinking. These faculties were likened
to the muscles of the body which can be strengthened by physical exercise.
It was felt that those mental faculties could be strengthened in the same
way that exercise strengthens the body; the more difficult the mental
exercise, the more impact it would have on the faculties. The essential
requirement of the theory was to provide hard intellectual work to the
learner to train his mental faculties. This theory believes that exercises and
regular practice will strengthen the mental faculties. Subjects like
Mathematics, Latin and Greek were regarded as best subjects to train the
various mental faculties of students. Transfer occurs because of mental
exercise gained from studying specific topics

b. Theory of Identical Elements: The theory which was developed by

Thorndike indicates that it is possible for an individual to transfer the prior
skills and knowledge to the new learning provided both experiences are
identical (share things in common). This theory maintained that transfer
takes place from one learning situation to another if the two different
learning situations are identical. This theory suggests that a successful or

100
 effective transfer of learning will happen if there are connections or
interrelatedness between the old and the new learning. For example, it is
expected that a student who has learnt about anatomical parts of human
being in a Biology lesson, should be able to do well when he/she is asked to
name anatomical parts of a goat during Agriculture lesson.

Few examples are given below which show the transfer from one situation
to the other:

Training in: Transferred to:

Piano → Typing/Computer
Latin → English
Car Driving → Bus Driving
A person who knows to drive a car can easily learn to drive a bus

c. Theory of Generalization: This theory was advocated by a Psychologist

named Charles Judd. The assumption of the theory is that general principles
aid transfer of learning better than segregated facts. According to him, one
way of facilitating transfer is by teaching learners general principles rather
than specific facts. He was of the opinion that teaching should proceed
from general to specifics. This theory believes in Gestalt, an assertion
which views learning from a whole or complete form rather than in isolated
form. The theory contends that transfer occurs as a result of general
principles which one learns in a situation. As a result, one is able to apply
those generalizations to a new situation. For example, the theory of
generalization indicates that a learnt experience should be useful in other
day-to-day related activities.

Self-Assessment Exercises 3

Briefly describe the theory of identical element in attempt to explain how transfer
of learning occurs

14.3.4 How a Teacher can Foster Positive Transfer of Learning Among

Learners

1. The teacher should know that transfer of learning will not take place when
both the old and new are unrelated. Hence, the teacher should endeavour to
teach his/her subject-matter in a more meaningful and detailed way rather
than by rote.

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2. Active participation of the students in the teaching-learning activities.
The teacher should provide the opportunity for his/her students to practice a
subject-matter being discussed along with him/her. When the learners are
allowed to take active part in teaching/learning activities, they will be able
to repeat the task at another time.

3. For a transfer of learning to take place, the teacher should always

emphasize the relationship that exists between one subject-matter and
another.

4. The teacher should endeavour to develop positive attitudes towards a

learning task so that the students can be motivated to like the task rather
than it.

5. It is believed that what students see, touch, feel or manipulate will be better
remembered than the one they are not familiar with. Hence, for meaningful
transfer of learning to take place, the teacher should incorporate exercises
that task the various senses of learners in the learning process.

6. Make sure that general principles are understood. The teacher must ensure
that general principles have been thoroughly understood by the students in
order to maximize the amount of classroom learning experiences to life
situations.

7. The teacher should make students see relationships between what you teach
and life situations (relate theory to practice).

Self-Assessment Exercises 4

List five ways in which a teacher can foster positive transfer of learning among
learners

14.4 Summary

The relevance of transfer of learning has been stressed in this unit. Transfer of
learning is an important aspect of teaching-learning since the ultimate goal of
schooling is to help students to transfer what they have learnt in school to real-life
situations. The knowledge gained in this lesson will help the teachers on the action
programmes that can facilitate learning transfer.

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 14.5 References /Further Readings/Web Sources

Alao, K.O. (2009) Advanced Psychology of Learning (EDU 722), Lagos, National
Open University of Nigeria.
Adesemowo, P.O, Sotonade, O.A.T & Okubanjo, A.O.(1998) The Psychology of
Meaningful Learning, Lagos, Elegant Publishing Co. Ltd.
Owoyele , J.W. (2014) Psychology Foundations of Education, Human
Development & Learning, Ijebu – Ode, Top best Books.
Mmaduakonam, A (1998), Behavioural Learning Theories, Awka, Erudition
Publishers.
Saunders, L., & Wong, M. A. (2020). Instruction in Libraries and Information
Centers. Windsor & Downs Press; Champaign, IL
Sivakumar, P. (2017). Theories of Learning and its educational implications.
Teacher Education Support Services.
https://tntess.blogspot.com/2017/02/theories-of-learning-and-its.html
Sulaiman, F.R & Onabamiro, A.A. (2009) Psychology, Child Development &
Human Learning, Ijebu – Ode, Alamsek Press Ltd.

14.6 Possible Answers to Self-Assessment Exercises

Answers to SAEs 1
What is transfer of learning? - Any one of the following definitions:
Transfer of learning is the application of skills and knowledge learned in one
context being applied in another context.
Or
Transfer of learning as the effect of prior learning on the present. In other words,
when experiences which have been acquired in one learning situation can be used
to solve problems in a new situation, we can say transfer of learning has taken
place

Answers to SAEs 2
i. Positive Transfer: Transfer is said to be positive when something previously
learned aids in the understanding of a new learning. For instance, driving a
car could facilitate learning to drive a bus.
ii. Negative Transfer: Transfer is said to be negative when prior learning
hinders or interferes with new learning. For instance, a child that has learnt
to pronounce BUT correctly now finds it difficult to pronounce PUT
correctly. In this case, the understanding of past skills inhibits the mastering
of new ones.

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iii. Zero Transfer: This type of learning reveals no link between the previously
learnt task and the recent one. For instance, learning how to cook has no
effect on learning how to sing or drive.

Answers to SAEs 3
The theory of identical element maintained that transfer takes place from one
learning situation to another if the two different learning situations are identical.
Transfer takes place because of the common elements in both situations. This
theory suggests that a successful or effective learning will happen if there are
connections or interrelatedness between the old and the new learning. For
example, it is expected that a student who has learnt about anatomical parts of
human being in a Biology lesson, should be able to do well when he/she is asked
to name anatomical parts of a goat during Agriculture lesson.

Answers to SAEs 4
Five ways in which a teacher can enhance positive transfer of learning among
learners: - Any five of the following points:

 By making the subject-matter meaningful.

 By providing the opportunity for students to practice a subject-matter being
discussed.
 By emphasizing the relationship that exists between one subject-matter and
another.
 The teacher should endeavour to develop positive attitudes towards a
learning task so that the students can be motivated to like the task rather
than it.
 By creating a conducive learning environment where students become
active participants in their own learning.
 By incorporating exercises that task the various senses of learners in the
learning process.
 By ensuring that general principles are thoroughly understood by the
students in order to maximize the amount of classroom learning
experiences to life situations
 By making students see relationships between what you teach and life
situations (relate theory to practice).

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